BEC306B SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION

MODULE-1

INTRODUCTION TO SENSOR-BASED MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

 General concepts and terminology

 sensor classification
 primary sensors
 material for sensors
 microsensor technology

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INTRODUCTION

Sensors enable measurements because they yield (produce) electric signals with embedded
information about the measurand. Electronic circuits process those signals in order to extract
that information. Hence, sensors are the basis of measurement systems.

1.1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY

Measurement Systems

A system is a combination of two or more elements, subsystems, and parts necessary to carry
out one or more functions.

The function of a measurement system is the objective and empirical assignment of a number
to a property or quality of an object or event in order to describe it. That is, the result of a
measurement must be independent of the observer (objective) and experimentally based
(empirical). Numerical quantities must fulfil the same relations fulfilled by the described
properties. For example, if a given object has a property larger than the same property in another
object, the numerical result when measuring the first object must exceed that when measuring
the second object, One objective of a measurement can be process monitoring: for example,
ambient temperature measurement, gas and water volume measurement, and clinical
monitoring.
Another objective can be process control: for example, for temperature or level control in a

tank. Another objective could be to assist experimental engineering: for example, to study
temperature distribution inside an irregularly shaped object or to determine force distribution
on a dummy driver in a car crash.

Figure 1.1 shows the functions and dataflow of a measurement and control system. In general,
in addition to the acquisition of information carried out by a sensor, a measurement requires
the processing of that information and the presentation of the result in order to make it
perceptible to human senses. Any of these functions can be local or remote, but remote
functions require information transmission. Modern measurement systems are not physically
arranged according to the dataflow in Figure 1.1 but are instead arranged according to their
connection to the digital bus communicating different subsystems
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Figure 1.1 Functions and data ¯ow in a measurement and control system. Sensors and
actuators are transducers at the physical interface between electronic systems and processes or
experiments.

1.2 SENSOR CLASSIFICATION

A great number of sensors are available for different physical quantities. In order to study them,
the sensors are classified according three primary criterion as follows.

In considering the need for a power supply, sensors are classified as modulating or self
generating.

 In modulating (or active) sensors, most of the output signal power comes from an
auxiliary power source. The input only controls the output. Conversely, in self-
generating (or passive) sensors, output power comes from the input.
 Modulating sensors usually require more wires than self-generating sensors, because
wires different from the signal wires supply power.
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 The presence of an auxiliary power source can increase the danger of explosion in
explosive atmospheres.
 Modulating sensors have the advantage that the power supply voltage can modify their
overall sensitivity. Some authors use the terms active for self-generating and passive
for modulating.

In considering output signals, we classify sensors as analog or digital.

 In analog sensors the output changes in a continuous way at a macroscopic level. The
information is usually obtained from the amplitude, although sensors with output in the
time domain are usually considered as analog.
 The output of digital sensors takes the form of discrete steps or states. Digital sensors
do not require an Analog to Digital Converter, and their output is easier to transmit than
that of analog sensors.

 Digital output is also more repeatable and reliable and often more accurate. But
regrettably, digital sensors cannot measure many physical quantities.
In considering the operating mode, sensors are classified in terms of their function in a
deflection or a null mode.
 In deflection sensors the measured quantity produces a physical effect that generates in
some part of the instrument a similar but opposing effect that is related to some useful
variable.
 Null-type sensors attempt to prevent deflection from the null point by applying a
known effect that opposes that produced by the quantity being measured. There is an
imbalance detector and some means to restore balance.

1.3 PRIMARY SENSORS

The primary transducer or sensor is the element that is in contact with the pressure pulse,
and generally is a displacement transducer, which transduces the pressure wave into a
mechanical displacement.
Primary sensors convert measurands from physical quantities to other forms. We classify
primary sensors here according to the measurand. Devices that have direct electric output are
plain sensors.
Types of Primary sensors:
1. Temperature sensors: Bimetals
2. Pressure sensors
3. Flow velocity and flow-rate sensors,
4. Level sensors,
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5. Force and torque sensors,

6. Acceleration and inclination sensors,
7. Velocity sensors,

1.3.1 Temperature sensors: Bimetals

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or contraction of

thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors
are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal
cutting etc. The construction details and principle of working of some of the temperature
sensors are discussed in following sections.

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The
metals have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips bend into curved strips
with the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure .1.3.1
shows a typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips
bend, the soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then
the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to
protect the desired application from heating above the pre -set value of temperature.

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Figure 1.3.1 A bimetal consists of two metals with dissimilar thermal expansion coefficients,
which deforms when temperature changes.
If the metals have similar moduli of elasticity and thicknesses, the radius of curvature r, when
changing from temperature T1 to T2,

where t is the total thickness of the piece and where αA and αB are
the respective thermal expansion coefficients. Therefore, the
radius of curvature is inversely proportional to the temperature
difference.
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Bimetal strips are also used as actuators to directly open or close contacts (thermostats, on-off
controls, starters fluorescent lamps) and for overcurrent protection in electric circuits: The
current along the bimetal heats it by Joule effect until reaching a temperature high enough to
exert a mechanical force on a trigger device that opens the circuit and interrupts the current.

1.3.2 Pressure Sensors

A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an

expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms
of force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a
function of the pressure imposed. Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in
thousands of everyday applications. Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure
other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can
alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure
indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other names. Blood pressure measurement is
very common for patient diagnosis and monitoring. Differential pressure is the difference in
pressure between two measurement points. Gage pressure is measured relative to ambient
temperature. Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum. To measure a
pressure, it is either compared with a known force or its effect on an elastic element is
measured.

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Liquid-column U-tube manometer

The simplest form of manometer consists of a U-shaped glass tube containing liquid. It is
used to measure gauge pressure and are the primary instruments used in the workshop for
calibration.
The principle of the manometer is that the pressure to be measured is applied to one side of the
tube producing a movement of liquid, as shown in figure above. It can be seen that the level of
the filling liquid in the leg where the pressure is applied, i.e. the left leg of the tube, has dropped,
while that in the right hand leg as risen. A scale is fitted between the tubes to enable us to
measure this displacement.
Let us assume that the pressure we are measuring and have applied to the left hand side of the
manometer is of constant value. The liquid will only stop moving when the pressure exerted
by the column of liquid, h is sufficient to balance the pressure applied to the left side of the
manometer, i.e. when the head pressure produced by column” h” is equal to the pressure to be
measured.
Knowing the length of the column of the liquid, H, and density of the filling liquid, we can
calculate the value of the applied pressure.
Figure 1.3.2 a compares the pressure to be measured with a reference
pressure and yields a difference h of liquid level.

where ρ is the density of the

liquid and g is the acceleration of
gravity. A level sensor (photoelectric, float,
etc.) yields an electric output signal.
Typical filling liquids commonly used in manometers and their densities.
1. Water ( ρ = 1000 kg m-3 )
2. Oil ( ρ can be between 800 and 950 kg m-3 )
3. Mercury ( ρ = 13560 kg m-3 )

C-shaped Bourdon tube.

Bourdon tubes are radially formed tubes with an oval cross-section. The pressure of the
measuring medium acts on the inside of the tube and produces
a motion in the non-clamped end of the tube. This motion is the
measure of the pressure and is indicated via the movement. It is
basically consisted of a C-shaped hollow tube, whose one end
is fixed and connected to the pressure tapping, the other end
free, as shown in fig. The cross-section of the tube is elliptical.

When pressure is applied, the elliptical tube (Bourdon tube)

tries to acquire a circular cross section; as a result, stress is
developed and the tube tries to straighten up. Thus the free end
of the tube moves up, depending on magnitude of pressure. A
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deflecting and indicating mechanism is attached to the free end that rotates the pointer and
indicates the Pressure reading. The materials used are commonly Phosphor Bronze, Brass and
Beryllium Copper. For a 2″ overall diameter of the C-tube the useful travel of the free end is
approximately 1/8″ . Though the C-type tubes are most common, other shapes of tubes, such
as helical, twisted or spiral tubes are also in use. The main advantage with the Bourdon tube is
that it has a wide operating (depending on the tube material). This type of pressure
measurement can be used for positive or negative pressure ranges, although the accuracy is
impaired when in a vacuum.
Twisted Bourdon tube. Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It allows the tip
movement to be converted to a circular motion.

By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its

axis and connecting it to the tip, the tip movement
become a circular motion of the shaft.

Diaphragm Diaphragm pressure gauges are used to

measure gases and liquids. They cover measuring spans
from 10 mbar to 40 bar. The measuring element consists
of one circular diaphragm clamped between a pair of flanges. The positive or negative pressure
acting on these diaphragms causes deformation of the measuring element. The magnitude of
the deformation is proportional to the pressure to be measured, and it is coupled to the pointer
mechanism.
A diaphragm is a flexible circular plate consisting
of a taut membrane or a clamped sheet that strains
under the action of the pressure difference to be
measured (Figure 1.3.4). The sensor detects the
deflection of the center of the diaphragm, its global
deformation, or the local strain. Some metals used
are beryllium-copper, stainless steel, and nickel-
copper alloys. A micromachined diaphragm is an
etched silicon wafer with diffused or implanted gages that sense local strain (Figure). Cars and
hospitals use silicon pressure sensors by the millions.
The diaphragm and elements bonded on it must be
compatible with the medium and withstand the
required temperature. Stainless steel diaphragms can
protect sensing diaphragms from corrosive media, but
in order to couple both diaphragms we need to
interpose a fluid, which increases the sensor
compliance and thermal sensitivity.
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For a thin plate with thickness t and radius R experiencing a pressure difference ∆p across it,
if the center deflection is z < t=3

where E is Young's modulus and ν the Poisson's ratio for the plate material. Large, flexible
diaphragms undergo large deflection but have large compliance. Thin plates yield large
deflections but are fragile.

Pressure sensing capsules

The pressure-sensing capsule adapts the diaphragm sensing principle to allow measurement of
low pressures that would otherwise require an impractically large and thin diaphragm. The
capsule comprises two diaphragms, welded at the edge, to allow the pressure media to act on
both simultaneously. The resulting structure displays twice the displacement, relative to the
pressure applied, compared to a single-diaphragm.

Pressure sensing can be done using a single capsule, as shown in the first diagram below, or
using a stack of capsules as shown in the second diagram. Some capsules also feature

strength.
profiling (such as the corrugations shown below, right) to optimize linearity and mechanical

Advantages and disadvantages

Stability, simplicity and its small-size are the main advantages of the pressure-sensing capsule
- as well as its ability to measure lower pressures, compared with a diaphragm sensor of a
similar size. However, the capsule does not self-drain so it is not suitable for measuring
pressure in liquid media.
Bellows sensing elements

The bellows sensing element is a container that expands in response to the force applied by the
pressure medium within. The bellows is typically made from a metal such as phosphor bronze,
brass, beryllium copper, or stainless steel. It can be machined from solid stock, rolled from
tube, or fabricated with a series of welded annular rings.
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An internally mounted - or external - spring enhances the bellows’ response to positive- and
negative-going pressure changes. As a result, the deflection characteristics are a combination
of the mechanical properties of the bellows, and those of the spring.

An attached mechanical movement converts the expansion and contraction of the bellows due
to changing media pressure into a proportional deflection of the pointer to indicate the pressure
on a calibrated scale (see diagram to the right). In this sense the bellows is quite

similar to the Bourdon tube. Alternatively, the movement may be attached to a potentiometer
to provide an electrical analogue of the applied pressure.

Advantages and disadvantages Advantages of the bellows sensor include simplicity, low cost,
and the ability to connect directly to a pointer. The movement and pointer can be designed to
give a large change in indication relative to the change in unit pressure, resulting in high
resolution.
The bellows must operate within the elastic limit defined by the material and construction. And
the mechanism can fatigue over time. As with capsules, drainage can be a challenge that may
complicate use with liquid media. However, the bellows can be filled with an inert liquid, such
as oil, and the open end sealed with a diaphragm to create an element suitable for monitoring
liquid pressure.

Flow Velocity and Flow-Rate Sensors

A flow sensor (more commonly referred to as a “flow meter”) is an electronic device that
measures or regulates the flow rate of liquids and gasses within pipes and tubes. ... The
differences in pressure (i.e. the vortices) generated by the latch ar e measured to determine the
flow rate.
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Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s principle of fluid flow through
a constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured.
The fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of
the constriction. There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in
manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.

Orifice plate:

Figure shows a
schematic of Orifice
plate device. It has a
disc with a hole at its
center, through which
the fluid flows. The
pressure difference is
measured between a
point equal to the
diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the half the diameter downstream. An
orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no moving parts. It exhibits
nonlinear behavior and does not work with slurries. It has accuracy of ± 1.5%.
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Flow Nozzle

When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate of flow is to be measured, the flow
nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate.

This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this
pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.

Operation of flow Nozzle

Description of Flow Nozzle

The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement used to measure flow rate are as follows:

A flow nozzle which is held between flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is being
measured. The flow nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat.

Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential pressure sensor (u-tube
manometer, differential pressure gauge etc.,) as show in the diagram.
The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the section called
throat where the area is minimum.

Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1. As the fluid enters the nozzle,
minimum cross-section area called throat. This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the the
fluid converges and due to this its
pressure keeps on reducing until it
reaches the nozzle is maintained in
the fluid for a small length after being
discharged in the down stream also.
The differential pressure sensor
attached between points 1 and 2
records the pressure difference (p1-
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p2) between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through
the pipe when calibrated.
Applications of Flow Nozzle

• It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere.
• It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of settling.
• Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.

Basics of Venturi Flow Meter

A venturi tube contains a throat which is smaller in a diameter to the pipeline, into which it fits.
The restriction diameter should not be
less than 0.224 D, and not more than
0.742 D where D is the nominal bore
diameter of the pipe.

When the fluid flows through it, the pressure at the throat is lower than the upstream pressure
(because of increased kinetic energy due to increased velocity, ½ mv2) and the consequent
reduction in flow energy (Ef = P • . v). The flow rate is proportional to the pressure difference,
P1 -– P2.

where, k is dependent on the pipeline and throat diameter, density and discharge coefficient
The venturi flow meter should always be used for turbulent flow. Its accuracy for a wide range
of instruments is about 0.5%. ideal for use in Heat Ventilation Air Cond. (HVAC) applications,
or air to furnaces and boilers and for liquids containing particles and slurries.

What is Venturi effect?

The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section (or choke) of a pipe. The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista
Venturi (1746–1822), an Italian physicist.
In fluid dynamics, a fluid’s velocity must increase as it passes through a constriction in accord
with the principle of mass continuity, while its static pressure must decrease in accord with the
principle of conservation of mechanical energy. Thus any gain in kinetic energy a fluid may
accrue due to its increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in pressure.
By measuring the change in pressure, the flow rate can be determined, as in various flow
measurement devices such as venturi meters, venturi nozzles and orifice plates.
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The rotameter in Figure 1.17 applies this method. It consists of a uniform conic section tube
and a grooved float inside it that is dragged by the fluid to a height determin ed by its weight
and the flow. The fluid gas or liquid flows upward. When the flow increases, the float rises,
thus allowing an increased annular pass section and keeping the pressure difference between
both ends constant. The displacement of the float indicates the fluid flow rate. For pressures
lower than 3.5 kPa and nonopaque liquids, the tube can be of glass and include the scale to
read the float position. For higher pressures and flows the tube must be of metal, and the
position of the float is detected magnetically. There are also inexpensive plastic tubes for low-
pressure, high-flow rates. Adding a solenoid outside the tube enables us to apply the null
measurement method. A photoelectric detector measures the float position. The flow is
determined from the amplitude of the current supplied to the solenoid in order to reposition the
float at zero.

Figure 1.17 A rotameter is a variable area flowmeter in which the position of a float
indicates the flow rate.

Figure 1.18 Pitot tube for point velocity flow measurement. (a) In an open conduit the velocity
is indicated by the emerging fluid height. (b) In a closed conduit the velocity is calculated
from the difference between total pressure and static pressure

1.3.4 Level Sensors

Dipsticks are simple level sensors, but cannot easily

provide an electric signal. Floats, based on
Archimedes' buoyancy principle, convert liquid level to
force or displacement (Figures a and b). as liquid levels
change. The movement of the float creates a magnetic
field that actuates a Float level sensors are continuous level sensors featuring a magnetic float
that rises and falls
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hermetically sealed reed switch located in the stem of the level sensor, triggering the switch to
open or close.

In sealed or high-pressure containers, the position of the float can be detected magnetically.
Build-up and deposits on the float surface limit performance

Principle of Operation: A liquid level control system by using a float sensor works on the
principle of buoyancy, which states, “A float immersed in a liquid is buoyed towards upward
direction by an applied equal force to the weight of the displaced liquid”. As a result, the body
drives partially and gets submerged upon the liquid surface and covers the same distance the
liquid level moves.
Working: Level detection of liquids is often done with a float-type liquid level switch. The
float transfers on a mechanical arm or sliding pole and activates a switch when the level moves
towards upward direction. Sometimes the float itself contains a small magnet that varies the
state of a switch when the liquid level gets moving up and moves into the original position.
This type of level sensor comes with many advantages like it is very simple, highly accurate,
and best suitable for various products.
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the pressure of liquid or solid is proportional to the level according to

(1.56).

where ρ is density and g is the acceleration of gravity. This method is suitable for both
pressurized and open containers. Temperature interferes because it varies density

The bubble tube in Figure d overcomes the need for a pressure port near he container bottom,
which is a potential leak source. The dip tube has an open end close to the bottom of the tank.
An inert gas flows through the dip tube and when gas bubbles escape from the open end, the
gas pressure in the tube equals the hydraulic pressure from the liquid. The level can be
calculated from (1.56).

1.3.5 Force and Torque Sensors

A method to measure force (or torque) is to compare it with a well-known force, as is done on
scales. Another method measures the effect of the force on an elastic element, called a
load cell. In electric load cells, that effect is a deformation or a displacement. In hydraulic and
pneumatic load cells it is an increase in the pressure of, respectively, a liquid or a gas. Each
October issue of Measurements & Control lists the manufacturers and types of mass/force
sensors and load cells.

When a mechanical force is applied to a fixed elastic element, it strains until the strain-
generated stresses balance those due to the applied force. The result is a change in the
dimensions of the element that is proportional to the applied force, if the shape is appropriate.

Figure shows three suitable arrangements.

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Figure: (a) A cantilever, (b) a helical spring, and (c) a torsion bar de¯ect in response to an

applied force or torque Deflection x or y and Maximal Stress SM or τM for the Elastic Elements
Shown in Figure.

1.3.6 Acceleration and Inclinometer Sensors

Acceleration Sensors:

They are frequently used to determine the speed and the position of various vehicles, such as
planes, ships, cars, robots, etc.
They can be classified according to the physical principle they use:

 Direct measurement of a force (piezoelectric sensor, sensor with force balance).

 Indirect measurement, by means of displacement or deformation of a sensing element.

The inertial force can be measured either through strain (if deformation is minimum) or through
the deformation of elastic element.
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Inclinometer Sensors:

Inclinometers, also called tilt sensor, clinometers or slope sensors, are designed to measure the
angle of an object with respect to the force of gravity. These tilt or level meters determine the
pitch and/or roll angle and output these values via the appropriate electrical interface.

An inclinometer is a sensor used to measure the magnitude of the inclination angle or

deformation of any structure. The bent is either depicted in percentage or degrees concerning
gravity.
Inclinometer sensors are used to measure the slope gradient during activities like tunnelling,
excavation and de-watering. Such activities affect the ground that supports the structure. The
inclinometer installation procedure depends on the application field. It can be installed
vertically to monitor the cut slope or any movement in the shoring wall and embankment. To
monitor the settlement of the soil above the spot of tunnelling, inclinometers are installed
horizontally.

Inclinometer sensors are of different types. Each inclinometer system requires a combination

of equipment and sensors to measure and collect data.

Inclination sensors. (a) The bubble inside a partially filled vial displaces when the vial tilts.
(b) A mass suspended within a case rotates when the case rotates

1.3.7 Velocity Sensors

Velocity sensors or velocimeters measure absolute casing vibration and – in combination with
a trigger measurement – magnitude and phase.
Velocity sensors are mounted to the measured object. They usually have a rugged design, are
highly sensitive at low frequencies, are simple to mount and don’t need an external power
supply.
Measurement principle:
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The magnet of the velocity sensor is suspended on a membr ane (spring) which moves through
a coil of wire. Due to the vibration, the coil of wire moves through the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet and generates (induces) a voltage signal which is proportional to the
vibration (velocity).

The measurement direction is important: Some types are mounted vertically, others
horizontally.

1.4 MATERIALS FOR SENSORS

Sensors rely on physical or chemical phenomena and materials where those phenomena appear
usefully-that is, with high sensitivity, repeatability and specificity. Those phenomena may
concern the material itself or its geometry, and most of them have been known for a long time.
Major changes in sensors come from new materials, new fabrication techniques, or both.

Solids, liquids, and gases consist of atoms, molecules, or ions -atoms or group of atoms that
have lost or gained one or more electrons. Atoms consist of a positive nucleus and electrons
orbiting around it in shells. If the outer electron shell is not full, atoms try to gain extra electrons
and become bonded in the process, forming molecules or agglomerates. There are four main
bond types: ionic, metallic, covalent, and van der Waals
Conductors, Semiconductors and Dielectrics

Physical properties of solids, and their electric properties, are determined by the degree of
filling of the energy bands rather than by their formation. From this point of view all
crystalline bodies can be divided into two different groups.

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Conductors
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The first group includes substances having a partially filled band in their energy spectrum
above the completely filled energy bands. As was mentioned above a partially filled band is
observed in alkali metals whose upper band is formed by unfilled atomic levels, and in
alkaliearth crystals. All substances belonging to this group are conductors.
Semiconductors and Dielectrics

The second group comprises of substances with absolutely empty bands above completely
filled bands. This group also includes crystals with diamond shaped structures such as Silicon,
Germanium, gray tin, and Diamond itself. This second group includes semiconductors and
dielectrics. The uppermost filled band in these crystals is called valence band and the first
empty band above it the conduction band. The upper level of the valence band is called the top
of the valence band and is denoted by Wv. The lowest level of the conduction band is called
the bottom of conduction band and denoted by Wc.

The division into semiconductors and Dielectrics is quite arbitrary and is determined by the
width Wg of the forbidden energy gap separating the completely filled band from the empty
band. Substances with a forbidden gap of Wg <2 eV belong to the semiconductor sub -group.
Germanium (Wg » 0.7 eV), silicon (Wg» 1.2 eV), gallium arsenide (Wg » 1.5eV), and indium
antimonide (Wg » 0.2 eV) are typical semiconductors. Substances for which Wg > 3eV belong
to dielectrics. Well known dielectrics include corundum(Wg » 7 eV), diamond (Wg » 5eV).
Boron nitride (Wg » 4, 5 eV) and others. Applications capacities. They are selected on the
basis of affordable voltage drop across the ends of the Conductors like Copper and Aluminum
are used to carry electrical current of varying conductor at the specified current.

Semiconductors are used in the manufacture of many electronic devices like Diodes, Bipolar
transistors, Field effect transistors, CMOS IC’s etc. Extrinsic semiconductors are doped to
make n-type and p-type semiconductors, which are used in the manufacture of these devices.

Dielectrics and Insulators are used where no conductivity is permitted. They are used as
properties at temperatures above 0° C (273.15 K). This is of course not strictly speaking
Insulating supports for current carrying conductors. Room-temperature superconductor is a
material yet to be discovered which would be capable of exhibiting superconducting
“room temperature” (20–25° C), however it can be reached very cheaply.

Magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are materials studied and used mainly for their magnetic properties. The
magnetic response of a materials is largely determined by the magnetic dipole moment
associated with the intrinsic angular momentum, or spin, of its electrons. A material’s response
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to an applied magnetic field can be characterized as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic

or antiferromagnetic.
The magnetic ¯ux in vacuum is proportional to the applied magnetic ®eld
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1.5 MICROSENSOR TECHNOLOGY

Microsensor materials are prepared according to their nature, the desired sensing principle, and
the intended application. There is an increasing interest in applying integrated circuit (IC)
technology and micromachining, because they yield small, reliable sensors produced in large
amounts leading to low cost.

Thick-Film Technology

In the 1970s thick film started to gain popularity. Today , these are by far the most used
resistors in electrical and electronic devices. They come usually as chip resistor (SMD), and
have the lowest cost compared to any other technology.

The resistive material is a special paste with a mixture of a binder, a carrier, and the metal
oxides to be deposited. The binder is a glassy frit and the carrier exists of organic solvent
systems and plasticizers. Modern resistor pastes are based on oxides of ruthenium, iridium and
rhenium. This is also referred to as a cermet (Ceramic – Metallic). The resistive layer is printed
onto a substrate at 850°C. The substrate is often 95% alumina ceramic. After the firing of the
paste on the carrier, the film becomes glasslike, which makes it well protected against moisture.
The complete firing process is schematically depicted in the graph below. The thickness is in
the order of 100 micrometer. This is approximately 1000 times more than added sequentially
to the substrate to create the conducting patterns and resistance values. thin film. Unlike thin
film, this process is additive. This means that the resistive layers are
Thin Film Technology

The resistive layer is sputtered (vacuum deposition) onto a ceramic base. This creates a uniform
metallic film of around 0.1 micrometre thick. Often an alloy of Nickel and Chromium is used
(Nichrome). They are produced with different layer thicknesses to accommodate a range of
resistance values. The layer is dense and uniform, which makes is suitable to trim the resistance
value by a subtractive process. With photo etching or by laser trimming patterns are created to
increase the resistive path and to calibrate the resistance value. The base is often alumina
ceramic, silicon or glass. Usually thin film is produced as a chip or smd resistor, but the film
can also be applied onto a cylindrical base with axial leads. In this case, more often the term
metal film resistor is used.

Thin film is usually used for precision applications. They feature relatively high tolerances,
low temperature coefficients and low noise. Also for high frequency applications thin film
performs better than thick film. Inductance and capacitance are generally lower. The parasitic
inductance of thin film can be higher if it is executed as a cylindrical helix (metal film resistor).
This higher performance comes with a cost, which can be factors higher than the price of thick
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film resistors. Typical examples where thin film is used are medical equipment, audio
installations, precision controls and measurement devices.