Topic 7 - Vectors

MATH1046: Mathematical Methods for Architectural and Environmental Engineering

Dr. Jun Fan

School of Mathematical Sciences

University of Nottingham Ningbo China

2024-2025 Spring Semester

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 1 / 70

Outline

7. Vectors
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Vector algebra
7.3 Components of a vector
7.4 The scalar (or inner, or dot) product
7.5 The vector product (or cross product)
7.6 Scalar triple product
7.7 Applications of vectors to geometry
7.8 Vector methods in Engineering
7.9 Differentiating scalar and vector products

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 2 / 70

7.1 Introduction
Most measurable quantities are in one of two different categories:
Scalars which have a ’size’ or ’magnitude’.
They have a numerical value, but no specified direction, e.g. mass, density,
frequency, speed, time.
A scalar can be represented by a (single) number.
Vectors which have both a magnitude and a direction, e.g. force, velocity,
acceleration, position vector
Some applications of vectors:
Problems in geometry:
intersecting lines and planes
distances between points, planes, etc.
Problems in mechanics
particle motion
force balance in statics
rigid body mechanics (gyroscopes, tops, etc.)

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 3 / 70

7.1.1 Magnitude and direction
Notation:
In books, vectors are written in bold type, e.g. a.
In handwriting, ~a, a or a.
A vector a is represented diagrammatically by a directed line with an arrow at the
end, i.e.,

The magnitude of the vector a is represented by the length of the line; its direction
is that of the arrow.

If A and B are the ends of the arrow then an alternative notation for the vector is
−→
AB (the directed line segment from A to B).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 4 / 70

7.2 Vector algebra
7.2.1 Equality
Two vectors a and b are said to be equal, written a = b, if a and b have both the
same length and direction.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 5 / 70

7.2.2 Addition of vectors
The sum (or resultant) of two vectors a and b, written a + b, is constructed by
first drawing the vector a, then drawing the vector b with its tail end starting at
the arrow end of a.

The vector c = a + b is given by the vector starting at the tail end of a with its
arrow end at the arrow end of b.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 6 / 70

7.2.2 Addition of vectors
Similarly we can determine b + a.

We see that a + b = b + a so that the order of adding vectors does not matter.
Also
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
(Associativity and Commutativity).

It follows that a + b + c can be evaluated without ambiguity (by first adding any
two of the three vectors a, b, c, and then adding the third).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 7 / 70

7.2.3 Parallelogram law of vector addition
Alternatively, we use the parallelogram law of vector addition.
(a) We draw vectors a and b with their tails at the same point, O, say.
(b) We then draw a parallelogram by adding, at the arrow tips, vectors that are
parallel to the vectors a and b.
(c) The sum of the vectors, a + b, is given by the vector represented by the
directed diagonal drawn from O with its arrow pointing away from 0.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 8 / 70

Example: A ferry takes people from a terminal on one bank of a straight stretch of
river to a spot directly opposite on the other bank. On a particular day, the river is
in flood and flowing at 4ms −1 ; the boat has a top speed of 5ms −1 .

Ignoring any acceleration/deceleration, calculate the direction the boat must head
to make the crossing in the shortest time and the resultant crossing speed.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 9 / 70

Example: A ferry takes people from a terminal on one bank of a straight stretch of
river to a spot directly opposite on the other bank. On a particular day, the river is
in flood and flowing at 4ms −1 ; the boat has a top speed of 5ms −1 .

Ignoring any acceleration/deceleration, calculate the direction the boat must head
to make the crossing in the shortest time and the resultant crossing speed.

Solution: The boat must head upstream, at an angle θ to the bank, to overcome
being swept downstream by the motion of the water. The resultant direction must
be perpendicular to the bank, hence we get the vector diagram as shown.

Pythagoras’ Theorem gives the resultant speed as 3ms −1 . By simple trigonometry,

tan θ = 3/4, hence θ = 0.64 radians.
Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 9 / 70
7.2.4 The zero vector
The zero vector is denoted by 0 and has zero magnitude and arbitrary direction.
Vector addition includes the special case where one of the vectors begins and ends
at the same point so that
a+0=a
On the other hand, if a + b = 0, then it is natural to write
b = −a
−a is a vector with the same magnitude as a but pointing in the opposite direction
to a.
Example: A vector from one point to another point

−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
OB = OA + AB b = a + AB AB = b − a
Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 10 / 70
7.2.5 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
It is natural to consider scalar multiples of vectors - for example, we might wish to
consider the effect of doubling some applied force. The rules are as follows, where k
is an arbitrary scalar (number):
1. ka denotes a vector having magnitude |k| times that of a and being parallel to
a.
2. 0a = 0
3. k0 = 0
4. 1a = a
5. (−k)a = −(ka)
6. (−1)a = −(a)
7. k(a + b) = ka + kb
8. (k1 + k2 ) a = k1 a + k2 a
9. (k1 k2 ) a = k1 (k2 a)

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 11 / 70

Example:

The second line is 2.5 times longer than the first and is in the same direction.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 12 / 70

7.2.6 The unit vector
A unit vector in the direction of the vector a, usually written â, has the same
direction as a but has unit magnitude (or modulus or length). The magnitude of a
is usually denoted by |a|, or a (or |a | in handwritten form).
∼

a
â =
|a|

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 13 / 70

7.3 Components of a vector

Vectors are often written in terms of ’basis’ vectors, such as the Cartesian
system i , j , and k in three dimensions.
These vectors have unit magnitude, are perpendicular to each other, and are
right-handed, so that a right-threaded screw rotating from the direction of i to
j will advance in the direction of k.
If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k then the scalars a1 , a2 , and a3 are the components of
the vector a (relative to i , j , k).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 14 / 70

7.3 Components of a vector
If the set of orthonormal vectors is implicitly understood,
Addition: if a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k is denoted (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 )
then
c = a + b = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 )
i.e. vectors are added simply by adding their components.
Magnitude: the magnitude of a vector a is equal to its geometrical length and
is denoted by a = |a| q
a = |a| = a12 + a22 + a32

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 15 / 70

7.3.1 Position vectors
If an origin O is fixed, then any point P in space may be represented by the
vector r which has a magnitude given by the length of the line joining O to P
and a direction given by an arrow pointing from O to P.
−→
This vector is called the position vector of P and is denoted by r = OP
−→
where OP is the directed straight line from O to P.
A point (x , y , z) in Cartesian space has corresponding position vector
r = x i + y j + zk.

p
r = |r | = x2 + y2 + z2

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 16 / 70

7.4 The scalar (or inner, or dot) product
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is a scalar defined by

a · b = |a||b| cos θ

where θ is the angle between the two vectors (note that cos θ = cos(2π − θ)). This
definition does not depend on any particular coordinate system.
1. a · b = b · a (the dot product is said to be commutative)
2. If a lies in a direction perpendicular to that of b, then a · b = 0 and a and b
are said to be orthogonal to each other.
3. If a · b = 0 then either (i) a lies perpendicular to b or (ii) one (or both) of a
and b is a zero vector.
4. a · a = |a|2 = a2 .
5. (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c
(the dot product is said to be distributive)

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 17 / 70

7.4 The scalar (or inner, or dot) product

6. i · i = j · j = k · k = 1 (unit size)
7. i · j = i · k = j · k = 0 (orthogonality)
8. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k = (b1 , b2 , b3 )
then
a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
9. (k1 a) · (k2 b) = (k1 k2 ) (a · b) (k1 , k2 scalars )

The basis vectors i , j , k are said to be orthonormal when 6 and 7 hold.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 18 / 70

Example: Find the angle between the two vectors

a = 2i − 2j + 4k, and b = 4i + 5k

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 19 / 70

Example: Find the angle between the two vectors

a = 2i − 2j + 4k, and b = 4i + 5k

Solution: From the definition of the scalar product

a · b = |a||b| cos θ = ab cos θ

where θ is the angle between the two vectors. From result 8 above,
a · b = (2) × (4) + (−2) × (0) + (4) × (5) and
p √ √
a = |a| = 22 + (−2)2 + 42 = 4 + 4 + 16 = 24
p √ √
b = |b| = 42 + 02 + 52 = 16 + 0 + 25 = 41
a·b 28
Hence, cos θ = = √ √ = 0.8926, and θ = cos−1 0.8926 = 0.467
|a||b| 24 41
radians.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 19 / 70

Example: Show that the triangle inscribed within a circle is right-angled if one of
the sides of the triangle is a diameter of the circle.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 20 / 70

Example: Show that the triangle inscribed within a circle is right-angled if one of
the sides of the triangle is a diameter of the circle.

Solution: Introduce two vectors a and b as shown. Since a, b lie along radii they
have equal magnitudes (|a| = |b|).

The two sides c and d of the triangle are then

given by
c =a+b d =a−b
The scalar product of c, d is given by

c · d = (a + b) · (a − b)
= |a|2 − a · b + b · a − |b|2
=0

hence the two vectors are orthogonal.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 20 / 70

7.5 The vector product (or cross product)
The vector (or cross) product between a and b is the vector a × b defined by

a × b = |a||b| sin θn

where θ is the angle between a and b with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, and n is a unit vector such
that a, b and n form a right-handed system (like the Cartesian system i , j and k).

Useful link
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/vectors-cross-product.html

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 21 / 70

7.5.1 Properties of the vector product

1) a × b = −b × a
(unlike the scalar product, the vector product is non-commutative)
2) If a × b = 0 then either: (i) a is parallel to b (including a = b ); or (ii) one
(or both) of a or b is a zero vector.
3) a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
(the vector product is distributive)
4) (k1 a) × (k2 b) = (k1 k2 ) (a × b) (k1 , k2 scalars )
i × i = 0, j × j = 0, k × k = 0
i × j = k, j × k = i , k × i = j
j × i = −k, k × j = −i , i × k = −j

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 22 / 70

7.5.1 Properties of the vector product

5) If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k = (b1 , b2 , b3 )

then

a × b = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) i − (a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) k

6) In the notation of determinants, provided we expand by Row 1 , we have:

i j k
a×b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

Note that this last expression is not really a determinant because not all of the
elements are numbers.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 23 / 70

7.5.2 Area of a parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram is the product of the altitude, the perpendicular
distance between two of its parallel sides, and the length of this parallel side.

Since the altitude h = |a| sin θ and the length of the side is |b|, we have

|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ

gives the area of the parallelogram formed by a and b.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 24 / 70

Example: Find the area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides given by
a = 2i − 2j + 4k and b = 4i + 5k.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 25 / 70

Example: Find the area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides given by
a = 2i − 2j + 4k and b = 4i + 5k.

Solution:
i j k
a×b = 2 −2 4
4 0 5
= i (−2 × 5 − 0 × 4) − j (2 × 5 − 4 × 4) + k(2 × 0 − 4 × (−2)) = −10i + 6j + 8k

Hence the required area is

p √ √
|a × b| = (−10)2 + 62 + 82 = 200 = 10 2

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 25 / 70

7.6 Scalar triple product
The scalar triple product is the scalar defined by a · (b × c) and is denoted by

[a, b, c] = a · (b × c) = b · (c × a) = c · (a × b)
= (b × c) · a = (c × a) · b = (a × b) · c

In terms of determinants
a1 a2 a3
[a, b, c] = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

The absolute value of [a, b, c] represents the

volume of the parallelepiped defined by a, b
and c.
If [a, b, c] = 0, the vectors a, b and c are
coplanar.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 26 / 70

Example: Evaluate [a, b, c] if a = i + 2j − k, b = 2i + 2j + 3k and c = i − j + k.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 27 / 70

Example: Evaluate [a, b, c] if a = i + 2j − k, b = 2i + 2j + 3k and c = i − j + k.

Solution:
1 2 −1
[a, b, c] = 2 2 3
1 −1 1
= 1(2 × 1 − 3 × (−1)) − 2(2 × 1 − 3 × 1) + (−1)(2 × (−1) − 2 × 1)
= 5 + 2 + 4 = 11

The scalar triple product [a, b, c] = 11 indicates the volume of the parallelepiped
formed by the vectors a, b, and c. The fact that the result is non-zero also tells us
that these vectors are not coplanar, meaning they span a three-dimensional space.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 27 / 70

7.6.1 Components of vectors
The component of a vector a in the direction of the unit vector n is a · n.

3 4 5
Example: If a = i + 2j + 3k and n = √ i + √ j + √ k (unit vector). Find
50 50 50
the component of a in the direction of n.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 28 / 70

7.6.1 Components of vectors
The component of a vector a in the direction of the unit vector n is a · n.

3 4 5
Example: If a = i + 2j + 3k and n = √ i + √ j + √ k (unit vector). Find
50 50 50
the component of a in the direction of n.

Solution:  
3 4 5
√ i+√ j+√ k
(i + 2j + 3k) ·
50 50 50
3 8 15 26
=√ +√ +√ =√ .
50 50 50 50
Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 28 / 70
7.6.1 Components of vectors
The vector projection of a onto n is given by (a · n)n.

In the example above, the vector projection of a onto n is

 
26 3 4 5
√ √ i+√ j+√ k .
50 50 50 50
Let b be a vector which is not necessarily a unit vector.
The component of a in the direction of b is a · b̂.
The vector projection of a onto b is (a · b̂)b̂.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 29 / 70

Example: Find the vector projection of a = 3i + j + 2k onto b = −i + j + 4k.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 30 / 70

Example: Find the vector projection of a = 3i + j + 2k onto b = −i + j + 4k.

Solution: Begin by calculating

p √ the unit vector b̂. The magnitude of b is
(−1)2 + 12 + 42 = 18, leading to

1
b̂ = √ (−i + j + 4k).
18
The vector projection of a onto b can then be found as follows:
 
1 1
(a · b̂)b̂ = √ (3i + j + 2k) · (−i + j + 4k) √ (−i + j + 4k)
18 18
1
= (−3 + 1 + 8)(−i + j + 4k)
18
6
= (−i + j + 4k)
18
1
= (−i + j + 4k).
3
This calculation yields the vector projection of a onto b.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 30 / 70

Example: Suppose that a constant force F acts on a body and that the body is
moved a distance d . Find the work done by the force.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 31 / 70

Example: Suppose that a constant force F acts on a body and that the body is
moved a distance d . Find the work done by the force.

Solution:

The work done by the force is given by the component of the force in the direction
of the distance moved (F cos θ, where F = |F |) times the magnitude of the
distance moved (d = |d |). This is simply

work = Fd cos θ = |F ||d | cos θ = F · d̂ d = F · d .

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 31 / 70

7.7 Applications of vectors to geometry
7.7.1 Equation of a straight line

If a and b are the position vectors of two distinct points, then the position vector
of an arbitrary point on the line joining these points is

r = a + λ(b − a)

where λ is a parameter taking real values, −∞ < λ < ∞.

The above is a vector (or parametric) equation of the line.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 32 / 70

7.7.1 Equation of a straight line
In the previous example, the vector b − a is in the direction of the line.

Thus the equation of a line can be specified by giving a point it passes through (a,
say) and the direction of the line (d, say). The equation is then

r = a + λd

where λ is a real parameter.

This can be applied to both 2-D and 3-D spaces.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 33 / 70

7.7.1 Equation of a straight line
Suppose O is an origin and a, b and r are position vectors of points on the line
such that
a = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) b = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) r = (x , y , z)
the coordinates (x , y , z) can be expressed as

(x0 , y0 , z0 ) + λ((x1 , y1 , z1 ) − (x0 , y0 , z0 )),

based on the relation r = a + λ(b − a), leading to the equations

x = x0 + λ (x1 − x0 )
y = y0 + λ (y1 − y0 )
z = z0 + λ (z1 − z0 )

Eliminating λ gives the Cartesian equation for a straight line passing through two
points (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and (x1 , y1 , z1 ) (symmetric equations of the line)
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
λ= = = .
x1 − x0 y1 − y0 z1 − z0

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 34 / 70

7.7.1 Equation of a straight line
To summarize, lines can be described using two distinct methods:
Vector (Parametric) Form: This representation involves vector equations of
the form
r = a + λ(b − a)
or equivalently,
r = a + λd ,
where d signifies the direction vector.
Symmetric Form: This approach utilizes symmetric equations given by
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
λ= = = ,
x1 − x0 y1 − y0 z1 − z0

which defines a line that intersects two points (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and (x1 , y1 , z1 ).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 35 / 70

Example: Write down the equation of the line that passes through the points
(2, −1, 3) and (1, 4, −3). Write down the equation of the line.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 36 / 70

Example: Write down the equation of the line that passes through the points
(2, −1, 3) and (1, 4, −3). Write down the equation of the line.

Solution:
(a) A direction vector of the line:

(2, −1, 3) − (1, 4, −3) = (1, −5, 6)

Expression: (2, −1, 3) + λ(1, −5, 6) where λ is arbitrary.

(b) We can also write x = 2 + λ, y = −1 − 5λ, z = 3 + 6λ where λ is arbitrary.
(c) We can also have

x −2 y − (−1) z −3
λ= = = .
1 −5 6

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 36 / 70

Example: What is the relationship of the following two lines:
x −2 z +1 x +7 y z +1
=y = , =− =
2 −3 −6 3 9

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 37 / 70

Example: What is the relationship of the following two lines:
x −2 z +1 x +7 y z +1
=y = , =− =
2 −3 −6 3 9

Solution: The direction vectors of the two lines are

~d1 = (2, 1, −3) and ~d2 = (−6, −3, 9).

Since −3~d1 = ~d2 , the two direction vectors are parallel.

This implies that the two lines are either identical or parallel.

A point that the first line passes through is (2, 0, −1).

Since this point does not satisfy the equation of the second line, the second line
does not pass through this point.

Therefore, the two lines are parallel.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 37 / 70

7.7.1 Equation of a straight line
To find the equation of a line, two things are essential:
(a) A point that lies on the line;
(b) A direction vector.

Relationships of two lines:

Identical;
Parallel;
Intersect (in the same plane);
Not intersect (in different planes - high dimensions).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 38 / 70

7.7.2 Equation of a plane
Just as a straight line can be specified by
two points it passes through, or
one point it passes through and a given direction,

a plane can be defined either by

specifying three points it contains
(provided these points do not lie on a straight line),
specifying a point on the plane and two directions in the plane (useful for
a parametric form),
specifying a point on the plane and the normal vector to the plane
(leading to an elegant representation).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 39 / 70

7.7.2 Equation of a plane
Specifying a point and a normal vector:
Let a be the position vector of a point on
the plane, and let n be a normal vector
to the plane.

If r is the position vector of an arbitrary

point on the plane, then r − a is a vector
lying in the plane, so

(r − a) · n = 0
So the vector equation of the plane is: r · n = a · n = d, where r = (x , y , z) and
the vectors a and n are known.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 40 / 70

7.7.2 Equation of a plane
Suppose a, n and r are given by

a = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) n = (I, m, p) r = (x , y , z)

Then
((x , y , z) − (x0 , y0 , z0 )) · (I, m, p) = 0
or
lx + my + pz = constant = lx0 + my0 + pz0 .
Alternatively, if you are given the Cartesian equation of a plane in the form

lx + my + pz = constant

then the vector (I, m, p) is normal to the plane.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 41 / 70

7.7.2 Equation of a plane
If we specify three points on a plane with position vectors a, b and c : the vectors
c − a and c − b lie in the plane, (the vectors a, b and c do not necessarily lie in
the plane; rather, they take you from O to the plane).

The normal to the plane, n, is then

parallel to

(c − a) × (c − b),

and so the equation of the plane is

(r − a) · ((c − a) × (c − b)) = 0

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 42 / 70

Example: Determine the equation of the plane that contains the points
P = (1, −2, 0), Q = (3, 1, 4) and R = (0, −1, 2).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 43 / 70

Example: Determine the equation of the plane that contains the points
P = (1, −2, 0), Q = (3, 1, 4) and R = (0, −1, 2).

Solution: We can form the following two vectors from the given points.
−→ −→
PQ = h2, 3, 4i PR = h−1, 1, 2i

Find a normal vector of the plane:

~i ~j ~k
−→ −→
~n = PQ × PR = 2 3 4 = 2~i − 8~j + 5~k
−1 1 2

The equation of the plane is then,

2(x − 1) − 8(y + 2) + 5(z − 0) = 0

2x − 8y + 5z = 18

We used P for the point but could have used any of the three points.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 43 / 70

Example: Write down the equation of the plane containing the point (−8, 3, 7)
and parallel to the plane given by 4x + 8y − 2z = 45.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 44 / 70

Example: Write down the equation of the plane containing the point (−8, 3, 7)
and parallel to the plane given by 4x + 8y − 2z = 45.

Solution: The normal vector of the plane:

~n = h4, 8, −2i.

Then we can write

4(x + 8) + 8(y − 3) − 2(z − 7) = 0 → 4x + 8y − 2z = −22.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 44 / 70

7.7.3 The angle between two planes
The angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their normal
vectors.

Procedures:
Find the normal vectors to the
planes first.
Find the angle between the normal
vectors.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 45 / 70

Example: Calculate the angle between the planes

3x − 6y − 2z = 7 and 2x + y − 2z = 5.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 46 / 70

Example: Calculate the angle between the planes

3x − 6y − 2z = 7 and 2x + y − 2z = 5.

Solution: The normals are in the directions

n 1 = (3, −6, −2) and n 2 = (2, 1, −2).

Hence n1 · n2 = (3, −6, −2) · (2, 1, −2) = 6 − 6 + 4 = 4.

p p
Also |n 1 | = 32 + (−6)2 + (−2)2 = 7, and |n 2 | = 22 + 12 + (−2)2 = 3.

n 1 · n 2 = |n 1 | |n 2 | cos θ ⇒ 4 = 7 × 3 × cos θ

4
from which θ = cos−1 ' 79◦ follows.
21

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 46 / 70

Example: Find the equation of the line through the points A1 and A2 with position
vectors a = (1, 1, 1) and b = (1, 2, 3), respectively.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 47 / 70

Example: Find the equation of the line through the points A1 and A2 with position
vectors a = (1, 1, 1) and b = (1, 2, 3), respectively.

Solution: The direction of the line is b − a = (1, 2, 3) − (1, 1, 1) = (0, 1, 2) The

vector equation of the line is then

r = (1, 1, 1) + λ(0, 1, 2).

We can write this as

r = i + (1 + λ)j + (1 + 2λ)k
which has the Cartesian form
z −1
x = 1, y −1= (= λ)
2

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 47 / 70

Example: Find the vector equation of the plane containing the point (1, 1, 0) and
which is normal to the vector 2i + j − 5k.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 48 / 70

Example: Find the vector equation of the plane containing the point (1, 1, 0) and
which is normal to the vector 2i + j − 5k.

Solution: Here, a = i + j and n = 2i + j − 5k. So

a · n = (i + j ) · (2i + j − 5k) = 2 + 1 = 3.

Hence the required vector equation is

r · (2i + j − 5k) = 3.

To find the Cartesian form, put

r = x i + y j + zk

to obtain
2x + y − 5z = 3.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 48 / 70

Example: Equation of the plane passing through three given points.
(a) Find the vector equation of the plane containing points A, B, C with position
vectors a, b, c given by (1, 2, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 3), respectively.
(b) Find also the equation of the line passing through A and B.
z −4
(c) Show that the line x = y = lies in the plane.
−3

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 49 / 70

Example: Equation of the plane passing through three given points.
(a) Find the vector equation of the plane containing points A, B, C with position
vectors a, b, c given by (1, 2, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 3), respectively.
(b) Find also the equation of the line passing through A and B.
z −4
(c) Show that the line x = y = lies in the plane.
−3

Solution:
(a) The vectors
c − a = (0, 1, 3) − (1, 2, 0) = (−1, −1, 3)
c − b = (0, 1, 3) − (1, 1, 1) = (−1, 0, 2)
both lie in the required plane. Hence the vector

(c − a) × (c − b) = (−2, −1, −1) = n

is normal to the plane. The equation for the plane is (r − a) · n = 0. Hence

the equation is

((x , y , z) − (1, 2, 0)) · (−2, −1, −1) = 0 or 2x + y + z = 4.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 49 / 70

Example: Equation of the plane passing through three given points.
(a) Find the vector equation of the plane containing points A, B, C with position
vectors a, b, c given by (1, 2, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 3), respectively.
(b) Find also the equation of the line passing through A and B.
z −4
(c) Show that the line x = y = lies in the plane.
−3

(b) The required equation for a line passing through A and B is r = a + λ(b − a).
Thus
(x , y , z) = λ((1, 1, 1) − (1, 2, 0)) + (1, 2, 0)
or
(x , y , z) = (1, 2 − λ, λ).
This gives
x = 1andy = 2 − λ, z = λ.
Thus the line can be interpreted as the intersection of the two planes x = 1
and y = 2 − z.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 50 / 70

Example: Equation of the plane passing through three given points.
(a) Find the vector equation of the plane containing points A, B, C with position
vectors a, b, c given by (1, 2, 0), (1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 3), respectively.
(b) Find also the equation of the line passing through A and B.
z −4
(c) Show that the line x = y = lies in the plane.
−3

(c) To show that the given line (x = y = (z − 4)/(−3)) lies in the plane that we
have found (2x + y + z = 4), we must show that points (x , y , z) on the line
satisfy the equation of the plane. From the given equation for the line we have
z −4 z −4
x= and y =
−3 −3
Substituting these expressions into the LHS of the equation of the plane, and
then simplifying, we find
2 1
2x + y + z = (4 − z) + (4 − z) + z = 4
3 3
hence the equation of the plane is satisfied and points on the line also lie in
the plane.
Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 51 / 70
Example: Find the perpendicular distance from a point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) to a plane
Ax + By + Cz = D.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 52 / 70

Example: Find the perpendicular distance from a point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) to a plane
Ax + By + Cz = D.

Solution:
(x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) · (A, B, C ) A (x − x0 ) + B (y − y0 ) + C (z − z0 )
√ = √
2
A +B +c 2 2 A2 + B 2 + c 2
Ax + By + Cz − (Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 )
= √
A2 + B 2 + c 2
D − (Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 )
= √ (absolute value)
A2 + B 2 + C 2
Note: “Component” can be negative, but distance cannot. Thus, we have

D − (Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 )

d= √ .
A2 + B 2 + c 2

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 53 / 70

Example: Find the perpendicular distance between two parallel planes.

The perpendicular distance is the

magnitude projection onto the direction
that has the same direction of the normal
vector.
The perpendicular distance is 10 − 4 = 6. (1, 1, 1) √
d = (0, 0, 6) · √ =2 3
3
| {z }
unit vector

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 54 / 70

Example: Identify the relationship between two lines:
L1 : x = 6t, y = 3 + 8t, z = −1 + 2t and L2 : x = 2 + 3s, y = 4s, z = 1 + s.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 55 / 70

Example: Identify the relationship between two lines:
L1 : x = 6t, y = 3 + 8t, z = −1 + 2t and L2 : x = 2 + 3s, y = 4s, z = 1 + s.
 
6
Solution: Line 1 has direction vector  8  and line 2 has direction vector
  2
3
 4 .
1
   
6 3
As  8  = 2  4  and L2 does not contain (0, 3, −1), the two lines L1 and L2
2 1
are parallel.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 55 / 70

    
3 1
Example: Identify the relationship of two lines L1 :  −1  + λ  −2  and
2 −1
y −1
L2 : x = = z − 1.
2

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 56 / 70

 
    
x 0 1
We can rewrite L2 in to the vector form, e.g.,  y  =  1  + t  2  with
z 1 1
 
1
a direction vector  2 . Equating x , y , and z values, we have
1

3 + λ = t, −1 − 2λ = 1 + 2t , 2−λ=1+t
| {z }
3+λ=−1−λ=⇒λ=−2 and t=1

Substituting λ = −2 and t = 1 into the equation 2 − λ = 1 + t, we have

λ + t = −2 + 1 = −1 6= 1.

There is no simultaneous solution to all 3 equations. Thus L1 and L2 are not

intersecting, as well as not identical. We compare the direction vectors, e.g.,
   
1 1
 −2  6= k  2 
−1 1

for any k ∈ R. It can be seen that they are not parallel. Since they do not intersect
and are not parallel, they are skew.
Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 57 / 70
7.8 Vector methods in Engineering
We have already seen how to calculate moments and resultants of forces.

Example:
(a) Calculate the resultant of the three forces

F 1 = (1, 2, 2), F 2 = (2, 3, 3), F 3 = (−3, 0, 4)

(b) Calculate also the moment of the resultant about the origin if it is applied at
the point with position vector (1, 2, 3).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 58 / 70

7.8 Vector methods in Engineering
We have already seen how to calculate moments and resultants of forces.

Example:
(a) Calculate the resultant of the three forces

F 1 = (1, 2, 2), F 2 = (2, 3, 3), F 3 = (−3, 0, 4)

(b) Calculate also the moment of the resultant about the origin if it is applied at
the point with position vector (1, 2, 3).

Solution: The resultant force can be constructed geometrically using the

parallelogram law of vector addition or, in Cartesian component form, by simply
adding the components together. Hence,

F = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 = (1, 2, 2) + (2, 3, 3) + (−3, 0, 4) = (0, 5, 9).

Hence the resultant force is F = 5j + 9k

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 58 / 70

7.8.1 Moments
The moment M of this force about the origin when the force is applied at the point
with position vector r is
M = r × F.
Hence the required moment is

i j k
M = (1, 2, 3) × (0, 5, 9) = 1 2 3
0 5 9
= i (9 × 2 − 3 × 5) − j (1 × 9 − 0 × 3) + k(5 × 1 − 0 × 2)
= 3i − 9j + 5k

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 59 / 70

7.8.2 Time-dependent vectors
Suppose an object moves so that its position vector at time t is r (t). Then

r (t) = x (t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k

or
r (t) = (x (t), y (t), z(t)).

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 60 / 70

7.8.2 Time-dependent vectors
Suppose an object moves so that its position vector at time t is r (t). Then

r (t) = x (t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k

or
r (t) = (x (t), y (t), z(t)).
Then the velocity of the object is the derivative vector

dr (t) dx dy dz
v(t) = = i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
or, alternatively,
v(t) = r 0 (t) = (x 0 (t), y 0 (t), z 0 (t))
Similarly, the acceleration is the vector

d2 r (t) d2 x d2 y d2 z
2
= r 00 (t) = 2
i+ 2
j + 2 k = x 00 (t)i + y 00 (t)j + z 00 (t)k.
dt dt dt dt
The speed is the scalar v = |v|.
Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 60 / 70
Example: Given the position vector r (t) = 2t, 3t 2 − 1, 5t 3 find the velocity and

acceleration.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 61 / 70

Example: Given the position vector r (t) = 2t, 3t 2 − 1, 5t 3 find the velocity and

acceleration.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 62 / 70

Example: Given the position vector r (t) = 2t, 3t 2 − 1, 5t 3 find the velocity and

acceleration.
Solution: The velocity vector v(t) is the first derivative of the position vector r(t)
with respect to t:
dr(t)
v(t) = .
dt
The acceleration vector a(t) is the second derivative of the position vector r(t) with
respect to t, which can also be seen as the first derivative of the velocity vector
v(t) with respect to t:
dv(t)
a(t) = .
dt
The velocity vector v(t) is given by:
dr (t)
= 2, 6t, 15t 2 = 2i + 6tj + 15t 2 k


dt
And the acceleration vector a(t) is given by:
d2 r (t)
= (0, 6, 30t) = 6j + 30tk
dt 2

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 62 / 70

Example: Calculate the velocity, speed and acceleration of a particle with variable
position vector
r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + e −t k.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 63 / 70

Example: Calculate the velocity, speed and acceleration of a particle with variable
position vector
r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + e −t k.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 64 / 70

Example: Calculate the velocity, speed and acceleration of a particle with variable
position vector
r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + e −t k.

Solution: The velocity is

dr (t)
v(t) = = − sin ti + cos tj − e −t k
dt
The speed is
q p
2
v (t) = |v(t)| = (− sin t)2 + (cos t)2 + (−e −t ) = 1 + e −2t

The acceleration is
dv(t)
a(t) = = − cos ti − sin tj + e −t k.
dt

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 64 / 70

7.8.3 Newton’s Law of Motion
For an object with constant mass,

Newton’s law Force=mass × acceleration

becomes the vector equation

d2 r (t)
F (t) = ma(t) = m
dt 2
in the usual notation.
If we know m and r (t), we can calculate the applied force F by differentiating
r (t) twice.
If we know F (t) and m, we can calculate r (t) by integration.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 65 / 70

7.8.4 Free motion under gravity

Example: Suppose an object of mass m = 1Kg is dropped from rest a height d

above the ground. Use Newton’s law of motion to calculate the object’s motion if
gravity is the only applied force.

Solution: Consider the Earth as flat for simplicity, and define the starting point
directly below the dropped object as the origin.
Let a unit vector k point straight up, with gravity’s acceleration represented as
−gk.
Assuming the particle’s position vector at time t is r (t), its motion equation
d2 r (t)
becomes −mgk = m .
dt 2
Note: Here, m = 1Kg, but mass is irrelevant since it cancels out, and gravity pulls
directly down.
dr (t)
Integrating once yields = −gtk + A, with A as a constant vector.
dt

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 66 / 70

7.8.4 Free motion under gravity
The initial conditions are
dr
= 0, r = dk at t = 0.
dt
NB The object is released from rest from a height d. The initial condition shows
that A = 0 and hence that
dr
= −gtk.
dt
We can integrate this again to get
1
r = − gt 2 k + B,
2
where B is another constant vector. The initial conditions then give B = dk giving
finally  
1 2
r (t) = − gt + d k
2

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 67 / 70

7.9 Differentiating scalar and vector products
If a(t) and b(t) are vectors both depending upon t, and f (t) is a scalar function,
then the following rules hold:
d da db
(a · b) = ·b+a·
dt dt dt
d da db
(a × b) = ×b+a×
dt dt dt
d df da
(f a) = a+f
dt dt dt

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 68 / 70

 d d
Example: Given a = t 2 i , b = t 3 i + 4tk, calculate (a · b), and (a × b)
dt dt
directly.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 69 / 70

 d d
Example: Given a = t 2 i , b = t 3 i + 4tk, calculate (a · b), and (a × b)
dt dt
directly.

Solution: There are two ways to derive the results.

1) a · b = t 2 i · t 3 i + 4tk = t 5 . By direct differentiation we find

d d 5

(a · b) = t = 5t 4 .
dt dt
2) Alternatively, we have that

da db
= 2ti , = 3t 2 i + 4k.
dt dt
Then
d da db
= (2ti ) · t 3 i + 4tk + t 2 i · 3t 2 i + 4k




(a · b) = ·b+a·
dt dt dt
= (2t)t 3 + 0 + t 2 · 3t 2 + 0 = 2t 4 + 3t 4 = 5t 4

as before.
Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 69 / 70
 d d
Example: Given a = t 2 i , b = t 3 i + 4tk, calculate (a · b), and (a × b)
dt dt
directly.

3) a × b = t 2 i × t 3 i + 4tk = −4t 3 j

d d
−4t 3 j = −12t 2 j


(a × b) =
dt dt
4)
db
= t 2 i × 3t 2 i + 4k = −4t 2 j



a×
dt
and
da
× b = (2ti ) × t 3 i + 4tk = −8t 2 j


dt
Hence,
d da db
(a × b) = ×b+a× = −8t 2 j − 4t 2 j = −12t 2 j
dt dt dt
as before.

Dr. Jun Fan (UNNC) MATH1046 2024-2025 Spring Semester 70 / 70