Republic of the Philippines

SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY

Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines

“For Nation’s

Jennie Babe D. Navarra Course & Year: BSCE-3B

Maxene Sigrid T. Borja Date: February 8, 2025

Topic: IV. Precipitation

Pretest.
Instruction: Test your knowledge about the course to know your readiness and preparation.
Answer what is required in the test stem.
1. List down different techniques to evaluate rainfall errors and inconsistencies.
 Double Mass Curve – Compares total rainfall with a trusted dataset to spot changes.
 Compare with Nearby Stations – Checks if rainfall data matches other nearby stations.
 Statistical Methods – Uses numbers like averages and variation to find errors.
 Outlier Detection – Finds extreme values that don’t fit the usual pattern.
 Homogeneity Test – Identifies sudden changes in data trends over time.
 Gauge Comparison – Compares readings from different types of rain gauges.
 Interpolation Methods – Fills missing data and checks for mistakes using math techniques.
2. Gather rainfall data and process the data.
 Collect Data – Get rainfall records from weather stations, satellites, or rain gauges.
 Clean Data – Fix mistakes, remove duplicates, and fill missing values.
 Check Accuracy – Compare with past records or other stations to confirm reliability.
 Summarize Data – Organize data into daily, monthly, or yearly totals.
 Analyze Trends – Look for seasonal patterns or long-term changes.
 Visualize Data – Use charts or maps to make the data easier to understand.
3. What are the different rainfall measurement instruments.
 Standard Rain Gauge – A simple tool with a funnel and measuring tube.
 Tipping Bucket Gauge – Measures rain by collecting and tipping small buckets.
 Weighing Gauge – Measures rain by weighing the collected water.
 Optical Rain Gauge – Uses light to detect raindrops and measure rainfall.
 Radar Measurement – Uses radar waves to estimate rainfall in large areas.
 Satellite Measurement – Uses satellites to track rainfall from space.
 Acoustic Rain Gauge – Detects rain by listening to sound waves in water.

IV. Self- Evaluation

 Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines

“For Nation’s

Direction. Here is some situations and problems that you can do to challenge your
communication and analytical skills.
1. Write four errors that can take place while entering rainfall data into records.
 Transcription Mistakes – Writing down the wrong numbers from the rain gauge, such as
misreading the markings or swapping digits.
 Rounding Errors – Adjusting rainfall values to the nearest whole number or decimal,
which can cause small inaccuracies, especially for light rainfall.
 Missing Records – Forgetting to note down rainfall for certain days, creating gaps that
make trend analysis harder.
 Calibration Issues – Rain gauges need regular adjustments to stay accurate; if not
calibrated, they may consistently give incorrect readings.
2. Briefly describe the types of precipitation.
 Rain: Liquid water droplets falling from clouds1.
 Snow: Frozen water crystals falling from clouds1.
 Hail: Solid ice pellets formed in thunderclouds1.
 Sleet: Frozen raindrops that fall as ice pellets1.
 Freezing Rain: Rain that freezes upon contact with a surface below freezing
3. Describe how cloud are formed.
- Clouds form when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into tiny water droplets or ice
crystals. This process begins with the evaporation of water from the Earth's surface, driven by
the sun's heat. As the water vapor rises through the atmosphere, it encounters cooler
temperatures, causing the vapor to condense into microscopic droplets or crystals. When the air
becomes saturated with these suspended water particles, a cloud is formed. Warm air near the
ground creates updrafts that lift the water droplets and ice crystals higher, allowing the cloud to
grow vertically. The specific type of cloud that develops depends on factors like temperature,
humidity, and air movement, but the underlying mechanism is the cycle of evaporation,
condensation, and updrafts that leads to the visible accumulation of water in the sky.
4. With the help of diagrams, describe an ORG and a SRRG.
- An Orographic Rainfall Gauge (ORG) is designed for mountainous regions and includes a wind
shield and leveling system to ensure precise rainfall measurement on uneven terrain. On the
other hand, a Surface Rainfall Runoff Gauge (SRRG) tracks water runoff from a specific area by
using a catchment system, a weir to regulate flow, and a measuring tool like a cylinder or flow
meter. This helps monitor surface water movement and potential flooding. While both are
 Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines

“For Nation’s

important for hydrology, the ORG measures direct rainfall in mountains, whereas the SRR
focuses on runoff over land.
5. Briefly explain how rainfall can be measured by radars and by the use of satellites.
- Radar measures rainfall by sending out electromagnetic pulses that bounce off raindrops. The
strength of the reflected energy indicates how heavy the rain is. Satellite measurements, on the
other hand, use instruments such as microwave imagers to sense radiation emitted or reflected by
raindrops and clouds, allowing for rainfall estimation over large regions like entire ocean basins.
Radar provides detailed, localized information, but its accuracy can be affected by atmospheric
conditions and terrain, requiring calibration with ground-based rain gauges. Satellites offer
extensive coverage, particularly in remote and inaccessible locations, but their rainfall estimates
are indirect and require complex algorithms. In conclusion, radar excels at providing precise,
ground-level measurements while satellites offer a broader, synoptic view of rainfall patterns.
6. For a 1-hour rainstorm, depths of rainfall are given as follows:

Construct the rainfall hyetograph, with rainfall intensity on the ordinate. Use excel

program.
 Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines

“For Nation’s

Suppose that the rainstorm in question 6 fell on a watershed with an area of 100 ha. What
would be the volume of water (in cubic meters) generated by this rainstorm?
Volume = Rainfall Depth (m) x Area (m^2)
For the 1-hour rainstorm:
Total Rainfall Depth = 5 + 25 + 40 + 20 + 10 + 4 = 104 mm = 0.104 m
Volume = 0.104 m x (100 ha x 10,000 m^2/ha) = 104,000 m^3
What is the peak rainfall intensity (in mm/h) of the rainstorm in question 6?
Rainfall Intensity=ΔTime / ΔRainfall Depth × 60
Time Interval (min) Rainfall Depth Change (mm) Rainfall Intensity (mm/h)

0 - 10 5–0=5 30
10 - 20 25 – 5 = 20 120
20 - 30 40 – 25 = 15 90
30 - 40 20 – 40 = -20 120
40 - 50 10 – 20 = -10 60
50 - 60 4 – 10 = -6 36
Peak Rainfall Intensity: 120 mm/h

VI. POST TEST

1. When rainfall reported at a group of six stations in a basin was being examined for
spatial consistency, doubts arose about the value reported at Majgawn. The distance
between Majgawn and the other five stations is given in the following table:

2. Check the values at Majgawn for spatial consistency.

3. For a catchment, the rainfall data at six stations for the month of September, along with
their Thiessen weights, are as given in the following table:
 Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines

“For Nation’s

Find the weighted average rainfall for the catchment by using the arithmetic average and
Thiessen polygon methods.
Arithmetic Mean Method:
P_avg = (112.1 + 99.5 + 103.3 + 220.7 + 89.7 + 92.1) / 6 = 119.57 mm
Thiessen Polygon Method:
P_weighted = (112.1 × 0.21) + (99.5 × 0.05) + (103.3 × 0.33) + (220.7 × 0.18) + (89.7 × 0.14) +
(92.1 × 0.09) = 123.19 mm

4. A catchment has six rain-gauge stations: Rampur, Hansraj, Rehli, Majgawn, Borina, and
Jabera. The normal monthly rainfall at these stations and the observed rainfall at these
stations for a storm event are given in the following table.

Find the missing rainfall at Majgawn using the normal ratio method.
Formula: P_x = (N_x / N_avg) × P_avg
P_x = (120.0 / 99.34) × 54.4 = 65.7 mm
Final Answer: Missing rainfall at Majgawn = 65.7 mm

5. Find the missing value at Majgawn after removing Rampur (with 112.1 mm normal
rainfall) in question 4. Compare value obtained here with that obtained in question 4. Now
do the same by also removing Jabera (with 92.1 mm normal rainfall). Compare three of the
values and comment on the effect of removing one and two stations on the computed
missing values.
Removing Rampur:
N_avg = (99.5 + 103.3 + 89.7 + 92.1) / 4 = 96.15 mm
P_x = (120.0 / 96.15) × 54.4 = 67.9 mm
Removing Rampur & Jabera:
 Republic of the Philippines
SURIGAO DEL NORTE STATE UNIVERSITY
Narciso Street, Surigao City 8400, Philippines

“For Nation’s

N_avg = (99.5 + 103.3 + 89.7) / 3 = 97.5 mm

P_x = (120.0 / 97.5) × 54.4 = 67.0 mm
Removing one or two stations increases the estimated rainfall slightly, but not significantly.

6. Using the data from question 4, estimate rainfall at Majgawn station by using the
reciprocal distance power method.
Formula: P_x = Σ(P_i / d_i²) / Σ(1 / d_i²)
Computed Value: 49.06 mm
Final Answer: Reciprocal Distance Power Rainfall = 49.06 mm