The Concept of Virtue

The word ‘virtue’ comes from the Latin root ‘Virtus’ which in turn derives from ‘Vir’ which
is the Roman word for man. The Roman ‘Vir’ was strongly associated with martial courage and the
honour associated with that but later the word began to include other qualities – industry, fortitude,
dutifulness. Thus, at first virtue meant manliness or valor, but over time it settled into the sense of moral
excellence. Virtue can also mean excellence in general. The Greek word ‘Arete’ in its basic
sense, means "excellence of any kind". The term may also mean "moral virtue". In its earliest appearance
in Greek, this notion of excellence was ultimately bound up with the notion of the fulfillment of purpose
or function: the act of living up to one's full potential. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be
morally good and thus is valued as a foundation or principle of good moral being. Hence,
personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting collective and individual greatness.

In Ethics, “virtue’ is used in two somewhat different meanings.

1) A virtue is a quality of character – a disposition to do what is right in a particular direction or to

2) A virtue is also a habit of action corresponding to the quality of character or disposition.

Miurhead says that virtue is the “quality of character that fits for the discharge of duty”. Virtue
signifies an acquired type of character in harmony with the moral law. Virtue is a quality of character that
expresses itself in our actions. There is a very close relation between ‘duty’ and ‘virtue’. They are in fact
two modes of describing the same thing. Virtue refers to the inner character and its excellence, while duty
implies the expression of character in conduct. Right actions may be viewed from two standpoints –
subjective and objective. Duty is the objective and virtue is subjective. To obey our superiors is ‘our duty’
and the feeling of reverence that we have for our superiors is called ‘virtue’. It is because of the feeling of
reverence that we consider it our duty to obey them. Thus, it is evident that ‘virtue’ expresses itself in
‘duty’. Duty is the outer manifestation of virtue or duty is virtue in action.

Virtue is the habit of performing of duties. Virtue is the habit of choosing and performing right
actions. But before we can choose right actions, we must know if they are really right. Habit of choosing
and performing right actions presupposes knowledge of the good and the duties in concrete situations.
Habitual performance of duties depends on the knowledge of duties in concrete situations and the
knowledge of the ultimate good of the self. Thus, virtue implies knowledge as well as habit. Socrates and

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Plato rightly says that “Virtue is knowledge”. Aristotle is also right when he says that “virtue is habit”.
Virtue is knowledge as well as habit. Knowledge is meaningless if it does not express itself in actions.
Again, knowledge is necessary for the performance of any action. Knowledge of duty is as necessary as
the habit of performing duties. Thus, virtue implies knowledge or moral insight and a habit of performing
duties.

Socrates, the Greek moral philosopher maintains that virtue is knowledge. If a person fully
understands the nature of the good, he cannot fail to pursue it. Knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice.
Knowledge constitutes the essence of virtue. A person according to Socrates cannot knowingly commit
any wrong.

This view is not acceptable. Firstly, if virtue consist in the knowledge of the good and vice in the
ignorance of the good, then how can a person be held responsible for his wrong actions, when they are
done through ignorance? We know that only voluntary actions involving the knowledge of the good are
objects of moral judgement. Secondly, a man often knows what is right but does what is wrong. Here
knowledge of the good does not necessarily lead to the choice of the good. Knowledge of and actions do
not always go together. Hence, it is wrong to maintain that a person cannot knowingly commit any wrong.
Thus, knowledge does not constitute virtue though the former is an indispensable element of the latter.

Plato’s Cardinal Virtues

Plato, the famous Greek philosopher has in his renowned book under the title “Republic”
mentioned and explained four cardinal virtues. The English word ‘cardinal’ has been derived from the
Latin word ‘cardo’ meaning ‘hinge’. As a door stands on the strength of the hinges, so also the moral life
of man is based on the four virtues, for which these four virtues are called the cardinal virtues. The four
cardinal virtues are – Wisdom, Courage, Temperance and Justice. Though Plato has mentioned these
virtues from the then Greek mentality, if taken in a wider sense may claim the right to be considered as the
fundamental elements constituting good character in the present times.

1. Wisdom: There may be dispute about the meaning of the Socratic statement that virtue is
knowledge but there is no difference of opinion that he considered knowledge as the highest and noblest
quality of a virtuous man. Knowledge may mean natural knowledge and knowledge acquired from
observation and education. Natural knowledge consists of the skill for synthesis and analysis. The
scientists are in favour of analysis, whereas the philosophers are in favour of synthesis because they want

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to discover a systematic form of the world and life. There is again a difference between theoretical and
practical skill. Plato calls him a wise man who possess both the skills. Natural reason and acquired
knowledge both have intrinsic value. The persons who possess high theoretical skills and who have been
given long training in Mathematics and Logic so that they can reason well and guide their life along the
path of virtue. Wisdom has been stated first because it includes all other virtues. It is an all embracing
virtue.

2. Courage: Courage is the second basic virtue in man’s moral life. Knowledge gives direction to
lead one’s life along the moral path, while courage gives him the power to tolerate all kinds of pain and
sufferings. Moral path is not strewn with roses. One who wants to lead a truly moral life has to endure
many sufferings. And it is because of this that very few people are able to lead a moral life. Courage is,
therefore, necessary for leading a moral life. Courage does not only mean physical powers. Courage is
fortitude or endurance. It may be active. There is active courage in doing one’s assigned duties in the face
of all sufferings. Passive courage means enduring indifferently the sufferings and pains which are
unavoidable. It is evident that courage and fortitude are virtues without which it is impossible to make
progress towards a moral life. It is not only a case of enduring sufferings, it is doing what is right in the
face of all sufferings that is called courage.

3. Temperance: Mackenzie considers temperance at par with courage. Courage helps us to resist the
fear of pain and sufferings. Temperance likewise resist the allurements of sensual pleasures but that does
not mean that temperance is a negative virtue. Temperance does not only offer resistance to the
allurements of pleasure, it also points to the rational way of sublimating and then fulfilling these pleasures.
It is because of temperance that our moral life becomes highly beautiful and glorious. Thus, in Greece, a
man was considered virtuous if he was beautiful and virtuous at the same time.

4. Justice: In comparison to wisdom, courage and temperance, justice is more related to social
relations. Justice comprehends all social virtues. The first three cardinal virtues are virtues belonging to an
individual, while justice is a social virtue. According to Plato, justice consist in the capacity of doing one’s
own duty. The rulers of the state keep an eye over the citizens so that they may not take other’s wealth and
property, nor are they evicted of their possessions. Justice, thus means two things. It means non-
interference in other’s rights and also the right of every individual. Freedom and equality are the two
aspects of justice.

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 The cardinal virtues of Plato should be taken in wider sense. In a wider sense, wisdom includes
care, foresight and decision of choice. Courage includes resistance from all kinds of pain and sufferings.
Temperance includes resistance to all kinds of allurements of pleasure, sensual and intellectual. Justice
includes not merely the fulfilment of contract and performance of duties enjoined by the society and state
but also perfect honesty in one’s relationship with others. Benevolence, courtesy, cheerfulness and good
humour are all included in justice

There has been a longstanding ethical debate about what is called “the unity of the virtues.” To
many of the ancient Greek philosophers, a person could not possess one of the cardinal virtues without
possessing them all. These philosophers ask: How could a person who cannot control his or her appetites
(thus is intemperate) be just or prudent? Socrates believed that virtue was a matter of understanding, and
that once a person understood good and evil; he or she would naturally be prudent, temperate, courageous,
and just. The example of the unity of the virtues, is that a politician who is dishonest in his marital relation
is not someone who can be trusted with the public’s business either. True virtue is that where all parts of
the soul are pulling in the same direction i.e. toward the good. The cardinal virtues of prudence, justice,
fortitude, and temperance, are like the upper management of the other virtues for they regulate our
practical actions or good habits in specific ways.

Like most other ancient philosophers, Plato maintains a virtue-based eudaemonistic conception
of ethics. That is to say, happiness or well-being (eudaimonia) is the highest aim of moral thought and
conduct, and the virtues (aretê: ‘excellence’) are the requisite skills and dispositions needed to attain it.

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