C. U.

Shah (Government) Polytechnic, Surendranagar

Department of Computer Engineering

Subject Code: 4340703 UNIT – 1

Subject Name: Computer Networking Basics of Computer Network

Prepared By:
Mr. Shaktisinh S. Parmar (Lecturer)
Department of Computer Engineering, C.U.S.P., Surendranagar

COURSE OUTCOMES (COs) ASSOCIATED

WITH THIS UNIT
Students are able to:
• Classify various types of networks base on their
construction, usage and scope.

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 LEARNING OUTCOMES (LOs) OF THIS UNIT
Students are able to:
• List the applications of Computer Networks.
• Differentiate various line configurations.
• Design a computer network considering particular topology.
• Categories computer network based on scope and connection
• Explain use of various types of servers.

TOPICS WILL BE COVERED IN THIS UNIT:

• Definition and need of networks
• Categories of Computer Networks base on scope and connection
• Line Configuration
• Network Topology
• Standard Organizations and Protocols
• Applications and features of different types of servers:
• File server
• Print Server
• Mail Server
• Web Server
• Proxy Server

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 Definition : Network
• Computer Network  is a set of computers and
peripherals connected together for the purpose of
sharing resources (data, files, hardware etc.).

• Computer Network is the interconnected

collection of autonomous computer(s)and peripheral
devices.

• Computers on a network are called “nodes”.

• The links connecting the devices are called
communication channels.

• The concept of connecting computers for sharing

resources or data is called networking.

Need of Network / Characteristics of Network

• Resource sharing
• High reliability
• Better communication
• Scalability
• Low cost
• Time saving
• Flexibility of equipment
• Improved performance

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Network
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Enhancement of Communication • Computer Network lacks
and Information Availability Independence.
• Convenient Sharing of Resources • Poses Security difficulties
• Easy File/Data Sharing • Lacks Robustness
• Highly Flexible • Presence of Computer Viruses
• Affordable and Malware
• Increases Cost Efficiency • Easy-going Policies and Light
Policing of Computer Networks
• Networking Boosts Storage allow Negative Activities
Capacity

Goal Of Networking:
• Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of resource
and load sharing.
• Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and
other peripherals.
• Provide better Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place.
• Provide Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
• Provide better Communication (people living apart can work together)
• Information Access (remote information access, access to the internet, e-
mail, video conferencing, and online shopping)
• Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
• Easily adapt to Social Networking and Internet.

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 Network criteria
• There are mainly three criteria Performance, Reliability and Security

1. Performance: it can be measured by Transit time and Response time

• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the
type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software.

2. Reliability: it can be measured by

• Frequency of failure of network
• Recovery time of a network after a failure.
• Catastrophic events

3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, damage and
viruses, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery.

Applications of Network

• Financial services
• Marketing and sales
• Electronic messaging
• Manufacturing
• Directory services and infarction services
• Cellular telephone and cable TV services
• Teleconferencing
• Electronic data exchange

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Categories of network
• Based on Functionality
• Based on Ownership
• Based on Connection
• Based on Scope

Categories of network based on functionality:

• Client-Server Network: Client-Server

network is a network in which a client runs
the program and access data that are stored
on the server. In this kind of network, one
computer becomes the server, serving all
other computers called clients.
• Peer-to-Peer Network: Peer-to-Peer
network facilitates the flow of information
from one peer to another without any
central server. In other words, each node on
a server acts as both client and server.

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 Categories of network based on Ownership
• Private Network: A private
network is a network in
which various restrictions
are imposed to secure the
network, to restrict
unauthorized access. This
type of network is privately
owned by a single or group
of people for their personal
use. Local Area
Network(LAN) can be used
as a private network.

Categories of network based on Ownership

• Public Network: A public
network is a network that
has the least or no
restrictions on it. It can be
freely accessed by anyone,
without any restrictions.
This type of network is
publicly owned by the
government or NGOs.
Metropolitan Area
Network(MAN) and Wide
Area Network(WAN) can be
used as a public network.

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Categories of network based on Connection /
Transmission Media:
• Bound/Guided Media / Wired Network:
Bounded/Guided media can also be referred
to as wired media. This kind of networks
provides a physical link between two nodes
connected in a network. The physical links
are directed towards a particular direction
in the network. Co-axial, twisted pair, optical
fiber cable, etc. can be used in such
networks for connectivity. Local Area
Network(LAN) and Metropolitan Area
Network(MAN) can be used as a
Bound/Guided media network.

Categories of network based on Connection /

Transmission Media:
• Unbound/Unguided Media / Wireless
Network: Unbounded/Unguided media
can also be referred to as wireless media.
This kind of network does not need any
physical link for electromagnetic
transmission. Radio waves, Microwaves,
Infrared, etc. can be used in such
networks for connectivity. Metropolitan
Area Network(MAN) and Wide Area
Network(WAN) can be used as an
Unbound/Unguided media network.

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 Categories of network based on Scope
• A computer network can be divided into the following types,
based on the geographical area/ Scope that they cover, they are:
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN (Local Area Network)

• In it, computers and other networking devices are
interconnected within limited geographically area. OR LAN
networks connect computers together over small distance
like resident, school, building, laboratories, campus etc.
• LAN connects a relatively small number of machines in a
relatively close geographical area. Bus, Ring, and Star
topology are generally used in a local area network. In LAN,
one computer can become a server in a star topology, serving
all other computers called clients. Two different buildings
can be connected very easily in LAN using a 'Bridge’.
• LAN can be wired or wireless (WLAN).
• Twisted pair, fiber optic and coaxial cables are used in LAN.
• Generally topology used in LAN are  bus, ring, star.

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Characteristics o LAN
• It allows users to share devices like printers, application data, resources etc.
• It transfers data at very high speed (up to 1 gbps).
• It exists in limited geographical area (up to few kilometers).
• Multiple access can be allowed in LAN.

Advantages of LAN
• Cost effective technology (Less costly).
• Resource sharing and multiple access.
• High data transfer rate.
• It provides data integrity.
• Any number of users can be accommodated.
• It is flexible and can fit in any site requirement.
• Low error rate.

Disadvantages of LAN
• Equipment and support may be costly
• Some hardware devices may not inter-operate properly
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MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• MAN is a larger version of LAN which covers an
area that is larger area than LAN but smaller area
than WAN.
• MAN is formed by collecting multiple LANs.
• A MAN typically covers an area of 5 to 50 km
diameter.
• A best known example of MAN is cable television.
• MAN can be used for connecting the various offices
of the same organization, spread over the whole
city.
• It can be used for communication in various
governmental departments.

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Advantages of MAN
• It provides good backbone for a large network.
• The Dual bus used in MAN helps in transmission of data in both direction.
• It provides large and controllable network.
• It required fewer resources compare to WAN.
• It can be used in sharing of regional resources.

Disadvantages of MAN
• More cables required in connection from one place to another.
• It is difficult to make system secure.

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WAN (Wide Area Network)

• It is a larger version of MAN.
• When network covers a very large distance such as
cities, states, countries or continent is called WAN.
• Communication between different countries can be
possible through WAN.
• The communication takes place in WAN using telephone
lines, satellite or microwaves.
• A WAN may include various Local and Metropolitan
Area Network. The mode of communication in a WAN
can either be wired or wireless. Telephone lines for
wired and satellite links for wireless communication
can be used in a wide area network.
• In other words, WAN provides long distance
transmission of data, voice, image, and video, over a
large geographical area. A WAN may span beyond
100km range. It may be privately or publicly owned.

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 Advantages of WAN
• It covers almost unlimited geographical area.
• It shares software and resources worldwide.
• WAN supports global market and global business.

Disadvantages of WAN
• This technology is very expensive.
• Due to longer distance, error rates are high.
• It is difficult to design and maintain.
• Setting up of a network is very expensive and slow.

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Basis LAN MAN WAN

MAN stands for metropolitan WAN stands for wide area
Full-Form LAN stands for local area network.
area network. network.
Geographic Operates in small areas such as the Operates in large areas such as a Operates in larger areas such as
Span same building or campus. city. country or continent.
MAN’s ownership can be private While WAN also might not be
Ownership LAN’s ownership is private.
or public. owned by one organization.
Transmission The transmission speed of a LAN is While the transmission speed of a Whereas the transmission speed of
Speed high. MAN is average. a WAN is low.
Propagation The propagation delay is short in a There is a moderate propagation Whereas, there is a long
delay LAN. delay in a MAN. propagation delay in a WAN.
Traffic While there is more congestion in Whereas there is more congestion
Congestion There is less congestion in LAN.
MAN. than MAN in WAN.
While MAN’s design and Whereas WAN’s design and
Design & LAN’s design and maintenance are
maintenance are difficult than maintenance are also difficult than
Maintenance easy. LAN. LAN as well MAN.
In WAN, there is also less fault
Fault tolerance There is more fault tolerance in LAN. While there is less fault tolerance.
tolerance.
Broadband and internet
LAN is used to connect: SCHOOL, MAN is used to connect:
Example COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OR HOSPITAL CITY OR VARIOUS AREA OF CITY
throughout the country or
continent.

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 Line Configuration
• Line configuration defines the attachment of communication
devices to a link.
• A link is a physical communication pathway that transfers data from
one device to another device
• For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in
some way to the same link at the same time.
• There are two possible line configurations:-
• Point to Point
• Multipoint/ Multidrop

Point to Point
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link
between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual length
of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other
options such as microwave or satellite links are also
possible.
• Point to point network topology is considered to be
one of the easiest and most conventional networks
topologies.
• It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
• Example: Point-to-Point connection between the
remote control and Television for changing the
channels.

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 Advantages of Point-to-Point Connection:
• Provide High Bandwidth
• Provide Good Security
• Provide Good Reliability

Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Connection:

• It is Costly
• Scalability of network is very complex.
• Maintenance is critical.

Multipoint/ Multidrop
• It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this
connection, two or more devices share a single
link.
• If more than two devices share the link then
the channel is considered as a ‘shared channel’.
With shared capacity, there can be two
possibilities in a Multipoint Line configuration:

• Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link

simultaneously, it’s called Spatially shared line
configuration.

• Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns

using the link, then it’s called Temporally shared or
Time Shared Line configuration.

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Advantages of Multipoint Connection:
• It is Cost-Effective.
• It support Scalability.
• It support Flexibility.

Disadvantages of Multipoint Connection:

• It suffers from Limited Bandwidth.
• It is less secure.
• Sometime it has issues with reliability.

Key Point-to-Point Communication Multi-point Communication

Point-to-point communication is a method in which Multi-point communication is a form of communication
Definition the channel of communication is shared only between in which the channel is shared among multiple devices
two devices or nodes. or nodes.
In case of Point-to-point communication, the channel In case of Multi-point communication, the channel
is shared only between two nodes, so the load and capacity is divided among multiple participant nodes.
Load sharing
capacity of the channel is available only to two nodes.

In case of Point-to-point communication only two In case of Multi-point communication, there could be
Parties parties get involved, one as the Sender and the other multiple parties, however the role of parties could either
involved as the Receiver. be sender or receiver and some parties may behave like
both.
Point-to-point communication involves only two Due to the involvement of multiple parties, the chances
parties and the chances for information modulation is for information modulation is more and hence Multi-
Reliability very less, hence this type of communication is more point communication is comparatively less reliable as
reliable as compared to Multi-point communication. compared to Point-to-Point communication.

Point-to-point communication is more error prone as Multi-point communication is less error prone as
Error Prone compared to Multi-point communication. compared to Point-to-point communication.

Point-to-point communication is more secure and Multi-point communication is less secure and private as
Security and private as compared to Multi-point communication. compared to Point-to-Point communication.
Privacy

Examples TV and Remote control Wireless keyboard mouse combo pack

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Transmission Modes in Computer Networks
• Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is
also known as a communication mode. Buses and networks are designed
to allow communication to occur between individual devices that are
interconnected. There are three types of transmission mode:

Simplex Mode

• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-

way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the
other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity
of the channel to send data in one direction.
• Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only
introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.

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 Simplex Mode
Advantages:
• Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
• It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication
channel.
• There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which simplifies the communication process.

Disadvantages:
• Only one-way communication is possible.
• There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received
correctly.
• Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional
communication.

Half-Duplex Mode
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication
in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction.
• Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are
sent in both directions.

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 Half-Duplex Mode
Advantages:
• Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in
situations where devices need to send and receive data.
• It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel
can be used for both transmission and reception.
• Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires one
communication channel.

Disadvantages:
• Half-duplex mode is less reliable than simplex mode, as both devices cannot
transmit at the same time.
• There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems
in some applications.
• There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices,
which can complicate the communication process.

Full-Duplex Mode
• In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously. In full duplex mode, signals going
in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals
going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two
ways:
• Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving.
• Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in
both directions.
• Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time. The capacity of the
channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions.
• Example: Telephone Network in which there is
communication between two persons by a telephone line,
through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

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 Full-Duplex Mode
Advantages:
• Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is
ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.
• It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and
receive data simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no
need for error correction mechanisms.

Disadvantages:
• Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication
channels.
• It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two
physically separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
• Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high
level of bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of communication.

Topology
• Topology describes the actual layout of network transmission media.
• Physical topology: it refers to the configuration of cables, computers and other
peripherals.
• Logical topology: it is the method used to pass information between workstations.
• Some general types of network topologies are:

BUS topology
STAR topology
RING topology
MESH topology
TREE topology

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BUS topology :
• It is also known as linear bus topology.
• It is a king of multi point structure.
• In bus topology all device share single communication line or cable. All devices
are connected to this shared cable (backbone cable).

• Data is sent to all the computers in the network.

• Only one computer at a time can send the data (or information).

• Bus topology is a passive topology in which the computers on the network are not
responsible for moving the data.

Advantages of BUS topology

• It is simple.
• Reliable in very small network.
• Easy to install and easy to use.
• It requires less amount of cables.
• It is easy to extend the bus.

Disadvantages of BUS topology

• It can not work efficiently in heavy network traffic.
• Troubleshooting is difficult.
• If main cable broken, entire network shuts down.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

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STAR topology:
• In it, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub shown in figure. The devices are not directly linked to one
another.
• A star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller, which then transfer the data to the other connected
device.
• If the central controller fails, the whole network got crashed.

STAR topology

If the central controller fails, the whole network got crashed

Advantages of STAR topology

• Easy to configure and connect new devices in star topology.
• The failure of a single device or cable doesn’t bring down the entire network.
• Easy to detect faults.
• It is easy to find faults in the network.

Disadvantages of STAR topology

• As every computer connected to the central hub, this topology requires more cables.
• Failure of the central device (hub) causes the failure of the whole network.
• It is expensive than bus topology.

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RING topology :
• In ring topology, computers are connected on single circle cable shown in figure.
• In it, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it.
• There are no terminal ends.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches
its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates
the bits and passes them along the network.

RING topology

• This type of network uses Token passing method to transfer data.

• It uses method of Token passing

Advantages of RING topology

• Easy to configure.
• Working well in heavy load.
• Network allows equal access to all the computers.

Disadvantages of RING topology

• Failure of one device can crash the whole network.
• Difficult to troubleshoot.
• If more devices are connected then network becomes slower.

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DAISY CHAIN topology :
• This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion.
• Similar to Ring topology, all hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts.
• Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are connected then it represents Ring topology.
• Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link failure splits the
network into two segments.
• Every intermediate host works as relay for its immediate hosts.

MESH topology :
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
• Every node in the network has point to point connection with ever other node.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects.
• Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
• Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

MESH topology

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 Advantages of MESH topology
• Less traffic problems due to dedicated lines.
• Provide security of data through dedicated lines.
• It is robust as if one link becomes unusable, it does not crash the entire system.

Disadvantages of MESH topology

• More numbers of cables and other peripherals are required.
• Installation and configuration is very difficult.
• It is very expensive.
• It is usually implemented in limited situations.

TREE topology :
• Tree topology is also known as Hierarchical Topology. It a variation of star topology
(multiple star topology). It is also a combination of bus and star topology (Hybrid
Topology).
• It involves a variety of single nodes connected to a central node.
• This type of topology mainly used in WAN.
• The good example of tree topology is  Cable TV.

TREE topology

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Advantages of TREE topology
• It is easy to add more number of nodes in the network.
• It is easy to manage the network.
• Error detection is easy.

Disadvantages of TREE topology

• More numbers of cables are required.
• It is much costly.
• Difficult to install and configure.
• Central hub fails, then whole network fails.

HYBRID topology :
• A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the
incorporating topologies.
• The combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-
chain topologies.
• Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks
connected to them are mostly Star topology networks. Internet is the best example
of largest Hybrid topology
• The BELOW picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology.

HYBRID topology

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Advantages of HYBRID topology
• If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of
the network.
• Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.
• This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
• Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength of
the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of HYBRID topology
• The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is
very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
• he Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different
from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
network devices, etc.

Standard Organizations
Data communication standards are of two
categories:
De Facto (By Fact or By Convention):
Standards that have not been approved by
an organized body but have been adopted
as standards are de facto standards.
De Jure (By Law or By Regulations):
Those standards that have been approved
by an officially recognized body.
are de jure standards.

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ISO : International StandardsOrganizations

• ISO is the world’s largest developer and publisher of international standards.

• Founded in 1946 is an international organization composed of national standard
bodies from over 157 countries, one member per country based in Geneva,
Switzerland that co-ordinates the system.
• ISO is a non-governmental organization that forms a bridge between the public
and the private sector.
• For example, ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is a member of ISO.
• ISO has developed over 17000 international standards on a variety of subjects and
1100 new ISO standards are published every year.

CClTT: ConsultativeCommitteeforInternational Telegraphy andTelephony

• This committee was devoted to the research and establishment of standards
for telecommunications.
• In March 1, 1993 the name of this committee was changed to ITU-T
(International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunications StandardsSector).
• CCITT has defined many important standards for data communication.

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ANSI-American National Standards Institute

•ANSI is a private non-profitorganization that oversees the development of

voluntary agreement standards for products, services, processes, systems and
personnel in the United States.

•The organization also co-ordinates US standards with international

standards so that American products can be used worldwide.

•The organization’s headquarters are in Washington D.C.

•ANSI‘s operational office is located in the New York City.

•ANSI was formed in 1998 by five engineering societies and three government
agencies.

IEEE—Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

•IEEE is an international non-profit, professional organization for the

advancement of technology related to electricity.

•It has the most members of any technical professional organization in the
world, with more than 365000 members in around 150 countries.

•IEEE is incorporated in the state of New York, United States.

•It was formed in1963 by the merger of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE,
founded 1992) and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE,
founded 1884).

•IEEE manages the development and adoption of International

Standards for Computing and Communications.

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ITU —International Telecommunications Union

• ITU isthe oldest international organization, establish to standardize and regulate

international radio and telecommunication.
• ITU was founded in 1865 and became a United Nation agency in 1947.
• Its main tasks include standardization, allocation of the radio spectrum and
organizing interconnection arrangements between different countries to allow
international phone calls in which regard it performs for telecommunications.
• ITU is made up of three sectors.
1. ITU-T deals with telecommunications.
2. ITU-R deals with radio communications.
3. ITU-D deals with development sectors

ISOC - Internet Society

• ISOC is an international, non-profit organization founded during 1992 to provide direction in Internet
related standards, education and policy.

• It states that its mission is “to assure the open development, evolution and use of the internet for the
benefit of all people throughout the world”.

• Internet Society has offices near Washington D.C., USA and in Geneva, Switzerland.

• It has a membership base comprising more than 80 organizational and more than 28,000 individual
Members APPROX.

• The society will be a non-profit organization and will be operated for international educational,
charitable and scientific purposes among which are:
• To facilitate and support the technical evolution of the Internet as a research and education infrastructure and to stimulate
involvement of the academic, scientific and engineering communities in the evolution of the internet.
• To educate the academic and scientific communities and the public concerning the technology, use and application of internet.
• To promote scientific and educational applications of internet technology for the benefit of educational institutions at all grade
levels, industry and the public at large.
• To provide a forum for exploration of new internet applications and to foster collaboration among organizations in their
operation and use of the internet.

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IETF — Internet Engineering Task Force

• IETF develops and promotes internet standards, operating closely with the W3C (World Wide Web
Consortium) and ISO/IEC (International Electro Technical Commission) standard bodies and dealing in
particular with standards of the TCP/IP and internet protocol suite.

• It is an open standards organization, with no formal membership or membership requirement.

• All participants and managers are volunteers.

• The IETF is organized into large number of working groups and informal discussion groups, each dealing
with a specific topic.

• The working groups are organized into areas by subject matter.

• Current areas include Applications, General, Internet, Operations and Management, Real-time
applications and Infrastructure, Routing, Security and Transport.

EIA - Electronic Industries Association

• EIA is a trade organization for electronics manufacturer in the United States.

• EIA is a non-profit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns.

Protocols
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
• Key Elements of Protocol
• Syntax
• Semantics
• Timing
• Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the
sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message
itself.
• Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern
to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does an
address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
• Timing : The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps,
the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.

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Levels of a Protocol
• There are mainly three levels of a protocol, they are as follows:

• Hardware Level: In this level, the protocol enables the hardware devices to
connect and communicate with each other for various purposes.

• Software Level: In the software level, the protocol enables different

software to connect and communicate with each other to work
collaboratively.

• Application Level: In this level, the protocol enables the application

programs to connect and communicate with each other for various
purposes.

Types of a Protocol
• There are mainly two types of a protocol, they are as follows:
• Standard Protocols
• Proprietary Protocols

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Standard Protocols
• A standard protocol is a mandated protocol for all devices. It supports
multiple devices and acts as a standard.
• Standard protocols are not vendor-specific i.e. they are not specific to a
particular company or organization. They are developed by a group of
experts from different organizations .
• These protocols are publicly available, and we need not pay for them.
• Some of the examples of Standard Protocols are FTP, DNS, DHCP, SMTP,
TELNET, etc.

Proprietary Protocols
• Proprietary protocols are developed by an individual organization for
their specific devices. We have to take permission from the organization if
we want to use their protocols.
• It is not a standard protocol and it supports only specific devices. We may
have to pay for these protocols.
• Some of the examples of Proprietary Protocols are IMessage, Apple Talk,
etc.

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Functions of protocols
• Data Sequencing
• Data Flow
• Data Routing
• Encapsulation
• Segmentation & Reassembly
• Connection Control
• Multiplexing
• Ordered Delivery
• Transmission Services
• Addressing.
• Flow Control
• Error Control

Different types of Servers

• Server  Refer to the computer systems that receive requests from the clients and
process them. After the processing is complete, the servers send a reply to the
clients who sent the request. OR Server is a computer or device on a network that
manages network resources. OR Server is a computer that provides facility of data,
software and hardware resources on the network.
• Servers are of two types  Dedicated server and non dedicated server.
Dedicated server
• It is defined as the computer with operating system and that cant be used by a
user.
• Dedicated servers do nothing, but fulfils the requests of clients.
• They are commonly found in client server environments.
• It is not available for running user applications.
• The cost of dedicated server is high.
• This type of server generally used in large network system.

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 Advantages of dedicated server
• Its response time is very fast.
• It can't be used as node.
• It is more reliable, more efficient and more secure.
Disadvantages of dedicated server
• All data is stored on a single server, if the server fails all data becomes unavailable.
• Installation and configuration is difficult.
Non-Dedicated server
• Non-dedicated servers do double duty by requesting and providing services.
• It is the microcomputer, which is made as a server and can act as an individual
workstation even while it controls the network.
• Its response time is slow.

Different types of servers are 

Different Servers
File server
Print Server
Mail server
Proxy server
Web server
Database server
Application server

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File server
• File server is a computer responsible for the central storage and management of
data files so that other computers on the same network can access the files..
• It allows users to share information over a network without having to physically
transfer files by floppy diskette or some other external storage device.
• Any user on the network can store files on the network.

File server

• In file server FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is installed. FTP is making possible to
move one or more files securely between computers.
• File server is generally not performing any computational tasks, and does not run
programs on behalf of its clients.
• It is designed primarily to enable the storage and retrieval of data while the
computation is carried out by the workstations.

Print server (Printer server)

Print server

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 • A print server, or printer server, is a device that connects printers to client
computers over a network.
• A print server is a computer that manages one or more printers.
• It can accept print jobs from the computers and send the jobs to the appropriate
printers.
• Print servers allow printers to be shared by other users on the network.
• There is no restriction regarding the number of client systems in a network while
using print server.
• It is easy to add new clients as well as new printers in a network.
• Main disadvantage is  most of features of multi functions printers are not
supported.

Mail server
• Mail Server is usually a storage area where E-mail is stored for local users.
• Mail server moves and stores mails over corporate network and across the
internet
• Specially designed software are installed in server to manage exchange of mails.

Mail server

SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

PCP - Port Control Protocol

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Proxy server
• A proxy server is a server which services the requests of its clients by forwarding
requests to other servers. It may be a computer system or an application program.
• It sits between a client application (like web browser) and a real server.
• A client connects to the proxy server, requesting some service such as file
connection, web page or other resource available from a different server.
• A proxy server provides the resource by connecting to the specified server and
requesting the service on behalf of the client.
• It may alter the client’s request or server response and sometime it may serve the
requests without contacting the real server using ‘cache’.
• A proxy server that passes all requests and replies unmodified is usually called a
gateway or tunnelling proxy.

• A proxy server can be placed in the user's local computer or at specific key
points between the user and the destination servers or the internet.

Proxy server

Proxy server example

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Web server
• It is also known as ‘internet server’.
• It is a server that store, process and deliver web pages to clients.
• The communication between client and server takes place using the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
• Pages delivered to clients are most frequently HTML documents, which may
include images, multimedia, scripts with text content.

Web server

Database server
• A database server is a computer program that provides database services to other
computer programs or to computers, as defined by the client–server model.
• It should be hardware or software program.
• It may be the back-end portion of a database application (software) or physical
computer used to host the database (hardware).
• Many companies utilize a database server for storage. Users can access the data by
executing a query using a query language (SQL) specific to the database.

Database server

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Application server
• The application server is a framework, an environment where applications can run,
no matter what they are or what functions they perform.
• It is also called an ‘app server’.
• It can be used to develop and run web-based applications.
• It is typically used in complex transaction based applications and in tree-tier GUI
applications.
• It allows data and code integrity.
• It also provides security to the applications.

Application server

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