C. U.

Shah (Government) Polytechnic, Surendranagar

Department of Computer Engineering

UNIT – 2
Subject Code: 4340703
The Reference Model for network
Subject Name: Computer Networking
communication

Prepared By:
Mr. Shaktisinh S. Parmar (Lecturer)
Department of Computer Engineering, C.U.S.P., Surendranagar

COURSE OUTCOME(S) (COs) ASSOCIATED

WITH THIS UNIT
Students are able to:
• Differentiate OSI and TCP/IP models.

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 LEARNING OUTCOME(S) (LOs) OF THIS UNIT
Students are able to:
• List all layers of OSI and TCP/IP.
• Describe functions of each layer.
• Compare OSI and TCP/IP Model.

TOPICS WILL BE COVERED IN THIS UNIT:

• OSI model & function(s) of each Layer
• TCP/ IP model& function of each Layer
• Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP Models

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 OSI Model
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in another computer.
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular function(s).
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
• The basic idea behind layered architecture is to divide the design into smaller
pieces. Most networks are organized in a series of layers to reduce the design
complexity.

Characteristics of OSI Model

• The layered architecture reduces the complexity by dividing the task
in a manageable way.
• The layered architecture provides abstraction from other layers.
• Due to the abstraction, any layer can be changed independently.
• Each layer can be changed, tested, and analyzed independently.
• The change in one layer does not affect the other layers.
• Each layer of the OSI model should form a well-defined structure.
• Each layer should be defined by keeping in mind the ISO standard
protocols.
• The layer's boundary should be chosen to minimize the
information flow across the various interfaces of the layers.

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Seven Layers of OSI Model UPPER LAYERS: Software, Host
LOWER LAYERS: Hardware, Network
• The OSI model is divided into two layers: Upper
layers and Lower layers.
• The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals
with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application
layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user
and the application layer interact with the
software applications. An upper layer refers to the
layer just above another layer.
• The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the
data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of
the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible
for placing the information on the physical
medium.

Seven Layers of OSI model

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 Seven Layers of OSI model

OSI reference model

Application Layer
• It is the final and highest layer of the OSI model
• This layer allows access for network resources to users.
• It provides user interface and supports services like E-mail, remote file access,
database management and other distributed information services.
• This layer taking care of availability of resources.
• The data unit at this layer is  ‘data’.

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 Functions of Application layer
o Network Virtual Terminal: allows a user to log on to a remote host.
o Mail services: provides services like email storage and forwarding.
o Directory services: access of global information and distributed database.
• Hardware used at this layer are: gateway, application switch, proxy server,
content filtering firewall, etc.
• Protocols and standards of this layer are: HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP, POP3, SNMP,
DHCP etc.

HTTP = HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL

FTP = FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL
DNS = DOMAIN NAME SERVICE
SMTP = STANDARD MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL
POP3 = POST OFFICE PROTOCOL version 3
SNMP = SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL
DHCP = DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL

Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax (format of data) and semantics
(meaning of each section of bits) of the information exchanged between two
systems.
• This layer structures the data passed down from the application layer into a format
suitable for network layer.
• The data unit at this layer is  ‘data’.

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 Eva system jema 2 devices communicate kari shake

Functions of Presentation layer

o Translation: this layer maintains interoperability between two encoding
systems.
o Encryption and decryption: for security purpose, this layer transforms sender
information into non readable form while sending data. Also doing decryption
(reverse process of encryption).
o Data compression: reducing number of bits required to represent data.
• Hardware used at this layer are: gateway, application switch, proxy server, content
filtering firewall, etc.
• Protocols and standards of this layer are: SSL (Secure Socket Layer), MIME
(Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension), TLS (Transport Layer Security) etc.
SSL = SECURE SOCKET LAYER
MIMe = MULTIPURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSION
TLS = TRANSPORT LAYER SECURITY

Session Layer
• It is responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating the connection
between two communicating devices.
• It also provides dialog control between devices.
• It offers different communication modes like: simplex, half duplex and full duplex.
• The data unit at this layer is  ‘data’.

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 process of establishing and managing communication between two systems

Functions of Session layer

o Dialog control: the session layer manages dialog control while communication
take place.
o Synchronization: this layer adds synchronization points (check points) into
streams of data.
• Hardware used at this layer are: gateway, proxy server, content filtering firewall,
etc.
• Protocols and standards of this layer are: SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) and
RTP (Real time Transport Protocol).
SIP = SESSION INITIATION PROTOCOL
RTP = REALTIME TRANSPORT PROTOCOL

Transport Layer
• It is responsible for source to destination delivery of a entire message, while
network layer is responsible for source to destination delivery of individual
packets.
• Network layer doesn’t recognize any relationship between packets, while in case of
transport layer, it ensures that whole message arrives in order and it also checks
error control and flow control.
• The data unit at this layer is  ‘segment’.

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 Functions of Transport layer
o Segmentation and reassembly: a message divided into segments, each segment
contains a sequence number which enables transport layer to reassemble at
destination.
o Synchronization of data: this layer ensures that data must be received in the
sequence in which it was sent.
o This layer provides error correction of data and ensures error free
transmission.
o Flow control: this layer performs end-to-end flow control while data link layer
do it across the link.
o Connection control: this layer performs connection less or connection oriented
with the destination machine.
• Hardware used at this layer are: gateway, proxy server, content filtering firewall,
etc.
• Protocols and standards of this layer are: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
TCP = TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL
UDP = USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL

• The services provided by the transport layer :

• Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
• Connection Establishment
• Data Transfer
• Termination / disconnection
• In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back
to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.

• Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In

this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet.
This approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection-
oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
• Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
• Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls. Transport Layer
is called as Heart of OSI model.

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 Connection oriented v/s Connection less services

Connection oriented services Connection less services

- In connection oriented service we have to - No need to establish a connection in prior.
establish a connection before starting the
communication.
- it is more reliable - It is less reliable
- Authentication is needed in it. - Authentication is not needed.
- After sending, this service checks the message is - It is not guarantee of a delivery of message.
received or not.
- It is stream based. - It is message based
- It is faster. - It is slower.
- It is implemented using circuit switching. - It is implemented using packet switching.
- Error correction and flow control provided in it. - Error correction and flow control not provided.
- Example is telephone system. - Example is postal system.
- Protocol: TCP (transmission control protocol) - Protocol: Example: UDP (User Datagram
Protocol)

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 Basis Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. Connection orientation UDP is the Datagram-oriented protocol. This is because there is
means that the communicating devices should establish a no overhead for opening a connection, maintaining a connection,
Type of Service
connection before transmitting data and should close the or terminating a connection. UDP is efficient for broadcast and
connection after transmitting the data. multicast types of network transmission.
TCP is reliable as it guarantees the delivery of data to the The delivery of data to the destination cannot be guaranteed in
Reliability
destination router. UDP.
Error checking TCP provides extensive error-checking mechanisms. It is UDP has only the basic error-checking mechanism
mechanism because it provides flow control and acknowledgment of data. using checksums.
Acknowledgment An acknowledgment segment is present. No acknowledgment segment.
Sequencing of data is a feature of Transmission Control Protocol There is no sequencing of data in UDP. If the order is required, it
Sequence
(TCP). this means that packets arrive in order at the receiver. has to be managed by the application layer.
Speed TCP is comparatively slower than UDP. UDP is faster, simpler, and more efficient than TCP.
There is no retransmission of lost packets in the User Datagram
Retransmission Retransmission of lost packets is possible in TCP, but not in UDP.
Protocol (UDP).
Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.
Handshaking
Uses handshakes such as SYN, ACK, SYN-ACK It’s a connectionless protocol i.e. No handshake
Techniques
Broadcasting TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.
Protocols TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs , FTP , SMTP and Telnet . UDP is used by DNS , DHCP , TFTP, SNMP , RIP , and VoIP .
Stream Type The TCP connection is a byte stream. UDP connection is a message stream.
Overhead Low but higher than UDP. Very low.
This protocol is primarily utilized in situations when a safe and This protocol is used in situations where quick communication is
Applications trustworthy communication procedure is necessary, such as in necessary but where dependability is not a concern, such as VoIP,
email, on the web surfing, and in military services. game streaming, video, and music streaming, etc.

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Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet
across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of
the packet between two systems on the same network (links).
• It is responsible for the deliver of packets from

Functions of Network layer

o Logical addressing: this layer adds a header into the packet includes logical
address of sender and receiver.
o Routing: this layer route the packets to its final destination in internetwork.
o It provides quality of service management.
o It provides security, load balancing and link management.
o It provides connection oriented and connection less services to its upper layer
(transport).
• Hardware used at this layer are: router, layer3 switch, firewall, proxy server,
gateway etc.
• Protocols and standards of this layer are: ICMP, ARP, RARP, IPSec, IPv4/IPv6.
ICMP = INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL
ARP = ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (IP Address to MAC Address)
RARP = REVERSE ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL
IPSec = INTERNET PROTOCOL SECURITY
IPv4 = INTERNET PROTOCOL version 4
IPv6 = INTERNET PROTOCOL version 6

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Data Link Layer
• It is the second layer of the OSI model in which raw bits are grouped into frames.
• It makes the physical layer appear error free to upper layer (network).
• It uses CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) to detect errors.
• Data unit at this layer is  ‘frame’.

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Functions of Data Link layer
o Framing: converts packets received from network layers into frames and also
converts bits from physical layer into frames.
o Flow control: it provides data flow control when sender and receiver have
different data rates.
o Physical addressing: when frames are sent to different LANs, this layer adds
sender and receiver address into header.
o Error control: it provides facility of error control to retransmit the damaged and
lost frames.
o Access control: provide access control when multiple devices are connected to
same link
Data link layer has two sub layers
o Logical Link Control (LLC)  it deals with protocols, flow control and error
control.
o Media Access Control (MAC)  it deals with the control of medium.
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• Hardware used at this layers are: switch, gateway, firewall, proxy servers etc.

• Protocols and standards of this layer are:

o PPP (Point to point protocol)
o PPTP (Point to point tunneling protocol)
o L2TP (Layer2 Tunneling Protocol)
o SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) etc.
PPP = POINT TO POINT PROTOCOL
PPTP = POINT TO POINT TUNNELING PROTOCOL
L2TP = LAYER2 TUNNELING PROTOCOL
SLIP = SERIAL LINE INTERNET PROTOCOL

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Physical Layer
• It is the lowest layer or first layer of the OSI model.
• It is concerned with the transmission of raw bits over a communication channel.
• It accept incoming stream of data and passes to the upper layer and also accept
frames from upper layer (data link) and converts into bits.
• Data unit at this layer is  ‘bit’.

Functions of Physical layer

o It carries signals to higher layers
o It defines the physical topology of a network.
o It defines the direction of transmission between two devises: simplex, half duplex
and full duplex.
o It encodes the bit streams into electric signals.
• Hardware used at this layer are: hub, NIC, modem etc.
• Protocols and standards of this layer are:
o IEEE 802.5 (token ring)
o IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet)
o IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi)

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Advantages of the OSI model
• Using the OSI model, various other layered models are developed (for
example - TCP/IP).
• Using the OSI model, we can see the big picture of the communication of
data over the network.
• Each layer of the OSI model handles a specific job; hence can be handled
and tested separately.
• The OSI model depicts how hardware and software work together.
• The OSI model can be used to compare the basic functional relationship
on a different network.
• The OSI model provides abstraction so we can change any layer without
thinking about other layers; hence, it can be easily used to incorporate
new technologies.

Disadvantages of the OSI model

• There are some duplicate services provided by the various layers,
for example - flow control, error control, etc.
• The OSI model is quite complex, slow, and costly to implement and
use.
• The OSI model is theoretical, so it is not perfectly adequate for
practical data transmission and communication.

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 TCP/IP Model (Internet Model)
• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
• TCP/IP model was developed before to the OSI model.
• Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the
OSI model.
• This model consist of set of protocols that allow communication across multiple
different networks.
• There are mainly four layers in this model  Host-to-network layer (Link layer),
Internet layer , Transport layer and Application layer.
• The first two layers (physical and data link) of OSI model are represented as host-to-
network (link) layer in TCP/IP model and last three layers (session, presentation,
application) of OSI model are represented as application layer in TCP/IP model.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

• Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same
data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data.
• TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go
into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the
same way at the receiver’s end.
• The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is
sent by the sender.
• To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP
model divides its data into packets and combines them at the other end,
which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring
from one end to another end.
• The TCP/IP model is used in the context of the real-world internet, where a
wide range of physical media and network technologies are in use. Rather than
specifying a particular Physical Layer, the TCP/IP model allows for flexibility in
adapting to different physical implementations.

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 TCP / IP model

Following are the functions of each layer

Link layer (host-to-network) layer

• It is also called ‘network interface layer’.
• This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual data.
• This layer is independent of network architecture and hardware.
• It controls hardware and media communication in the network.
• The link layer describes what must be supported by your physical link to meet the
requirement of a connectionless internet layer.
• In other words, it is an interface between a host and a transmission link.

Network layer (IP layer/Internet Layer)

• This layer defines the host addressing and routing.
• It finds best path across networks.
• IP (internet protocol) works on this layer. Including IP, this layer functioning with four
supportive protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP and IGMP.
• Packets in the IP layer called ‘datagram’.

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 The internet layer describes the packet format and protocol. This is Internet Protocol (IP).
Internet layer describes protocols for routing of data packets, which are maintained in routers.
The objective of the internet layer is to transmit the packets to whatever destination it
supposed to go.
The function of network layer is explained by following protocols
IP (Internetwork protocol)
• It is connection less and unreliable protocol.
• It doesn’t provide error checking and packet tracing.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when the logical address (IP address) is
known.
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
• It is used to find the logical address of the node when its physical address is known.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
• It is network diagnostic and error reporting protocol.
IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol)
• It is used provide facility for multicast transmission.

Transport layer
• It supports communication of multiple devices across different networks.
• It also defines how data should flow between different hosts.
• This layer ensures data delivery between hosts is in order or not and also it is responsible for end-to-
end delivery.
• Major protocols of this layer are: TCP and UDP. Both these protocols are used for port-to-port
communication.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

• It provides full transport layer services to application.
• It is connection oriented and reliable protocol.
• Means a connection must be established between both ends before transmission.
• TCP is a protocol that implements reliable packet transmission that delivers a byte stream from the
source machine to the destination machine anywhere on the Internet without an error.
• The packet produced by TCP is called ‘segment’.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

• It is simple, connection less and unreliable protocol.
• The packet produced by UDP is called ‘datagram’.
• Applications where prompt delivery is important, like speed for video transmission, use UDP.
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Application Layer
• It is the final and highest layer in TCP/IP model which is equal to the combined session,
presentation and application layer of OSI model.
• The functions of this model are explained by the following protocols.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• It is used to transfer electronic mail (E-mail) from one user to another.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
• Is provides a standard for web users and servers to communicate.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• FTP is the most widely used protocol for file transfer over the network.
• It is reliable and simple.
• It uses TCP/IP for communication and it works on TCP port 21.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• It provides a set of operations for monitoring and maintaining devices in the internet.
TELNET (Terminal Network)
• It is a general purpose protocol used for remote login.
DNS (Domain Name Server)
• It resolves an IP address into textual address for hosts connected over a network.
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Advantages of the TCP/IP model

• It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different
types of computers.
• It operates independently of the operating system.
• It supports many routing-protocols.
• It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
• TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
• It can be operated independently.
• Supports a number of routing protocols.
• It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

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Disadvantages of the TCP/IP model
• TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.
• The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork
Packet Exchange).
• In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of
packets.
• Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
• It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and
protocols.

Feature TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) IP (Internet Protocol)

Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked Provides addressing and routing of packets
Purpose
delivery of data between applications. across networks.

Type Connection-oriented Connectionless

Manages data transmission between devices, Routes packets of data from the source to the
Function
ensuring data integrity and order. destination based on IP addresses.

Yes, includes error checking and recovery No, IP itself does not handle errors; relies on
Error Handling
mechanisms. upper-layer protocols like TCP.

Flow Control Yes, includes flow control mechanisms. No

Congestion Control Yes, manages network congestion. No

Breaks data into smaller packets and Breaks data into packets but does not handle
Data Segmentation
reassembles them at the destination. reassembly.

Does not guarantee delivery, reliability, or

Reliability Provides reliable data transfer
order.
Transmission
Yes, acknowledges receipt of data packets. No
Acknowledgment

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 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP models
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
- Full form: Open System Interconnection Model. - Full form: Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol Model.
- It has seven layers. - It has four layers.
- OSI model developed after TCP/IP model. - It is developed before OSI model.
- In this model, transport layer guarantees the delivery of - In this model, transport layer does not
packets. guarantees delivery of packets.
- It follows vertical approach. - It follows horizontal approach.
- OSI model has separate presentation layer and session - TCP/IP model does not have separate
layer. presentation and session layer.
- Network layer in this model provides both connection - Network layer in this model provides only
less and connection oriented service. connection less service.
- In it, services, interface and protocols are clearly - In it, services, interface and protocols are not
separated. clearly separated.
- It is just a reference model through which various - It is the implementation of OSI model.
networks are built. For example, the TCP/IP model is built
from the OSI model. It is also referred to as a guidance tool.

Data Encapsulation: Data Encapsulation is the process in which some extra information is
added to the data item to add some features to it.
Data De-encapsulation: Data De-encapsulation is the reverse process of data encapsulation.
The encapsulated information is removed from the received data to obtain the original data.

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