C. U.

Shah (Government) Polytechnic, Surendranagar

Department of Computer Engineering

UNIT – 3
Subject Code: 4340703
Transmission Media & Network
Subject Name: Computer Networking
devices

Prepared By:
Mr. Shaktisinh S. Parmar (Lecturer)
Department of Computer Engineering, C.U.S.P., Surendranagar

COURSE OUTCOME(S) (COs) ASSOCIATED

WITH THIS UNIT
Students are able to:
• Select proper transmission media and devices
based on network requirements.

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 LEARNING OUTCOME(S) (LOs) OF THIS UNIT
Students are able to:
• List guided and unguided transmission media.
• Select appropriate transmission media for a given
network.
• Explain use of various Network devices.
• Differentiate Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switches.

TOPICS WILL BE COVERED IN THIS UNIT:

• Types of Transmission Media
• Guided Media: Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable, Fiber
• Un Guided Media: Electromagnetic spectrum, Radio
Transmission, Microwave Transmission, Infrared
Transmission, Satellite Communication
• Network Devices: Repeaters, Hubs, Switches, Routers,
Access Points, Gateways. Bridges
• Difference between Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switches.

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 Types of Transmission Media
• Transmission media is the way through which the data, information or
messages can flow between the nodes/workstations/computers. OR
• A transmission media can be defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination. It should be air, water, cable etc.
• Transmission media can be classified in to two broad categories:
• Guided media
• Unguided media

wireless
wired

Guided Media (Physical media)

• Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along a
specific path.
• It provides a channel from one device to another
• It is also known as ‘bounded media’ or ‘wired communication’.
• Examples of guided media are: twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable.
❖Twisted pair cable
• Twisted pair cable comes into two forms → unshielded and shielded twisted pair.
• Both of these types uses
metallic (copper) conductor
that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current.

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❑Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP)
• It is most common type of medium used now a days.
• It is mostly used in telephone system or small networking.
• It’s frequency range is suitable for both data and voice.
• Frequency range is 100mhz to 5mhz.

Advantages of UTP
o Low cost
o Easy to use
o Cheap and flexible
o Easy to install
o Used in many LAN technology like Ethernet and token ring
Disadvantages of UTP
o It can be affected by EMI (electromagnetic interference) which can
create noise and damage the signal.
• Electronics Industries Association (EIA) has categorized UTP by quality are:
• Category 1
• Used in telephone system
• Low speed data communication
• Category 2
• Suitable for voice and data up to 4 mbps

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• Category 3
• It can be used for data transmission up to 10mbps.
• It is now used in standard telephone system.
• Category 4
• It can be used for data transmission up to 16mbps.
• Category 5
• It can be used for data transmission up to 100mbps.
• Category 6
• It can be used for data transmission up to 1gbps.
UTP Connectors
• UTP is most commonly connected to network devices via a type of snap in plug
like that used with telephone jacks.
• Connectors are either male (the plug) or female (the receptive).
• Each wire in a cable is attached to one conductor (or pin) in the connector.
• The most frequently use of these plugs is an RJ45 (Registered Jack), connector
with 8 conductor or RJ11 connector with 4 conductor (see figure).

RJ11 connector with 4 conductor, RJ45 connector with 8 conductor,

used in telephone system used in networking

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 MALE RJ 45 CONNECTOR FEMALE RJ 45 CONNECTOR

❑Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)

• STP cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors, which are a higher quality and more protective jacket than
UTP has.
• This gives STP excellent insulation to protect the transmitted data from outside
interference.
• It is less susceptible to electrical interference and supports higher transmission
rates over longer distance than UTP.
• It has also a drawback that it is more expensive than UTP.
 STP connector
• STP uses the same connectors as UTP but the shield must be connected to ground.

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• Advantages of the STP cable
• It has lower noise and attenuation than UTP.
• It is shielded with a plastic cover that protects the STP cable from
a harsh environment and increases the data transmission rate.
• It reduces the chances of crosstalk and protects from external
interference.
• A modular connection helps to terminate the connection of the
STP cable.

• Disadvantages of the STP cable

• It is the most expensive wire from UTP cables.
• It requires more maintenance to reduce the loss of data signals.
• There is no segment improvement in length despite its thick and
heavier connection.
• It is used only as a grounded wire.

UTP STP
It is an unshielded twisted pair. It is a shielded twisted pair.
UTP cable is a twisted pair cable with wires that are It is enclosed within a foil or mesh shield.
twisted together.
The price of UTP is lower as compared to the STP. The price of STP is much costlier than UTP.
UTP has high crosstalk. STP has low crosstalk.
Transferring speed of the data signal is slow as Transferring speed of the data signal is high as
compared to the STP. compared to the UTP.
Installation of UTP cables is easy as they are lighter, Installation of STP cable is quite difficult as
small in size, and flexible. compared to the UTP. Its size is heavy, bigger, and
stiffer.
It does not require much maintenance. It requires more maintenance.
UTP cables are noisier. STP cables are less noisy.
However, the UTP cable is used to establish the Generally, it is used to establish the connection for
connection within a short distance, like a home or enterprises over a long distance.
small industry.

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❑Coaxial cable

• This cable has better shielding than twisted pair, so it can span longer distance
at higher speed.
• As we can see in the figure, it has central core conductor of solid or standard
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is in turn encased
in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid or combination of two.

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• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield
against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit.

Advantages of coaxial cable

o It is most widely used in network cable
o It is relatively inexpensive, light, flexible and easy to
work with.
o Installation is very easy.
o It is good choice for longer distance and for reliably
supporting higher data rates.

Disadvantages of coaxial cable

o Coaxial cables are expensive.
o The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to
prevent any crosstalk.
o As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very
bulky.
o There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and
attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this compromises
the security of the data.

• There are two types of coaxial cable

1. Thinnet
2. Thicknet

 Thinnet coaxial cable

• It is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.25 inches thick.
• Easy to install and work with it.
• it can be used in almost any type of network installation almost in BUS topology.
• can carry a signal up to approximately 185 meters (about 607ft) before the signal starts to
suffer from attenuation.
• It is referred to the RG-58 (radio grade) family and has 50 - ohm impedance.
• Commonly used for digital transmission.

 Thicknet coaxial cable

• Thicknet is relatively rigid coaxial cable about 0.5 inches in diameter.
• Thick net can carry signal for 500 meters [about 1640 ft].
• Because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer distance it is sometimes used
as backbone to connect several smaller thinnet based networks.
• A device called a transceiver connects the thinnet coaxial to the larger thicknet coaxial cable.
• RG-8, RG-9 and RG-11 used for thicknet coaxial cable.

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 Coaxial cable connectors
• There are four types of coaxial cable connectors
1. Barrel connectors
2. BNC (bayonet network connector)
3. T-connectors
4. Terminators
Barrel connectors
• It is the most common connector.
• Generally this connector is used to connect BNC coaxial cable to increase the
length of network.

BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) connectors

• After the Barrel connector, the most popular is the BNC, which pushes on and locks
in to place with a half turn as shown in fig.
• Generally, a cable terminates in a male connector that plugs or screws on to a
corresponding female connector attached to the device.
• Generally used in cable TV and VCR hook-ups.
• These connectors are used to connect RG-58 or RG-62 with the NIC.
• And these are generally used in BUS and STAR topology.

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 Terminators
• Terminators are required for bus topologies where one main cable acts as a
backbone with branches to several devices but does not itself terminate in a
device.
• If the main cable is left non terminated any signal transmitted over the line
echoes. A terminator absorbs the wave at the end eliminates echo-back.
• It is used to prevent the signal disturbance.

 T - connectors
• T-Connectors (used in thin Ethernet) allow a secondary cable or cables to
branch off from a main line.
• It is also used to extend the network or increase the number of node at any
point in the network.

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 ❑Fiber Optic Cable (FOC)

Side view of
End view of
FOC
FOC

• Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid.
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light.

• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light to move through a channel.

• As we can see in figure, a glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less
dense glass or plastic.
• Figure shows a single fiber viewed from the side. At the centre is the glass core
through which the light propagates.
• The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than
the core, to keep all the light in the core.
• Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding. Fibers are typically
grouped in bundles, protected by an outer sheath (that we can see in FOC figure b)
• Generally FOC comes in two types: Single mode and Multi mode. In single mode
fibers → the core is about 8 to 10 microns and in multi mode fibers → the core is
about 50 microns.

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 Advantages of FOC
• Higher bandwidth: It can support dramatically higher
bandwidths.
• Light weight: Fiber-optic cables are much lighters than copper
cables.
• Longer Distance: in it, optical cables are capable of providing low
power loss, which enables signals can be transmitted to a longer
distance than copper cables.
• Faster speed: speed of data transmission is much higher in it.
• Excellent Security: it provides excellent security because they do
not leak light and it is quite difficult to tap .
• Noise Resistance: because fibre optic transmission uses light
rather than electricity, noise is not damaging the signal.
• Better reliability: FOC is immune to temperature changes, severe
weather and moisture and it’s not bothered about electromagnetic
interference (EMI) which can interrupt the data.

Disadvantages of FOC

• Difficult to install: special skills are required to install and

maintain fiber optic cables.
• Higher cost: it is expensive compare to other cables.
• Unidirectional (one direction): propagation of light is
unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication
then two fibers are needed.
• Fragility: it is made up with glass, so is can be easily
broken and it is less useful for application where
portability required.

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Fiber optic connectors

• Fiber optic cables use three different connectors as shown in above figure.
1. The subscriber channel (SC): connector is used for cable TV. It uses a
push/pull locking system.
2. The straight-tip (ST): connector is used for connecting cable to networking
devices.
3. MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered jack): is a new connector with same
size as RJ45

Fiber optic communication

• Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one
place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber.

• There are three main basic elements of fiber optic communication system.
1. Light source: Two components are used as light sources: light emitting diodes (LED’s) and
LASER diodes, in which LEDs are used for short distances and low data rate applications and
LASER is used for longer distances and high data rate transmission.

2. Optical fiber as a medium: For data transmission, ultra thin optical fiber cable is used.

3. Photo detector: The purpose of photo detectors is to convert the light signal back to an
electrical signal. Two types of photo detectors are mainly used for optical receiver in optical
communication system: PN photo diode and avalanche photo diode.

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 Unguided media
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
• In it, signals are normally broadcast through air and thus are available to
anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
• This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
• In some situations where it is impossible to use cables, unguided media
are good alternatives.
• Electromagnetic spectrum for unguided media is shown below

Signal transmission in unguided media

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Signal transmission in unguided media
• Unguided signals can travel from source to destination in several ways: ground
propagation, sky propagation, and line-of sight propagation.

Ground propagation
• In this propagation, radio waves travel through lowest portion of atmosphere,
cuddling the earth.
• These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting
antenna and follow the curvature of planet.
• Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: the greater the power,
the greater the distance.

Sky Propagation
• In this propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are
reflected back to earth.

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• This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower power
output.

Line of sight Propagation

• In this propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
• Antennas must be directional, facing each other and either tall enough
or close enough together not to be affected by curvature of earth.
• Line-of-sight propagation is tricky because radio transmission cannot be
completely focused.

Frequency band for unguided media

Band Range Propagation Application

Long-range radio
VLF (very low frequency) 3 - 30 kHz Ground
navigation
Radio beacons and
LF (low frequency) 30 - 300 kHz Ground
navigational locator

MF (middle frequency) 300 kHz - 3 MHz Sky AM radio

Citizens band (CB),

HF (high frequency) 3 - 30 MHz Sky Ship / aircraft
communication
Sky and
VHF (very high frequency) 30 - 300 MHz VHF TV, FM radio
Line-of-sight

UHFTV, cellular phones,

UHF (ultra high frequency) 300 MHz - 3 GHz Line-of-sight
paging, satellite

SHF (super high frequency) 3 - 30 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication

EHF (extremely high frequency) 30 - 300 GHz Line-of-sight Radar, satellite

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 Classification of unguided media
• Main three categories are there → 1. Radio wave and Micro wave, 2. Infrared waves
and 3. LASER
❖Radio wave transmission

• Radio waves are electromagnetic waves occurring on radio frequency portion

of the electromagnetic spectrum.

• These electromagnetic waves are ranging in frequency between 3KHz and 1GHz.
• A common use is to transport information through the atmosphere or outer space
without wires.
• Radio waves are Omni directional, means they can travel in all direction from the
source. So transmitter and receiver do not have to be aligned physically.
• Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distance and can penetrate
buildings. So they are widely used for communication in both indoors and outdoors.
• Radio waves are of ‘sky propagation’.

Advantages of radio waves

• It can travel long distance (for ex. AM radio).
• Widely used for communication in both indoors and outdoors.
• Radio waves can in travel in omni direction, so no need to aliened antennas
physically.

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 Disadvantages of radio waves
• Because of omni directional antenna, the signal sent by one antenna can be
interfered by another antenna that may be using same frequency or band.
• They can penetrate walls, so we can not isolate whether the communication to
just inside or outside the building.
• Due to the narrow side bands (up to 1GHz), there is low data rate for digital
communication.
Applications of radio waves
• AM and FM radio
• GPS service
• Cordless phone
• Police radio
• Television broadcast.

❖Micro waves transmission

• These electromagnetic waves are ranging in frequency between 1GHz and

300GHz.
• These waves are unidirectional, means when an antenna transmits microwaves,
the sending and receiving antenna need to be aligned. Signals of micro waves are
narrowly focused.
• Micro waves are of ‘line-of-sight’ propagation.

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 • The microwave transmission can be classified into two types:

• Terrestrial Microwave Transmission:

• In terrestrial microwave transmission, the transmitting and receiving
antenna both are fixed on the ground and the signal wave is transmitted
using the line of sight propagation mode. It is mostly used for
telecommunication.

• Satellite Microwave Transmission:

• In satellite microwave transmission the electromagnetic wave is
transmitted by the source transmitting antenna (earth station) which is
received by satellite which amplifies the signal and rebroadcast it to the
receiver antenna (earth station). Satellite microwave transmission is mostly
used for television, long-distance telecommunication, and global
positioning system.

Advantages of micro waves

• There is zero interference of another pair of aligned antennas.
• As band is wider than radio waves, high data rate for digital communications.
• Inexpensive and easy to install.
Disadvantages of micro waves
• These waves are unidirectional, so sending and receiving antennas must be aligned.
• Repeaters are required for longer distance.
• Very high frequency waves can not penetrate the walls, so receivers inside the
buildings can not communicate.
Applications of micro waves
• These waves are used for unicasting (one sender and one receiver).
• Cellular phones
• Satellite networks
• Wireless LANs

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 ❖Infrared waves transmission

• These electromagnetic waves are ranging in frequency between

300GHz and 400GHz.
• These waves are used for short range communication.
• Examples of infrared are → remote controls used on televisions, VCRs,
and stereos remote controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos.
• Infrared waves are of ‘line-of-sight propagation’.

Advantages of infrared waves

• Infrared waves are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build.
• Infrared waves having high frequency, so they are not able to penetrate the walls,
so in a room infrared systems can’t be interfered.
• Infrared waves are useful for short range communication. It is more secure against
taping.
Disadvantages of infrared waves
• These waves are useless for long range communication.
• They do not pass through solid objects.
• Infrared signals can be disrupted by other sources of infrared light, such as
sunlight or other electronic devices.

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Applications of infrared waves
• Used in short range wireless communication devices (e.g. Wireless mouse or
keyboard).
• Used in remote controls of TV, VCRs and stereos based on infrared.
• Used in thermal efficiency analysis, remote temperature sensing, weather forecasting.
• Also used in military applications: target acquisition, surveillance, tracking.

Sr. No. Basis Radio wave Microwave Infrared wave

These are omni-directional in These are unidirectional in
1. Direction These are unidirectional in nature.
nature. nature.

At low frequency, they can At low frequency, they can penetrate

They cannot penetrate
penetrate through solid objects through solid objects and walls. at
2. Penetration through any solid object and
and walls but high frequency they high frequency, they cannot
walls.
bounce off the obstacle. penetrate.

Frequency Frequency range: 300 GHz to

3. Frequency range: 3 KHz to 1GHz. Frequency range: 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
range 400 GHz.

4. Security These offers poor security. These offers medium security. These offers high security.

5. Attenuation Attenuation is low. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is high.

Some frequencies in the radio- Some frequencies in the microwaves There is no need of
Government
6. waves require government license require government license to use government license to use
License
to use these. these. these waves.

7. Usage Cost Setup and usage Cost is moderate. Setup and usage Cost is high. Usage Cost is very less.

These are used in long distance These are used in long distance These are not used in long
8. Communication
communication. communication. distance communication.

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 ❖LASER transmission

• The full form of LASER is → Light Amplification Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

• Laser beams are unidirectional, therefore this type of transmission system use
‘line-of-sight’ propagation. So sender and receiver must be aligned
• It is similar to infrared technology but can transmit signal to long distance.

• Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally,
laser beam is distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in
temperature in the path.
• In such a transmission system, a photo detector and laser is set on both sender and
receiver side.
• The carrier used for the transmission signal is typically generated by laser diode.
Advantages of laser
• Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser
without interrupting the communication channel.
• It offers very high bandwidth at a very low cost.
• It is free from electro-magnetic interference. This phenomenon is used in optical
wireless communication through free space for telecommunication as well as
computer networking
• High speed.
• It has very minimum signal leakage.

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• Higher data storage is possible because single laser beam can be focused in areas
smaller than 1 micro diameter.
Disadvantages of laser
• Maintenance is costly and difficult.
• It is harmful to human beings and often burns them during contacts.
Applications of laser
• Laser communications have been utilized for mass communications including
telephone conversations and even television channels.
• Used in digital data transmission.
• Effectively used for shorter distance communication.

❖Satellite communication

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• The satellite is man made equipment that is placed in orbit around the earth.
They provide communication from one point on the Earth to another.
• Satellite work as transmitter/receiver that is launched by rocket and placed in
orbit.
• Satellites enable communication over large distance (beyond line of sight).
• Used in communication in ships, aircrafts and other mobile vehicles, whether
forecasting, television broadcast, internet communication, radio
communications and global positioning system (GPS).
• There are two types of communication satellites → ACTIVE and PASSIVE.
• Active satellite acts as a repeater, it amplifies the received signals and
retransmits them back to earth.

• Passive satellite only reflects received radio signals back to earth.

• As we have seen in the figure, earth station transmits signals to the
satellite using UP-LINK frequency and the satellite then amplifies the
signals, covert them and transmit back to the receiving earth station
using DOWN-LINK frequency.
Advantages of satellite communication
• Mobile communication can be easily established by satellite
communication.
• It is best communication for long geographical distance where cable
communication is impossible.
• Effective point-to-multipoint communication.
• Signal quality is high compared to fiber optics.
• Low operating cost.

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Disadvantages of satellite communication
• Delay in signal transmission.
• Efficiency reduced in long file transfer.
• Manufacturing of satellites is expensive.

Applications of satellite communication

• TV/radio broadcasting
• Global mobile communication.
• Weather forecast
• Military
• Navigation

❖Baseband V/S Broadband transmission

Data signals can be sent over a network cable in one of two ways: broadband or
baseband.

Baseband
• A baseband transmission is carried over a single wire using digital signalling.
• Baseband communications are bidirectional. Signals can be both sent and received
(but not simultaneously).
• Time Division Multiplexing(TDM) allows multiple signals to be sent via baseband
transmission on a single cable. TDM allocates the multiple signals across time slots.
• Baseband transmissions use the entire media bandwidth for a single channel.
• Baseband signaling is used on most Ethernet networks.
• Most LANs use baseband signaling.

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Broadband
• Broadband transmission is analog transmissions.
• The media used in broadband transmission is split into two channels to allow
signals to be both sent and received.
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is used to create multiple broadband
channels.
• Broadband transmissions divide the entire media bandwidth into multiple
channels.
• One good example of broadband signaling would be how you view different
channels through your cable box and a single coaxial cable carrying multiple
signals in cable television.

Features Baseband Transmission Broadband Transmission

It is a data transmission technique in which one signal It is a transmission technology in which many signals with
Definition needs the whole bandwidth of the channel to transfer the different frequencies send data across a single channel at
data. the same time.
Signal Type It utilizes digital signals. It utilizes analog signals.

Signal transmission The signals may be transmitted in both directions. The signal may transmit only one direction.

Direction Type It is bidirectional in nature. It is unidirectional in nature.

Multiplexing It uses Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). It uses Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

Topology It operates with bus topology. It operates with both bus and tree topology.

It utilizes two channels, one for transmission and the

Number of Channels It utilizes the same channel for sending and receiving data.
second for data reception.

Signals are only capable of travelling limited distances. Signals may be transmitted across long distances without
Distance Covered
Attenuation is needed for long distances. attenuation.

Installation and
It is simple and easy to install and maintain. It is complex to install and maintain.
Maintenance
Cost It is less expensive to design. It is costly to design.
It utilizes coaxial cables, wires, and twisted-pair cables as It sends digital signals via coaxial cable, optical fibre cables,
Transfer medium
the transfer medium for digital signals. and radio waves.
Application It is usually found in Ethernet. It is usually found in telephone networks and cables.

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Various Network Devices
• Two or more devices connected with each other for sharing their data and
resources are called a network.
• When two networks are connected, then called internetwork.
• Examples of networking and internetworking devices are:
• Repeater, Hub, Switch, Bridge, router, gateway etc..

Network Adapter (NIC)

• It is ad-on card available on motherboard.
• It is a small printed circuit board that is installed in a mother board of CPU.
• This is additional hardware card required to install physically on the slot of
motherboard.

• This card provides the connectivity between computer internal resources and
external resources connected to the network.
• Each NIC has a unique address called MAC address / physical address that is
different from other NIC.
• Types of NICs are
1. ARCNET Card
2. Ethernet Card
1. ARCNET Card
• The full form of ARCNET is Attached Resource Computer Network.
• It consists of 8 dual inline packages (DIP) switches. Which are used for defining address of nodes.
• If all switches are OFF then the address is 00h and if all ON then address is FFh.
• 8/16-bit we can connect 256 nodes with it.
• It supports MCA (micro Channel Architecture) bus.
• The cable used for this card is co-axial.
• It has 8/16 bit port.
• Its transmission rate is 2.5 mbps.
• It consists of a boot ROM.
• Has BNC connector
• ARCNET uses token ring bus access method.
• This type of NIC supports BUS topology and STAR topology.

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 DIP switches

ARCNET

2. ETHERNET Card
• There are two types of NICs:
• Wired NICs (Ethernet NIC)
• It was created by Robert Metcalfe in 1980. This types of NICs uses cables to connect to a
networks. It is more secure as compare to wireless. It supports high-speed data up to 1 Gbps. It
Establishes more stable connections as compared to wireless networks. This type of NICs used
in LAN, MAN and WAN networks, as well as for gaming and video conferencing.
• Examples : TP-Lick TG-3468 Gigabit PCI Express Network Adapter, Integrated Ethernet NICs.
• Wireless NICs
• This type of NICs uses radio signals to connect to a network. They are commonly used for Wi-Fi
connections. It is more portable, often built into devices like laptops and phones. Wireless
capability can also be added to computers without built-in Wi-Fi.
• Examples : Intel 3160 Dual-Band wireless Adapter, Internal Wi-Fi cards, USB Wi-Fi adapters, Wi-
Fi 6 adapters.

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 Repeaters

• Repeater is an electronic device which operates only in physical layer.

• Signal that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance before
noise can affect its integrity.
• Repeaters, installed on a link receives the signals before it becomes too weak or
corrupted, it regenerates the original bit pattern and puts the new refreshed copy of
signal back on the link.
• Repeaters allows us to extend only the physical length of a network.
• it does not change the functionality of the network.
• We can see the functions of the repeater in below figure.

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Repeater is not an amplifier
• An amplifier can not differentiate the intended signal and noise So, hence it
amplifies equally everything fed into it.
• While repeater does not amplify the signal instead it regenerates it.
• Repeaters placed so that a signal reaches it before the noise changes the meaning of
any of its bits. So repeater is placed on the link before it becomes the weak or
corrupted.

Hub
• Hub is used to create connections between stations in physical star topology.
• Large number of computers can be connected in single or multiple LANs.
• Hub is a central network device that connects network nodes. So is also
referred as concentrator.
• Hub enables central network management.
• It provides connection for several different media types like: coaxial, fiber optic,
twisted pair.
• Hubs are available in 8/16/24 ports.
• It provides high speed communication.

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 63

Types of Hub

1. Active hub 2. Passive hub 3. Intelligent hub

❖Active hub
• It acts like repeaters; it regenerates and retransmits the signals.
• Because of multiple ports are available in it, it also called multiport repeaters.
• it needs electric power to run.

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 ❖Passive hub
• It provides the physical connections between the attached devices.
• It do not amplify or regenerates the signals passes through hub.
• It do not require electricity to run.

❖Intelligent hub
• It is the third and last type of hub which can perform task of both active and passive
hub.
• It can accommodate several types of cables.
• They can provide information about network traffic, identify potential problems,
and even allow for remote management.
• It increases the speed and effectiveness of total network thus makes the
performance of whole network fast and efficient.
• It is intelligent because capable of doing hub management and switching
functionality.

➢Applications of hub
• Hubs are used to create small Home Networks.
• Hubs are used for monitoring the networks.
• It Makes one device or peripheral available throughout the whole network.
• Hubs are used in Organizations and Computer Labs for connectivity.

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 Bridge
• It operates on both physical and data link layer of OSI model.
• It connects two or more LANs.
• Bridge can divide the large network in to smaller segments.
• Bridge has a software which keeps the separate traffic for each segment.
• Repeater transmits frames to entire connected devices while bridge transmits the
frames only to separate segments.
• Like this way, it filters the traffic.
• Bridges work on data link layer hence gives the access to physical address of the
stations.
• Bridge contains the look up table that contains the physical addresses of every
stations connected to it.
• Bridge is also worked for collision resolution.

Bridge placed in a
network between
different segments

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• In the working of a bridge → when a frame enters to the bridge, it regenerates the
signal and it checks the address of the destination and forwards the new copy only
to the segment to which the address belongs.
• As a bridge found the frame, it reads the address contained in the frame and
compares the address with a table of all the stations on both the segments.

Types of Bridges
1. Simple bridge
2. Multiport bridge
3. Transparent bridge

1. Simple bridge
• It is the most primitive and least expensive types of a bridge.
• It links two segments.
• It contains a table that lists the physical address of all the stations connected with
it. Physical address must enter manually.
• In this bridge, updating of device is time consuming when new device is added /
removed, the table must be modified at this time.
• So installation and maintenance for this bridge is time consuming and tedious.

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 2. Multiport bridge
• It is used to connect more than two LANs.
• In this bridge, different tables are created each one holding the physical address of
stations reachable through the corresponding port.

Multiport bridge

3. Transparent bridge
• It builds the table of physical address on its own as it performs its bridge
function.
• Table is automatically built as frames are moves in the networks.
• Initially when bridge is installed, it is empty.
• As transmission is done the table is updated accordingly.
• The first packet transmitted by each features the bridge makes entries inside the
table with corresponding segment. last, at last the table is completed with all details.
• features we can say, this bridge has ‘self updating features.

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 Switch
• Switch provides the bridging functionality with greater efficiency.
• It acts as a multiport bridge to connect different devices or segments in a LAN.
• It operates in data link layer of OSI model (also called layer 2 switch).
• Switch has buffer for each link connected with it.
• When it receives the frame, it stores the frame in the buffer of receiving link and checks
address to find outgoing link.
• If outgoing link is free the switch sends the frame to that particular link.
• two different characteristics of switch:
• Store and forward switch → it stores the frame in input buffer until the whole frame is
arrived.
• Cut through switch → it forwards the frame to the output buffer as soon as the
destination address is received.

❖Layer2 switch
• It operates using MAC address for sending the frames from one node to next node.
• It performs at the physical and data link layer of OSI model.
• L2 switch is like a multiport transparent bridge, which allows better and faster
performance.
• L2, as a bridge does the filtering decision based on the MAC address of the frame it
received.
• It has buffer to hold the frames for processing.
• It has the switching factor that can forwards the frame faster.
• Generally it is used in small private network.
• L2 provides the following benefits:
- Hardware based bridging - High speed
- Low latency

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 ❖Layer3 switch
• It is used at the network layer of OSI model. (layer-3, hence called layer-3 switch).
• L3 switch is like a router, but it is more faster and sophisticated.
• Switching in L3 switch allows faster table lookup and forwarding.
• It operates utilizing IP address to make forwarding decision.
• L3 is best for large network and working good in case of heavy traffic.

• L3 switch provides following benefits:

- High speed scalability - High performance packet switching
- Low latency -Security
- Quality-of-Service (QoS) - Flow accounting

Difference between layer 2 and layer 3 switch

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Layer2 switch Layer3 switch

Routers
❖Bridge

Figure 1

Figure 2

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 Routers
❖Bridge

Figure 3

Figure 4

❖Router
• A router is hardware device designed to receive, analyze and move incoming packets
to another network.
• It operates in physical, data link and network layer of the OSI model. But most active
in network layer.
• Routers are able to access network layer address (IP address) of the device.
• Simple function of router is to receive the packet from one connected network and
pass them to a second connected network.
• Routers also perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.
• A packet sent from a station on one network to a device on a neighboring network
goes first to the jointly device – router which forwards the packet to the destination
network.
• Routers consult with routing table when packet is ready to be forwarded.

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❖Router characteristics
Least-cost routing: Router finds the shortest path for the packet which is fastest,
cheapest, reliable and secure.
Non Adaptive routing: In which, once a pathway to a destination has been
selected, the router sends all packets for that destination along that one route.
Adaptive routing: In this router may select a new route for each packet. Routers
send the packet depending on which route is most efficient at that moment.
Example:
• Packet transmission from A to D
• Non adaptive:
• Once path A-B-D is selected then all packets will follow the same path.
• Adaptive:
• First through network B, means A-B-D
• Second through network C, means A-C-D
• Third through network E, means A-E-D

• Routers finds the best path and routes the packets based on the information stored
in routing table.
• Routing table also contains → network address of each connected device, possible
paths and cost of sending data.

❖Types of router (Two types)

Static router
• In it, routing table information are entered manually. Administrator enters the
route for each destination into the table.
• In case of change in the connection, it can not update automatically.
• It is more secure. It always uses the same route.
Dynamic router
• In it, routing table is created and updated automatically.
• When there is a change in the connection, routing table is updates using any of the
routing protocols.

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 Gateways
• Gateways operate in all seven layers of OSI model. A gateway is a network connectivity device
that connects two different configuration networks.
• A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two networks
• Gateways are also known as protocol converters, because they play an important role in
converting protocols supported by traffic on different networks.
• It is generally used to connect two different network systems.
• Routers transfers packets only across networks using similar protocols while a gateway can
accept a packet formatted for one protocol and coverts in to a packet formatted for another
protocol before forwarding it.
• As a result, it allows smooth communication between two networks. It works as the entry-
exit point for a network because all traffic that passes across the networks must pass through
the gateway.
• A gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing network traffic. Gateways are
also known as protocol converters
• Gateway may be a router, firewall, server, or other device that enables traffic to flow in and
out of the network.

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 Features of Gateways
• A gateway is situated at a network edge and manages all data that enters or exits the
network.
• A gateway is distinct from other network devices in that it can operate at any layer of
the OSI model.
• Gateways made the transmission more feasible as it queued up all the data and
divided it into small packets of data rather than sending it bulk.
• Gateways provide security within the network.

Types of Gateways
• These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of direction of flow of data:
• Unidirectional Gateways: Data can only pass through unidirectional gateways in
one direction. The destination node replicates changes made in the source node but
not the other way around. They are tools for archiving the packets.

• Bidirectional Gateway: Data can pass through bidirectional gateways in both

directions. They are tools for synchronization.

These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of functionality of Gateway:
• Network Gateway: The most popular kind of gateway, known as a network gateway
acts as an interface between two disparate networks using distinct protocols.
Anytime the word gateway is used without a type designation, it refers to a network
gateway.
• Cloud Storage Gateway: A network node or server known as a cloud storage
gateway translates storage requests made using various cloud storage service
API calls, such as SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) or REST (Representational
State Transfer). Data communication is made simpler since it makes it easier to
integrate private cloud storage into applications without first moving those
programme to a public cloud.
• Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O): Project HERMES and Global Educational
Network for Satellite Operations (GENSO) are two well-known I2O gateways that
connect devices on the Internet to satellites and spacecraft orbiting the earth.
• IoT Gateway: Before delivering sensor data to the cloud network, IoT gateways
assimilate it from Internet of Things (IoT) devices in the field and translate
between sensor protocols. They link user applications, cloud networks, and IoT
devices.
• VoIP Trunk Gateway: By using a VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol) network, it
makes data transmission between POTS (plain old telephone service) devices like
landlines and fax machines easier.

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How Gateways Work?
• The gateway receives data from devices
within the network.

• After receiving data, the gateway intercept

and analyze data packets, which include
analyzing packet header, payload etc.

• Based on the analysis of the data packets, the

gateway calculate an appropriate destination
address of data packet. It then routes the data
packets to their destination address.

• In some cases, the gateway might also want to

transform the format of the obtained data to
ensure compatibility at the receiver.

• Once the data packets have been analyzed,

routed, and converted, then the gateway
sends the last packets to their respective
destinations address inside the network.

Advantages of Gateways
• Gateway helps in connecting two different network.
• Gateway is used to filters and does not allow anything that can harm to
the network.
• Gateway is worked as the protocol converter.
• Gateway is the highly secure device that provides security from external
attacks.
Limitations of Gateways
• Gateway causes time delay since the conversion of data according to the
network requires time.
• Failure of the gateway might lead to the failure of connection with other
networks.
• The implementation of Gateway is very complex and it is not cost
efficient.

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 Access point
• A Wireless Access Point (WAP) is a networking device that allows connecting the
devices with the wired network. A Wireless Access Point (WAP) is used to create the
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network), it is commonly used in large offices and
buildings which have expanded businesses.
• A wireless AP connects the wired networks to the wireless client. It eases access to the
network for mobile users which increases productivity and reduces the infrastructure
cost.
• Most access points have built-in routers, while others must be connected to a router in
order to provide network access.
• Access points can be found in many places, including houses, businesses, and public
locations.

• Every access point has its own range. Any device placed within the range of access
point can only use the services of that. (see below figure)

Due to not in the range,

this device can’t access
the access point.

How do access point works?

• Wireless access point performs the technique called ‘modulation’ to transfer the data
receives in or out.
• It takes the modulated radio frequency voltages highs and lows transmitted from a nearby
wireless network card, and turns them into 1s and 0s instead. These 1s and 0s assembled
into packets and forwarded to the destination.

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 Advantages of Wireless Access Point (WAP):
• More User Access
• Broader Transmission Range
• Flexible Networking
• Mobility
Disadvantages of Wireless Access Point (WAP):
• High cost
• Poor stability
• Less Secure
• Limited range
• Bandwidth limitations

Types of communication
1. Unicasting
• Unicast is communication between a single sender and a single receiver over a
network.
• In other term it can be said ‘point-to-point’ communication.
• Examples of unicasting are: HTTP, TELNET, POP3, SSH

2. Multicasting
• Multicast is communication between a single sender and a a group of users over a
network.
• Examples of multicasting are: video conferencing, e-mail system, teleconferencing.

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3. Broadcasting
• In broadcast, data is delivered from one point to several points.
• Communication between sender to all the nodes (including itself).
• Example → satellite television, education video broadcasting.

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