TOPIC 2: Meat, Poultry and Fish (1): BEEF and PORK

SUBMITTED BY:
ALMAZAN, Rhea Joyce O.
AWIDAN, Melanie B.
BAUTISTA, Christina G.
CALAYON, Mirasol D.
CARPIO, Albert Benjamin D.
COMOM, Zaira Maye A.
DAGUYEN, Sheena B.
FELIMON, Medorelle P.
GUMABAY, Flowryn C.
MEDINA, Charisse A.
OMEDIO, Fatima L.
PERALTA, Erica B.
SONGCUAN, Cassandra Denise C.
VALDEZ, Athena A.
YUBOS, Blessy Jen S.
BSND 1A

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOL OF

BENGUET STATE UNIVERSITY, LA TRINIDAD, BENGUET
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE COURSE ND 130 - BASIC FOODS I

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NUTRITION AND DIETETICS

SUBMITTED TO:
SHANE MAY M. LOZANO, RND
Course Facilitator

1st Semester SY 2024-2024

 INTRODUCTION TO MEAT: BEEF AND PORK

A. Overview
- In the presentation, we will dive into the topic of meat, focusing on Beef and Pork. We'll
look at the different types and forms available in the market, their unique qualities and
importance in cooking.
B. Purpose
- The primary objective of the presentation is to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the different types of
beef and pork, their structures, compositions, and the characteristics that define their
quality.
C. Scope
a. The distinct kinds and market forms of beef and pork, and how do they differ in terms
of taste and texture.
b. The structure and composition of meat.
c. The characteristics of meat based on age: includes lean meat, fat distribution, marbling,
flavor, and bone structure.
d. The characteristics of meats according to their source: includes fat content, muscle
color, consistency, and odor profile?
e. Identification of cuts in beef and pork carcasses in both the English and Filipino
language, and their culinary implications.
f. Changes that occur in meat after slaughter and the qualities desired in meats for optimal
taste and tenderness.
g. The different qualities desired in meats, their tenderness, juiciness and flavor.
h. The different methods of tenderizing meat.
i. How cooking impacts the texture and flavor of meat.
j. Lastly, the various methods of cooking meat, and how the stages of doneness are
achieved to perfection.

MEAT
● Meat refers to the edible flesh of animals that is consumed as food. This includes
various types of muscle tissue, fat, and connective tissues from domesticated and
wild animals. Meat can be classified based on the type of animal from which it is
derived (MasterClass, 2021).
● Types of Meat:
1. Red Meat - Refers to meat that is darker in color and typically has a higher
myoglobin content. Common sources include beef, lamb, pork, and other meats
(MasterClass, 2022).
 2. White Meat - Generally refers to lighter-colored meats that are lower in
myoglobin. Common examples include poultry and certain types of fish (MasterClass,
2022).
A.) KINDS AND MARKET FORMS OF BEEF, PORK, AND
OTHER MEATS
KINDSOFMEAT
1. Beef
- Meat from cattle, typically referring to older bovine animals. Bovine refers to animals
belonging to the family Bovidae, which includes cattle and other closely related species
(Hardecke, 2024).
a. Steer – Young castrated male cattle, usually slaughtered for meat (Hardecke, 2024).
b. Heifer – Young female cattle that have not born a calf (Hardecke, 2024).
c. Cow – Mature female cattle, primarily used for breeding or dairy, but can also be used
for meat (Hardecke, 2024).
d. Stag – Male cattle castrated after maturity, typically tougher meat (Hardecke, 2024).
e. Bull – Uncastrated male cattle, meat is less tender and used for processed products
(Hardecke, 2024).
2. Pork
- Meat from pigs, is widely consumed and versatile in cookery (Joseph, 2024).
3. Carabeef
- Meat from carabao or water buffalo, darker in color, and often used in traditional Filipino
dishes (Scott, 2024).
4. Chevon
- Meat from goats, also known as goat meat. It is leaner and has a distinctive flavor (Joseph,
2024).
5. Veal
- Meat from young calves, tender and pale in color, often from dairy breeds (Scott, 2024).
6. Mutton
- Meat from mature sheep has a stronger flavor and darker in color compared to lamb
(Joseph, 2024).
7. Lamb
- Meat from young sheep, generally more tender and milder in flavor (Joseph, 2024).
8. Venison
- Meat from deer, lean and gamey in flavor (Joseph, 2024).
9. Exotic Meats
- Exotic meats refer to meats that are less commonly consumed compared to traditional
options like beef, pork, and chicken. These meats often come from wild or non-
 domesticated animals. They are considered delicacies in some regions and are often
valued for their uniqueness (Lawrence, 2015).
a. Dog meat – Consumed in some countries, particularly in parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin
America. It may be prepared in various dishes, including stews, barbecues, and soups
(Fredrik, 2024).
b. Bison or Buffalo meat – Leaner than beef and has a richer, sweeter flavor. It is
commonly consumed in North America (Fredrik, 2024).
c. Crocodile or Alligator meat – Has a firm texture similar to chicken or fish. It is
commonly consumed in parts of the Southern United States, Africa, and Asia
(Fredrik, 2024).
d. Rabbit meat – Tender and lean, with a flavor that is often compared to chicken, but
slightly gamier (Fredrik, 2024).
e. Wild Boar meat – Darker and leaner than domestic pork, with a more intense, gamey
flavor. It is often consumed in Europe and North America (Scott, 2024).
f. Kangaroo meat – Lean, tender, and has a slightly gamey flavor. It is commonly
consumed in Australia and is prized for its low fat content and high levels of protein
and iron (Fredrik, 2024).

MARKETFORMSOFMEAT
1. Fresh Meat
- Recently slaughtered, has not undergone any preservation method, typically sold at room
temperature (Daque, 2021).
2. Chilled Meat
- Stored at temperatures just above freezing (1°C to 4°C) to prolong shelf life without
freezing (Daque, 2021).
3. Frozen Meat
- Stored at temperatures below freezing (-18°C or lower) to preserve it for a longer duration
(Daque, 2021).
4. Cured or Processed Meat
- Treated with curing agents like salt, sugar, or nitrates, or processed into products such
as sausages, bacon, or ham (Daque, 2021).
5. Dried Meat
- Meat that has been dehydrated or dried for preservation, such as jerky, biltong, or dried
fish (Smoker, 2023).
6. Smoked Meat
- Meat that has been preserved and flavored through smoking processes. This includes
bacon, ham, and smoked sausages (Smoker, 2023).
7. Canned Meat
- Meat preserved and processed for a long shelf life, such as corned beef and canned spam
(Beauchamp, 2024).
B.) STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT
● The structure and composition of meat will cover the basic anatomy of the livestock
once it has been butchered and cut. Meat comprises three types of tissues, all giving a
particular characteristic to the overall palatability of the meat once used in a dish.
● The types of tissues include: a.) Muscular, b.) Connective (includes bones), and c.) Fatty
tissues.

a.) Muscular
- The muscular or lean tissue comprises hundreds to thousands of muscle fibers, which
are well supplied with nerves and microscopic blood vessels or capillaries. This is where
the meat contains its myoglobin (in the muscle cells) and the hemoglobin (in the blood
cells) (Tortora & Derrickson, 2017). The lean tissue also contains small amounts of
connective tissues, fats, and approximately 18% protein.
- MUSCLE FIBERS are the principal units of lean meat that compose the muscle bundle
or the FASCICULI. Each muscle fiber is covered in a membranous sheath called
SARCOLEMMA, and each muscle bundle is enclosed in a connective tissue called the
PERIMYSIUM. In between the muscle fibers lies a delicate tissue called the
ENDOMYSIUM, while vitamins, enzymes, myoglobin, and protein can be found in
the SARCOPLASM.
- In the matrix of each muscle fiber, substructures called MYOFIBRILS are present.
Myofibrils or fibrillae are dark and light longitudinal striations of smaller structures
called myofilaments. These substructures are made of MYOFIBRILLAR
PROTEINS: actin, myosin, tropomyosin, and troponin; myosin is the most dominant
myofibrillar protein. Two types of myofilaments are present: the thin and the thick. The
thin contains the actin, tropomyosin, and troponin, while the thick contains the myosin.
During muscle contractions, the two contractile proteins, actin and myosin, form to
make actomyosin and revert to actin and myosin during muscle relaxation (Tortora &
Derrickson, 2017).

b.) Connective
- Moving on to connective tissues, these are the tissues that bind the muscle
tissues together and to the bone. There are four types of conjugated protein in
the connective tissues: collagen, elastin, reticulin, and ground substance.
1. Collagen
- Collagen is a white, flexible, but non-stretchable type of myofibrillar protein
that serves as the most crucial in meat because of its comprehensive functions,
 such as attaching meat to the bones. It is found in the tendons, melts in hot water,
and turns into gelatin during cooking. This is the reason why bone broths, when
reduced enough, can solidify into a gel in lower temperatures and form an aspic
(a savory jelly)(Maxwell, 2022).
2. Elastin:
- Elastin is a protein with a yellow tint, mainly characterized by its rubbery
trait, which is evident in the cartilages of meats. Heat barely affects
elastins primarily because of the presence of the amino acids
DESMOSINE and ISODESMOSINE.
3. Reticulin
- A protein commonly associated with the fatty acid called myristic acid.
4. Ground Substance
- An amorphous (shapeless) gel-like substance made of proteins and

glycoproteins wherein collagen and elastins can be found. c.) Fats

- People rave over the butter-like texture of high-end steaks, and the main
contributing factor is none other than fats.
- Fats are found around or in between muscles and connective tissues in
the form of adipose tissues (Tortora & Derrickson, 2017). The fatty acids
in meats are mainly saturated, which can be found in the fat depots of
triglycerides, otherwise known as body fat. Examples of these are such
as oleic, palmitic, and stearic. Besides triglycerides, meats contain lipids
like sphingomyelin, cholesterol, glycolipids, and phospholipids.
➔ MARBLING refers to the distribution of fats throughout the meat in the connective
tissues between the muscle tissues. The greater the marbling, the more the meat has that
"melt-in-your-mouth" trait in cuts like the infamous A5 Wagyu and Kobe Beef
(Cooking Tips – Rangers Valley, 2024).
- The amount of fat depends on several factors:
a.) AGE: Age is directly proportional to the amount of fats.
b.) FEEDING/DIET: The more food the animal eats, the more fat it accumulates.
c.) EXERCISE: Sedentary animals have more fat.
d.) SPECIES: Pigs accumulate more fat than most animals.
 OF

C.) CHARACTERISTICS MEATS ACCORDING TO AGE

Very Young Young Nearing Maturity Mature

- Pink - -
- Light - Rose
Lean Meat: Fine - Dark Red
Pink - Relatively
Color Grain, Coarse,
- Fine coarse,
Texture relatively Tougher
Grain firmer
firm
- Creamy, -
tinged -
- White to Yellowish
Fat: with pink - White or -
Cream Coarse firm
Color - Fine creamy
- Firm and Can be very
Texture Grain, - Firm
smooth greasy
relatively
firm
Distribution - Thin to - Less - More
of Marbling none marbling marbling

- Mild - More
Flavor - Flavorful - Strong flavor
flavor flavorful

-White
- White - Larger and
tinged with - Smaller
Bone - Less denser
pink - Delicate
flexible - White, rigid
- Flexible
* Table from Basic Foods book by The Nutritionist-Dietitians Association of the Philippines Foundation, Inc.

A. Lean Meat
- The red color of lean meat is primarily due to the presence of myoglobin, an iron-
containing protein that binds oxygen in muscle tissue. As animals age, their
myoglobin levels generally increase, leading to a darker red color in the meat. This is
because older animals have more developed muscle tissue and higher oxygen
demands (‘The Color of Meat and Poultry’, 2013).
- Animals that are very young or young have less developed muscle tissue and are
typically less active. This results in a fine grain and tender texture in their lean meat.
In contrast, mature animals become more active, thus their muscle fibers become
thicker and more pronounced, leading to a coarser texture in the lean meat.
B. Fat
- Fat in younger animals is typically white or pale yellow but as animals age, their fat
may become more yellow due to the accumulation of carotenoids from their diet.
- The texture of fat can vary depending on the animal's breed and diet. Generally, fat
from younger animals tends to be softer and more delicate, while fat from older
animals can be firmer (Hatfield, A., 2019).
C. Distribution of Marbling
- Marbling refers to the distribution of intramuscular fat within the lean meat. Older
animals generally have more marbling than younger animals due to their longer
lifespan and increased fat deposition (Alfaro, D., 2022)
- The animal's diet also influences marbling. Grain-fed animals tend to have more
marbling than grass-fed animals because their diet is higher in fat and calories.
D. Flavor
- As animals age, their meat develops a more intense and complex flavor. This is due to
the breakdown of muscle proteins and the accumulation of flavor compounds.
- The fat in meat contributes significantly to its flavor. Older animals tend to have more
fat, which melts during cooking, releasing flavorful compounds and enriching the
dishes taste (Hatfield, A., 2019).
E. Bone
- The bones of younger animals are softer and less dense than those of older animals
because as animals age, their bones become harder and more robust.
- The flavor of the bone can too be influenced by age so older animals tend to have a
more pronounced bone flavor (Tatum, J.D. et al., 2017).
 OF

D.) CHARACTERISTICS MEATS ACCORDING TO SOURCE

Beef from Beef
Beef from
young Veal Carabeef from old Pork
old bull
cow cow

Loose and Creamy Creamy

greasy White or white, Soft and
Fat Creamy
white white gray firm oily

Lighter
Color of Pale grayish Dark reddish Dark Pale gray to
Pale
muscle red brown copper red pinkish

Consiste Firm
ncy of Moderately Loose, soft
Firm Dry, loose Soft, firm
muscle firm to lose less sticky

Disagreeable Milky Peculiar

Slightly Impulsive
Odor Peculiar
sour urine color
* Table from Basic Foods book by The Nutritionist-Dietitians Association of the Philippines Foundation, Inc.

A. Fat
- Consumer preferences have evolved, and in the last few years, there has been an
increased awareness of the nutritional value of meat, particularly with regard to the
amount of fat that goes into it. The meat fat composition can contribute to the beginning
of cardiovascular disease. However, fat is necessary for human nutrition and energy
production because it contains essential fatty acids (FAs), which must be found in food.
- Fat enhances the flavor of food, aids in vitamin absorption, and is crucial for both
human and animal immunological responses. Meat's fat content, both nutritionally and
aesthetically, is influenced by the fatty acid composition, such as animals’ species,
breed, sex, and diet, causing various changes in carcass, as well as in tissues and
chemical meat composition.
B. Color of Muscle
- According to Ramanathan et al., 2020, one of the most crucial food quality factors is color,
which directly influences how well a product is received by consumers. Foods are
frequently rejected or chosen based more on sight than on taste or smell since
appearance generally makes the initial impression about a cuisine. For instance, red has
been positively connected with an arousal signal that tells people that the food is good
and healthy.
C. Consistency of Muscle
- The total biochemical and functional characteristics of muscle tissue, and its quality as
fresh meat, are determined by the composition of fiber types. The consistency of
muscle, or its texture, has a huge impact on how meat cooks and how it tastes. The
amount of connective tissue in muscle also plays a role. More connective tissue can
 make the meat tougher, but it also breaks down during slow cooking methods, resulting
in a richer, more flavorful broth. Thus, fresh meat quality may be modulated
by altering the muscle fiber profile in living animals as a result of genetic selection or
environmental influences.
D. Odor
- Many biological and environmental factors can be linked to the aspects that influence
the odor of meat. The kind of animal and its breed are among the most important
variables. Due to differences in their metabolic processes, muscle composition, and fat
content, different animals emit different smells. Moreover, the meat's odor is greatly
influenced by the animal's nutrition. It is possible for animals fed one diet to smell
differently from animals fed another.
- Meat's aging process also has a big impact on its smell. Meat ages due to enzymatic and
microbiological processes that break down proteins and lipids, changing the meat's
odor. Meat odor is also influenced by storage factors such as humidity, temperature, and
light exposure. Odors in meat can be caused by germs growing due to improper storage.
- The natural scent of meat can be changed by hormones and antibiotics, which can also
affect the odor of meat. Because these characteristics affect the quality and perception
of meat products, it is important for producers and consumers to understand them.
 OF

E.) IDENTIFICATION CUTS IN BEEF CARCASS AND PORK

CARCASS
★ Primal Cut: Eight fundamental cuts that divide one whole side of beef.
★ Sub-Primal Cut: Primal cuts cut into smaller pieces – cuts of meat we typically find in
markets or butcher shops.
A.) Beef Carcass Cuts

* Images from Kusina Lessons: Beef Cuts in Filipino & Pepper's English-Filipino Cheat Sheet: Common Beef Cuts.
● The beef carcass can be split into:
1. Beef Front Quarter – contains four primal cuts: the brisket, foreshank, rib, and
chuck (square chuck) and subprimals: short rib, 7-bone rib, neck blade,
shoulder, cross rib, brisket point, and brisket plate. This part of the animal is
heavily exercised, resulting in an abundance of connective tissue which means
moist heat cooking is required on the majority of it (‘Meat Cutting and
Processing for Food Service’, 2019).
2. Beef Hind Quarter – contains four primal cuts: the flank, the long loin, the hip,
and the sirloin tip, plus subprimal cuts: short loin, sirloin butt, inside and outside
round, and hind shank . This part contains parts that can be prepared using dry
heat cooking methods (‘Meat Cutting and Processing for Food
Service’, 2019).
Tagalog Term English/Common Name Dishes

Paypay Chuck Nilagang Baka

Kadera Chuck Rib Kaldereta

Pecho Brisket Beef Pares, Corned Beef

Bulalo Shank Bulalo

Kalitiran Blade Cod Mechado

Kenchi Fore/Hind Shank Sizzling Bulalo, Kare-kare

Tagiliran Short Ribs Crispy Tadyang, Sinigang

Tapandera Sirloin Tapa, Bistek

 Solomilyo / Solomillo Tenderloin Tenderloin Steak

Camto / Kamto Flank Beef Mami

Kabilugan Kabilugan Morcon

*Table content from Kusina Lessons: Beef Cuts in Filipino – Bitesized.ph.
Cuts according to:
1. Tender Cuts (from least exercised muscles)
● From Whole Loin - Kadera
- Loin end or Sirloin - Tagilirang Hulihan
- Club steak - Tagilirang Unahan
- Porter house, T-bone steak - Tagilirang Gitna
- Tenderloin - Solomillo
● From Ribs
- Short Ribs - Kostillas
- Rib Toast
2. Less Tender Cuts
- Round, round steak - Pierna corta
- Rump, rump Roast - Tapadera
- Chuck, chuck rib roast - Paypay
3. Tough Cuts
- Shank (fore and hind) - Kenchi
- Flank - Kamto
- Plate, short ribs - Tadyang
- Brisket - Punta y Pecho
- Neck - Buto-buto
- Oxtail - Buntot
*Contents are from Basic Foods book by The Nutritionist-Dietitians Association of the Philippines Foundation
B.) Pork Carcass Cuts
● Pork is popular and a versatile meat. Due to its size, it can be merchandised and delivered
as whole, in sides, or broken down into four primals: pork shoulder, pork leg, pork loin,
and pork belly. The majority of the pork comes from choice butcher hogs that are about
six months old at the age of slaughter (‘Meat Cutting and Processing for Food Service’,
2019).
*Images from Kusina Lessons: Pork Cuts in Filipino & Pepper's English-Filipino Cheat Sheet: Common Pork Cuts.

Tagalog Term English/Common Name Dishes

Maskara Head/Mask Sisig

Tenga Ears Inihaw na Tenga ng Baboy

Batok/Butu-buto Neck Nilagang Butu-buto

Kasim Shoulder Adobo

Tagiliran Loin Salpicao

Lomo Tenderloin Salpicao

Tadyang Ribs Crispy Tadyang

Liempo Belly Fried Liempo

Pigue/Pigi Leg/Ham Hamon

Pata Hock Paksiw na Pata

*Table content from Pepper's English-Filipino Cheat Sheet: Common Pork Cuts – Pepper.ph.

Cuts according to:

1. Tender Cuts
- Loin (pork chop when sliced; - Bacon or Belly -
Canadian bacon when cured) Lomo
- Ham - Pique or Hita
- Liempo
2. Less Tender Cuts
- Shoulder/Boston Butt - Paypay
- Picnic ham - Kasim
- Neck - Butu-buto
- Spareribs - Buto sa tadyang
- Pig-feet or knuckles - Pata
- Tail - Buntot
- Jowl - Kalamnan
- Head - Ulo
*Contents are from Basic Foods book by The Nutritionist-Dietitians Association of the Philippines Foundation,
Inc.

F.) CHANGES IN MEAT AFTER SLAUGHTER

★ Carcass – the body of a dead animal.
★ Post Mortem – means changes after death.

1. Immediately after death, muscle is pliant, soft, gel-like, and extensible and sticky when
touched. Meat here is in excellent condition for cooking because it is more tender.
However, on a commercial scale, cooking of meat in this stage is not possible nor
practical, because meat at this stage should not be frozen;
2. For, a condition called thaw rigor would take place, which is characterized by
excessive muscle shortening and drip upon thawing. This happens when meat is frozen
before it enters rigor mortis. So when the meat is thawed, the leftover glycogen allows
for muscle contraction and the meat becomes extremely tough. This is commonly seen
as muscles twitching/tensing.
3. Once the energy is depleted, muscle proteins begin to bind during a process referred to
as rigor mortis. Rigor mortis is a postmortem change that causes the stiffening of body
muscles due to chemical changes in their myofibrils. During rigor mortis, the muscle
fibers shorten and become rigid, hard, and inflexible. Meat should not be cooked in this
state because it is very tough. It is best to allow rigor mortis to pass as the meat gradually
tenderizes and develops a desirable flavor.
4. After a few days, a process called tenderization occurs where the rigidity of actin and
myosin weakens, if the meat is held at temperatures above freezing. This then is the
optimal time to cook, age, or freeze the meat if cooking cannot be done after rigor
mortis.
5. Bacterial and enzymatic deterioration leads to meat spoilage. The rate of spoilage
depends on:
a. Conditions of Slaughter: The animal should not be allowed to lie on the floor,
where sources of contamination are high. Water used for washing and the
utensils should be clean to avoid contamination.
b. Health of the animal prior to slaughter: Unhealthy animals are more prone to
spoilage than healthy ones. If an animal is stressed, it uses up energy through
an adrenaline response. This means that after slaughter, there is less energy
available, and the pH doesn't fall as much (remaining higher than 5.7). This
can affect the quality of the meat, leading to "dark cutting beef," which is dark,
firm, and has a higher water-holding capacity.
c. Storage Temperature and Humidity: The rate of
spoilage increases with temperature.
d. pH of the Meat: The rate of spoilage increases with pH. Basic pH = spoilage.
★ Aging –Meat is held at temperatures above freezing to promote aging, which
helps tenderize the meat.
★ Putrefaction – bacterial deterioration that leads to meat spoilage.
G.) QUALITIES DESIRED IN MEATS: Tenderness, Juiciness and
Flavor
● The sensory properties such as taste, flavor, and tenderness are among the most
important determinants of meat purchase by consumers (Park et al., 2022).
● If the meat is tough and does not meet consumers’ demands, it will not be bought by
them and vice versa, tender meat will satisfy customers and will result in repeated
purchase of the same product. Meat texture is used to describe meat tenderness; this
term also describes firmness or coarseness of a meat surface.
● Juiciness pertains to the quality of containing a lot of juice and being enjoyable to eat.

1. Factors influencing tenderness:

a. Amount and type of connective tissues: meats with more elastin are less tender; lesser
elastin as found in younger animals, chicken than pork, less exercised cut and in females
and castrated animals. The amount of connective tissue in meats and its solubility (the
degree to which it is dissolved during the cooking process) can directly influence the
tenderness of meat muscle. As an animal ages, it has more connective tissue and
therefore experiences cross-linking, an increase in connective tissue that becomes
highly insoluble. This is why older animals are usually tougher and younger animals
are more tender.
b. Quality and distribution of muscle fibers: dense, coarse muscles are tougher; parallel
circumferential arrangement of muscles are tougher. Muscle fiber orientations can
contribute to increased toughness or tenderness (Iowa State University Digital Press,
2019).
c. Amount and distribution of fat: marbled meats are more tender. Fat is a source of
energy that is stored in muscle tissue. The meat is hard due to insufficient muscle
fattening by young animals, and then the muscles become more tender with the increase
of intramuscular fat with the advancing ages (Dominguez et al., 2015).
d. Aging: holding at temperatures 10-3.3 ̊C, 70% humidity for 3-6 weeks, increases
tenderness. During aging, the natural enzymes in the meat break down the proteins and
connective tissue, increasing the tenderness of meat (Kim et al., 2018).

2. Factors influencing juiciness:

a. Aging results in increased water holding capacity, making meals more juicy. The
breakdown of muscle proteins and connective tissues during aging creates a more
porous structure, allowing the meat to absorb and retain moisture effectively.
b. Marbling increases intramuscular fat improving juiciness. Marbling could directly
affect a consumer’s consumption decisions, and has to be maintained and controlled.
 When fat is heated, it melts and lubricates the muscle fibers in the meat, helping to keep
it moist.
c. Specie: beef tends to be less juicy than pork due to factors like muscle fiber type,
collagen content, fat distribution, and cooking methods.
d. Age of animal: older animals are less juicy. As animals age, their muscle fibers undergo
changes that can affect their ability to retain moisture during cooking.
e. Type of muscle in carcass: compact muscles, primarily composed of white fibers, are
generally less juicy due to their denser texture and lower fat content. Red muscle fibers,
rich in myoglobin, tend to be more tender and juicy due to higher fat content. White
muscle fibers, low in myoglobin, are often less juicy.
f. Immediately after slaughter, the decline of pH causes less juiciness. This is due to the
acidification processes, which can lead to protein denaturation and changes in water-
holding capacity. These changes can result in moisture loss and a drier, less juicy
texture.

3. Factors influencing juiciness:

1. Age
- Older animals generally have a higher concentration of intramuscular fat, often referred
to as marbling. This fat melts during cooking, contributing to the juiciness and flavor
of the meat (Purslow, P., 2017).
2. Ripening
- Post-Slaughter Aging: Meat undergoes a process called "aging" after slaughter. During
this time, enzymes naturally break down muscle proteins, tenderizing the meat and
enhancing its flavor (‘Meat Aging Process’).
- Dry Aging: This technique involves hanging the meat in a controlled environment,
allowing for a more concentrated flavor development and increased tenderness.

3. Cooking Temperature
- High Heat – Cooking meat at high temperatures can lead to rapid protein coagulation
and moisture loss, resulting in a drier, less juicy product.
- Low and Slow – Cooking meat at lower temperatures and for longer durations allows
for more even heat penetration and less moisture loss, contributing to juiciness.

4. Breed:
- Different breeds of animals have distinct genetic predispositions for muscle
composition, fat content, and flavor profiles (Purslow, P., 2017). For example, Wagyu
beef, renowned for its intense marbling and rich flavor, is a breed specifically selected
for its juiciness and tenderness.
5. Other Factors:
- Fat Content – Higher fat content generally leads to increased juiciness as the fat
melts and bastes the meat during cooking (Purslow, P., 2017).
- Moisture Retention – Cooking techniques that help retain moisture, such as braising
or steaming, contribute to juiciness.
H.)
MEANS OF TENDERIZING MEAT
1. Proteolytic enzymes, also known as proteinases, are biological catalysts that break
down proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids. These enzymes like
- Bromelain from pineapple primarily targets collagen, a fibrous protein that
contributes to the toughness of meat. By breaking down collagen, bromelain
helps to soften the connective tissues and improve the overall tenderness of
the meat.
- Papain from papaya acts on both muscle protein and elastin and is known to
be more active at higher temperatures. Papain's ability to break down both
muscle protein and elastin which are responsible for the elasticity of tissues
makes it a better tenderizer compared to bromelain in different cooking
methods.
- Ficin from fig latex - it degrades myofibrillar and collagen proteins (Liu,
Xiong, & Rentfrow, 2011).
2. Marinades - are liquid mixtures containing acidic components such as citrus juice,
vinegar, buttermilk, yogurt, wine, and soda – these are used to add flavor to the meat
while also having a tenderization effect to the meat by breaking down connective
tissues and causes greater solubility of collagen.
Note: Marinating your meat in the acid for too long will break down the protein to the
point that the meat will become mushy.
3. Mechanical means - pounding or grinding especially tough cuts, disrupting the muscle
structure by penetrating the meat with closely spaced thin by either use of blades or
needles to subdivide muscle fibers and connective tissues.
Note: too much force will disrupt and destroy the meat’s best quality.
4. Cooking - the breaking down of meat's connective tissues and release of collagen will
be observed through moderately low and slow cooking resulting to a tender and easily
shredded meat but still, the desired texture may still vary depends on the cut of the meat.
5. Freezing – the use of low temperature to extend the shelf-life of the meat and slowing
its senescence rate through growth of ice crystals and mechanically separate fiber.
Freezing tenderizes the meat however it impacts the quality of meat.
6. Ripening or Aging - tenderness increases when meat is aged. Storing the meat at low
temperature improves tenderness and flavour, natural ripening is brought about by
proteolytic enzymes on the muscle protein, increasing acidity and tenderness of meat.
The risk of spoilage is a factor that should also be guarded.
I.)
EFFECTS OF COOKING ON MEAT
● Heat plays a role in transforming raw meat into a palatable and digestible meal. It triggers
a series of complex changes, impacting the texture, flavor, and nutritional value of the
meat.
1. Change in Pigment
- Myoglobin, the protein responsible for the red color of meat, undergoes a chemical change
when exposed to heat. It transforms from a bright red color to a grayish-brown hue
(metmyoglobin), a process known as denaturation.
2. Changes in Meat Protein
- Heat causes muscle proteins to coagulate, resulting in the firming and solidifying of the
meat. This process is responsible for the characteristic texture of cooked meat.
- Excessive heat, especially dry heat, can toughen and shrink proteins, leading to a dry
and chewy texture. This is why it's important to cook meat at the appropriate
temperature and for the correct duration (‘Prepare And Cook Meat’, 2024).
- Heat causes muscle fibers to shorten, contributing to the shrinkage of the meat during
cooking.
3. Changes in Fats
- Heat melts down fat, releasing flavorful compounds and contributing to the overall
richness and juiciness of the meat.
- As fat melts and escapes out of meat, shrinkage and reduction in volume is observed.
4. Moisture Loss
- As proteins coagulate and fibers shorten, moisture is expelled from the meat, resulting in
a decrease in its overall moisture content, weight, and volume. So because moist heat
penetrates meat quickly, to avoid over cooking, meat should be simmered, never boiled
(Tzer-Yang Yu et al., 2017).
5. Changes in Connective Tissues
- The breakdown of connective tissue and the softening of muscle fibers contribute to the
increased tenderness of cooked meat making it more digestible than raw meat
(Franziska Spritzler, 2020).
- When exposed to moist heat at low temperatures over an extended period, the collagen
in connective tissue breaks down into gelatin. Gelatin is the soluble protein that
contributes to the tender texture of cooked meat.
6. Flavor Development
- Heat converts collagen into gelatin, which contributes to the rich, savory flavor of cooked
meat. And as mentioned, converting collagen to gelatin requires more heat and time, as
J.)
such, the longer cooking time of meat develops better flavor whereas short cooking
time does not fully develop its flavor (Rhonz, R., 2017).
METHODS OF COOKING MEAT & STAGES OF DONENESS
OF MEATS
A.) Methods of Cooking Meat
● The methods of cooking meat: dry heat and moist heat, brings out different flavors and
textures in meat. Dry heat methods, such as grilling and roasting, use high temperatures
to create a flavorful crust, while moist heat methods, like braising and stewing, rely on
liquid and lower temperatures to tenderize meat and enhance its natural juiciness.

i. Dry Heat Cooking Methods (for more tender cuts):

1. Pan-broiling: Pan-broiling involves cooking in an uncovered pan over direct heat, with
any fat that cooks out of the meat drained off.
2. Pan-frying: Pan-frying is similar to pan-broiling, but the meat is cooked in a small
amount of fat.
3. Stir-frying: Stir-frying resembles pan-frying, except the food is stirred almost
continuously. Cooking is done at high heat with small or thin pieces of meat.
4. Deep-fat frying: Meat is fully immersed in fat during cooking, a process known as
deep-fat frying.
5. Grilling: Meat is cooked by direct heat, either over an open flame or an electric
element. Grilling imparts a charred flavor and is ideal for steaks, burgers, and ribs.
6. Broiling: Similar to grilling, broiling uses heat from above, typically in an oven. It’s
well-suited for thinner cuts of meat and creates a caramelized crust.
7. Roasting: Meat is cooked in an oven, usually starting at high temperatures for
browning, then at lower temperatures to finish. It’s ideal for larger cuts, like roasts and
whole poultry.
8. Sautéing: Meat is quickly cooked in a pan over medium-high heat with a small amount
of oil or butter, making it suitable for smaller, tender cuts like chicken breasts or
tenderloins.

ii. Moist Heat Cooking Methods (for tougher cuts):

1. Cooking in Liquid: This method involves covering a less tender cut of meat with liquid
and simmering in a covered pot until the meat is tender and fully cooked. It’s important
to keep the liquid temperature below 195°F to avoid toughening the meat proteins.
2. Simmering: Used for less tender cuts of meat, simmering is typically applied to whole
cuts and involves gentle cooking in liquid below the boiling point.
K.)
3. Stewing: Similar to simmering but used with smaller pieces of meat, stewing involves
slow cooking in liquid to develop flavor and tenderness.
4. Braising: This technique combines wet and dry heat, where the meat is first seared at
high heat and then cooked slowly in a covered pot with a small amount of liquid.
Braising is ideal for tougher cuts, like pot roast.
 5. Steaming: In this method, meat is cooked by steam from water or broth, preserving its
moisture. It’s commonly used for delicate meats like fish or for moist dishes like
dumplings.
6. Poaching: Meat is gently simmered in liquid below the boiling point, making it a good
choice for delicate cuts like chicken breasts, as it retains moisture and tenderness.

B.) Stages of Doneness of Meats

● The stages of doneness of meat is essential for achieving the ‘perfect cook’. Whether
one is grilling, roasting, or pan-searing, knowing how to identify the stages will help
explain how each stage affects flavor, texture, and juiciness to create delicious and
perfectly cooked meat dishes tailored to different personal preferences.
● Here are the different stages of doneness in meats:
1. Rare (120-130°F / 49-54°C): The meat is seared on the outside while remaining
red and cool in the center. It is soft, juicy, and retains a high level of moisture.
2. Medium Rare (130-135°F / 54-57°C): The center is warm with a red to pink
hue. The meat remains tender and juicy, with a slightly firmer texture compared
to rare.
3. Medium (135-145°F / 57-63°C): The center is mostly pink and warm. The
texture is firmer, with less juice, but it still retains moisture.
4. Medium Well (145-155°F / 63-68°C): The meat shows only a slight hint of
pink and is quite firm. Most juices are lost, resulting in a drier texture.
5. Well Done (155°F / 68°C and above): The center has no pink, and the meat is
firm and dry. While it can be less juicy, it can still be flavorful, especially with
the right cut and cooking method.
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