Course: Zoology

Zoology
Tuesdays & Thursdays, 1:00-5:30 PM
Rizal Hall Room 106

BIO 228B .
0

By: Carielle Nicole C. Montilla – BS BIO 1B

Course: Zoology
INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY (6)Human Health and Disease
 Zoology is the scientific study (7)Behavioral Science
of animals, encompassing a (8)Biotechnological Applications
broad range of organisms from (9)Education and Public
microscopic invertebrates to Awareness
large mammals.  In summary, zoology is integral
 Explores the diversity, to the broader field of biology,
structure, physiology, behavior, providing key insights into the
evolution, and classification of natural world, influencing medical
animals. research, contributing to
 Zoologists seek to understand conservation efforts, and
the various aspects of animal life, enhancing our understanding of
contributing to our knowledge of life processes and evolutionary
the natural world and providing mechanisms.
insights into the BIODIVERSITY
 Zoology plays a central role in
interconnectedness of all living
exploring and cataloging the vast
organisms.
diversity of animal life on Earth.
 Two important theories that
 By studying different species,
guide zoological research:
zoologists contribute to our
(1)The Theory of Evolution - understanding of the richness of
which is the central life forms and their adaptations to
organizing principle of biology various environments.
(2)The Chromosomal Theory EVOLUTIONARY INSIGHTS
of Inheritance, which  Zoologists investigate the
explains heredity and evolutionary history of animals,
variation in animals. helping to unravel the
 These theories unify our relationships between different
knowledge of the animal world. species and understand the
SIGNIFICANCE IN BIOLOGY processes of adaptation, natural
 Zoology holds significant selection, and speciation.
importance in the field of biology  This knowledge contributes to
due to its contributions to our our broader understanding of
understanding of the animal evolutionary biology.
kingdom and broader biological ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS
principles.  Animals are integral
Here are several reasons why components of ecosystems,
zoology is crucial within the realm influencing and being influenced
of biology: by their surroundings.
(1)Biodiversity  Zoologists contribute to the
(2)Evolutionary Insights study of ecological dynamics,
(3)Ecosystem Dynamics including predator-prey
(4)Medical and Biological relationships, symbiotic
Research interactions, and the impact of
(5)Conservation and animals on their habitats.
Biodiversity Management
BIO 228B .
1
Course: Zoology
MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
 Many aspects of medical and  Zoological research has
biological research rely on implications for biotechnology.
insights gained from zoological  Studies on animal genetics,
studies. reproduction, and physiology
 Understanding animal contribute to advancements in
physiology, anatomy, and areas such as genetic
genetics provides valuable engineering, cloning, and assisted
information for medical reproductive technologies.
advancements, pharmaceutical EDUCATION AND PUBLIC
research, and the development of AWARENESS
treatment strategies.  Zoology is fundamental to
CONSERVATION AND biology education and public
BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT awareness.
 Zoology is essential for  Understanding the diversity of
conservation efforts as zoologists life on Earth fosters an
study endangered species, appreciation for nature and
habitat loss, and the impact of contributes to informed decision-
human activities on ecosystems. making regarding conservation
 This knowledge helps in the and sustainable practices.
development of conservation FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF
strategies to protect biodiversity LIFE
and maintain ecological balance.  Reproduction of individuals
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE with heredity and variation
 Studying animals provides  Replication of large molecules
insights into the origins and that store information is unique to
transmission of diseases. life and must trace to life’s origin.
 Zoologists contribute to  Evolution – life has generated
understanding zoonotic diseases many spectacular features that
(those that can be transmitted have no counterparts in the
between animals and humans) nonliving world.
and help develop strategies for  Novel properties emerge at all
disease prevention and control. levels of life’s hierarchical
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE systems, from molecules and
 Zoology contributes cells to organismal form and
significantly to the understanding behavior.
of animal behavior. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LIVING
 Insights into communication, SYSTEMS
mating rituals, and social (1)Complexity and hierarchical
structures among animals have organization
broader implications for the study (2)Reproduction (heredity and
of behavioral science, including variation)
aspects of psychology and (3)possession of a genetic
sociology. program
(4)Metabolism
BIO 228B .
2
Course: Zoology
(5)Development
(6)Environmental interaction
(7)Movement
COMPLEXITY AND HIERARCHICAL
ORGANIZATION.
 Living systems demonstrate a
unique and complex hierarchical  A genetic program provides
organization. fidelity of inheritance
 Emergent properties  Nucleic acids encode structures
of the protein molecules needed
for organismal development and
functioning
 For animals and most other
organisms, DNA stores genetic
information.
 The correspondence between
the sequence of bases in DNA and
the sequence of amino acids in a
protein is the genetic code.
METABOLISM

 Living organisms maintain

themselves by acquiring nutrients
REPRODUCTION from their environments.
 Nutrients supply the chemical
energy and molecular
components for building and
maintaining a living system.
 Living systems can reproduce  We call these essential
themselves. chemical processes metabolism.
 Life does not arise DEVELOPMENT
spontaneously but comes only
from prior life, through
reproduction.
 Although life certainly
originated from nonliving matter
at least once.  All organisms pass through a
 Heredity and variation characteristic life cycle.
POSSESSION OF A GENETIC  The characteristic changes that
PROGRAM. an organism undergoes from its
origin (usually the fertilization of

BIO 228B .
3
Course: Zoology
an egg by sperm) to its final adult forms and for development in
form. multicellular ones.
 Development usually features  Semiautonomous movement
changes in size and shape, and occurs even in some biological
differentiation of structures within macromolecules.
an organism.  An enzymatic protein
 metamorphosis undergoes characteristic and
reversible changes in shape as it
binds a substrate, catalyzes a
reaction, and releases a product.

ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION
 All animals interact with their
environments. LIFE OBEYS PHYSICAL LAWS

 The study of organismal

interaction with an environment is
 The first law of
called ecology.
thermodynamics: Law of
 All organisms respond to
conservation of energy. Energy
environmental stimuli, a property
is neither created nor destroyed
called irritability.
but can be transformed from one
MOVEMENT
form to another. All aspects of life
require energy and its
transformation.
 The second law of
thermodynamics Physical systems
tend to proceed toward a state of
 Living systems and their parts greater disorder, or entropy.
show precise and controlled Energy obtained and stored by
movements arising from within plants is subsequently released
the system. by various mechanisms and
 The energy that living systems finally dissipated as heat
extract from their environments ZOOLOGY AS A PART OF BIOLOGY
permits them to initiate controlled  Animals form a distinct branch
movements. on the evolutionary tree of life. It
 Such movements at the cellular is a large and old branch that
level are essential for originated in the
reproduction, growth, and many Precambrian seas over 600
responses to stimuli in all living million years ago.

BIO 228B .
4
Course: Zoology
 Animals form part of an even  Formation of a Hypothesis
larger limb called eukaryotes, or Prediction: Based on the
organisms whose cells contain premises, a hypothesis or
membrane enclosed nuclei. prediction is formulated. This
PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE hypothesis represents a specific
Nature of Science and testable proposition that
 Science is a way of asking logically follows from the given
questions about the natural world premises.
and sometimes obtaining precise  Logical Consequences:
answers to them. Deductive reasoning involves
 Stated explicitly these essential drawing logical consequences or
characteristics of science (Judge conclusions from the premises. If
Overton, 1982): the premises are true and the
(1)It is guided by natural law. logical rules are followed, the
(2)It has to be explanatory by conclusion is necessarily true.
reference to natural law.  Syllogism: A common form of
(3)It is testable against the deductive reasoning is the
observable world. syllogism, which consists of three
(4)Its conclusions are tentative parts: a major premise, a minor
and therefore not necessarily premise, and a conclusion. The
the final word. conclusion is derived from the
(5)It is falsifiable. combination of the major and
SCIENTIFIC METHOD minor premises.
 These essential criteria of  Example of a syllogism:
science form the hypothetico- (1)Major Premise: All humans
deductive method. are mortal.
 The scientific method is (2)Minor Premise: Socrates is a
summarized as a sequence of human.
steps: (3)Conclusion: Therefore,
(1)Observation Socrates is mortal.
(2)Question  Testing the Conclusion:
(3)Hypothesis Deductive reasoning allows for
(4)Empirical test the testing of the conclusion
(5)Conclusions through observation or
(6)Publication experimentation. If the premises
KEY STEPS IN DEDUCTIVE are true and the logic is sound,
REASONING the conclusion should be valid
 Premises or General and verifiable.
Principles: Deductive reasoning PARTS OF AN IMRAD PAPER
begins with one or more (1)Introduction – Make a case for
premises, which are general your research
statements or principles that are (2)Methods – What did you do?
assumed to be true. These (3)Results – What did you find?
premises serve as the starting (4)Discussion – What does it
point for the logical analysis. mean?
SCIENTIFIC FACT
BIO 228B .
5
Course: Zoology
 Definition: A scientific fact is  Characteristics: Laws
an observation or measurement describe what happens under
that is consistently and certain conditions, but they do
objectively confirmed by multiple not explain why or how the
observers. observed phenomena occur. They
 Characteristics: Facts are are often expressed as concise
empirical and verifiable pieces of mathematical equations.
information about the natural  Example: Newton's Law of
world. They are considered true Universal Gravitation, which
based on direct and repeatable states that every mass attracts
evidence. every other mass in the universe
 Example: The boiling point of with a force proportional to the
water at standard atmospheric product of their masses and
pressure is 100 degrees Celsius inversely proportional to the
(at sea level). square of the distance between
SCIENTIFIC THEORY their centers.
 Definition: A scientific theory THEORIES OF EVOLUTION AND
is a well-substantiated HEREDITY
explanation of some aspect of the  Two major paradigms that
natural world that is based on guide zoological research today
empirical evidence and has (1)Darwin’s theory of evolution
withstood repeated testing and (2)Chromosomal theory of
scrutiny. inheritance.
 Characteristics: Theories are DARWIN’S THEORY OF
comprehensive and explanatory EVOLUTION
frameworks that integrate a wide  Often referred to as the theory
range of facts and observations. of natural selection, is a
They provide a deep foundational concept in biology
understanding of a phenomenon that explains how species change
and can be used to make over time.
predictions.  This laid the groundwork for
 Example: The theory of modern evolutionary biology.
evolution, which explains the  The main ideas of Darwin's
biodiversity and complexity of life theory of evolution:
on Earth through the processes of (1)Perpetual change
natural selection and genetic (2)Common descent
variation. (3)Multiplication of species
SCIENTIFIC LAW (4)Gradualism
 Definition: A scientific law is a PERPETUAL CHANGE
statement that describes a  States that the living world is
consistent and universal neither constant nor perpetually
relationship observed in nature, cycling, but is always changing,
often expressed mathematically. with continuity between past and
Laws summarize patterns present forms of life.
observed through repeated  The varying forms of organisms
experimentation. undergo measurable changes
BIO 228B .
6
Course: Zoology
across generations throughout  The resulting phylogeny serves
time. as the basis for our taxonomic
 is documented by the fossil classification of animals
record, which clearly refutes MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIES
claims for a recent origin of all
living forms.
 It has withstood repeated
testing and is supported by an
overwhelming number of
observations, we now regard
“perpetual change” as a
scientific fact; evidence has
rejected all rational alternatives
to this theory.
COMMON DESCENT
 States that all forms of life
descend from a common ancestor
through a branching of lineages.  Darwin’s third theory states
 Comparative studies of that the evolutionary process
organismal form, cell structure, produces new species by splitting
and macromolecular structures and transforming older ones.
(including those of the genetic  Species are now generally
material, DNA) refute the viewed as reproductively distinct
opposing argument that the populations of organisms that
different forms of life arose usually but not always differ from
independently and descended to each other in organismal form.
the present in linear, unbranched GRADUALISM
genealogies.  Gradualism states that the
 All of these studies confirm the large differences in anatomical
theory that life’s history has the traits that characterize disparate
structure of a branching species originate through the
evolutionary tree, called a accumulation of many small
phylogeny. incremental changes over very
 Species that share recent long periods of time.
common ancestry have more
similar features at all levels than
do species whose most recent
common ancestor occurred early
in the history of life.
 Much current research is
guided by Darwin’s theory of
common descent toward  This theory is important
reconstructing life’s phylogeny because genetic changes that
using the patterns of similarity have very large effects on
and dissimilarity observed among organismal form are usually
specie s. harmful to an organism.
BIO 228B .
7
Course: Zoology
NATURAL SELECTION (3) Evolutionary Biology
 Natural selection, Darwin’s (4) Conservation Genetics
most famous theory, rests on (5) Behavioral Genetics
three propositions: (6) Developmental Biology
(1)First, there is variation (7) Genetic Diseases and
among organisms (within Disorders
populations) for anatomical, (8) Biotechnology in Zoology
behavioral, and physiological (9) Adaptation to
traits. Environments
(2)Second, the variation is at HEREDITY AND VARIATION
least partly heritable so  Genetics helps explain the
that offspring tend to transmission of traits from one
resemble their parents. generation to the next.
(3)Third, organisms with  This is fundamental to
different variant forms are understanding how certain
expected to leave different characteristics, such as physical
numbers of offspring to features or behaviors, are passed
future generations. down within animal populations.
 Variants that permit their POPULATION GENETICS
possessors most effectively to  The study of genetic variation
exploit their environments will within and between populations is
preferentially survive and be essential in zoology.
transmitted to future generations.  It helps researchers investigate
 Over many generations, the distribution of genetic traits
favorable new traits will spread and understand how populations
throughout a population. evolve over time due to factors
 Accumulation of such changes like migration, natural selection,
leads, over long periods of time, and genetic drift.
to production of new organismal EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY
characteristics and new species.  Genetics provides a molecular
 Natural selection is therefore basis for understanding
a creative process that generates evolutionary relationships among
novel forms from the small different species.
individual variations that occur  Comparing genetic sequences
among organisms within a helps scientists trace the
population. evolutionary history of animals
and construct phylogenetic trees.
GENETIC APPROACH
 The genetic approach in
zoology is of significant CONSERVATION GENETICS
importance as it provides a  Conservation biologists use
fundamental framework for genetic tools to assess the
understanding various aspects of genetic diversity within
animal biology endangered species populations.
(1) Heredity and Variation  This information is critical for
(2) Population Genetics developing effective conservation
BIO 228B .
8
Course: Zoology
strategies, as reduced genetic  Genetics plays a crucial role in
diversity can increase the risk of how animals adapt to different
extinction. environments.
BEHAVIORAL GENETICS  The study of adaptive traits
 Understanding the genetic and the genetic basis of these
basis of behaviors in animals is an adaptations provides insights into
important aspect of zoology how species survive and thrive in
 Genetic studies can reveal how their habitats.
certain behaviors are inherited CONTRIBUTIONS OF CELL
and influence the interactions and BIOLOGY
social structures within animal  Provide a deeper
populations. understanding of the structure,
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY function, and behavior of animals
 Genetics is integral to at the cellular level.
understanding the development (1)Cell Structure and Function
of organisms from fertilization to (2)Cellular Processes
adulthood. (3)Genetics and Inheritance
 Zoologists explore the role of (4)Developmental Biology
genes in determining the various (5)Developmental Biology
stages of an animal's life cycle (6)Ecology and Behavior
and the formation of specific  Cell biology provides the
structures and organs. foundation for the study of
GENETIC DISEASES AND animals at the microscopic level,
DISORDERS enabling zoologists to explore the
 Zoologists, especially those intricacies of structure, function,
involved in veterinary sciences, development, genetics, and
study genetic diseases and evolution in the animal kingdom.
disorders in animals. CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
 Identifying the genetic basis of  Cell biology has revealed the
certain conditions helps in basic unit of life, the cell, and its
developing diagnostic tools, various structures and organelles.
treatment strategies, and  Understanding the cellular
sometimes breeding programs to structure of animal tissues and
minimize the prevalence of these organs is fundamental to zoology.
disorders.  This knowledge helps
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN ZOOLOGY zoologists comprehend how
 Genetic engineering and different cell types contribute to
biotechnology have applications the overall function of organs and
in zoology, such as the creation of tissues in animals.
genetically modified organisms CELLULAR PROCESSES
for research purposes, the  Cellular processes, such as cell
development of transgenic division, growth, and
animals, and the study of gene differentiation.
expression in various species.  Provides insights into mitosis
and meiosis, which are essential
ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENTS for understanding the
BIO 228B .
9
Course: Zoology
development and reproduction of adaptations that have occurred
animals. over time.
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR
 Cell biology contributes to
GENETICS AND INHERITANCE understanding the physiological
 Contributed significantly to the basis of animal behavior and
understanding of inheritance and ecological adaptations.
genetic variation in animal  For example, the study of
populations. neuronal cells and their
 Mendelian genetics and interactions is crucial for
molecular genetics are essential comprehending the mechanisms
for zoologists studying animal underlying animal behavior.
traits, evolution, and population DISEASE AND PATHOLOGY
genetics.  Cell biology is essential in the
PHYSIOLOGY study of diseases and pathology
 Contributes to the in animals.
understanding of physiological  Zoologists use cellular-level
processes at the cellular level. investigations to understand the
 Cellular studies to provide causes and effects of diseases,
insights on how animals function, which is vital for the conservation
including processes like and management of animal
respiration, digestion, circulation, populations.
and sensory perception. CELLS
 Cellular physiology forms the The basic unit of life
basis for understanding the  The cell is the smallest unit
overall physiological adaptations that can carry out all activities
of animals to their environments. associated with life
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY  Most prokaryotes and many
 Studies on animal protists and fungi consist of a
development, embryology, and single cell; most plants and
organogenesis are reliant on cell animals have millions of cells
biology.  In multicellular organisms, cells
 Understanding how cells are modified in a variety of ways
differentiate and organize into to carry out specialized functions
tissues and organs during CELL THEORY
development is crucial for  Cell theory is a unifying
zoologists studying the life cycles concept, which states that:
of animals. (1) Cells are the basic living
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY units of organization and
 Provides insights into the function in all organisms
evolutionary relationships among (2) All cells come from other
different animal groups. cells
 Comparative studies of cell  Evidence that all living cells
structures and functions help have a common origin is provided
zoologists trace evolutionary by basic similarities in their
lineages and understand the
BIO 228B .
10
Course: Zoology
structures and molecules of which  Some variations in cell shape
they are made represent a strategy for
ORGANIZATION OF CELLS increasing the ratio of surface
 Inorganic and organic area to volume (e.g. microvilli)
molecules are organized to form  Cell sizes and shapes are
structures within the cell and its adapted to their functions:
biochemical pathways (1)Amoebas and white blood
 Genetic information is stored in cells change shape as they
DNA molecules, and passed to move
each new generation of cells (2)Sperm cells have long,
during cell division whiplike tails (flagella) for
 Cells exchange materials and locomotion
energy with the environment; and (3)Nerve cells have long, thin
convert energy to chemical extensions that enable them
energy stored in ATP to transmit messages over
 Similarities among cells of great distances
different organisms suggest (4)Rectangular epithelial cells
evolutionary relationships and stack like building
 The organization and small size blocks to form sheet-like
of cells allow them to maintain an tissues
appropriate internal environment
(homeostasis)
 To maintain homeostasis, the
plasma membrane acts as a
selective barrier between cell
contents and the environment
 Most cells have internal
structures (organelles)
specialized to carry out metabolic
activities
 Each cell has genetic
instructions coded in DNA, which
is concentrated in a limited region  Caulerpa taxifolia is a
of the cell species of green seaweed, an
CELL SIZE alga of the genus Caulerpa,
 Biologists measure most cell native to tropical waters of the
components in nanometers (nm), Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, and
which is 1/1,000,000,000 (one Caribbean Sea.
billionth) of a meter EARLY MICROSCOPES
 Everything that enters or  1665: Robert Hooke first
leaves a cell (e.g. nutrients, described cells, using a
wastes) must pass through its microscope he had made
plasma membrane – so the ratio  Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
of surface area to volume is a discovered bacteria, protists,
critical factor limiting cell size blood cells, and sperm cells with
small lenses that he made
BIO 228B .
11
Course: Zoology
 In the late 19th century,
microscopes were sufficiently
developed for biologists to
seriously study cells
 Two features of a microscope
determine how clearly a small
object can be viewed:  An image is formed by
magnification and resolving transmitting light through a cell
power DARK-FIELD MICROSCOPY
COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
 Consists of a tube with glass
lenses at each end
 Visible light passes through
stained or living cells
 Lenses bend (refract) light and  Rays of light are directed from
magnify the image the side
LIGHT MICROGRAPHS (LMS)  Only light scattered by the
 Images obtained with light specimen enters the lenses
microscopes
MAGNIFICATION PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPY &
 Ratio of the size of the image NOMARSKI DIFFERENTIAL-
seen with the microscope to INTERFERENCE-CONTRAST
actual size of the object MICROSCOPY
 Light microscopes magnify an
object no more than 2000X
RESOLUTION (RESOLVING
POWER)
 Capacity to distinguish fine
detail;  Variations in density cause
 Defined as minimum distance differences in the way various
between two points at which they regions of the cytoplasm refract
can both be seen separately light
 Depends on lens quality and FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPE
wavelength of illuminating light;
 Resolution increases as
wavelength decreases
SPECIAL OPTICAL SYSTEMS
(1)Bright-field microscopy
(2)Dark-field microscopy  Filters transmit light that
(3)Phase contrast microscopy and emitted by fluorescently stains
Nomarski differential- that bind specifically to DNA or
interference-contrast specific protein molecules
(4)Fluorescence microscope CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY
(5)Confocal microscopy
BRIGHT-FIELD MICROSCOPY

BIO 228B .
12
Course: Zoology
 The electron beam consists of
energized electrons, which can be
focused by electromagnets just as
images are focused by glass
lenses in a light microscope
 Produces a sharper image than
standard fluorescence microscopy
 A computerized microscope TRANSMISSION ELECTRON
produces optical sections that are MICROSCOPE
assembled into a 3-D image  The specimen is embedded in
plastic and thinly sectioned
 The electron beam passes
through the specimen and falls
onto a photographic plate or
fluorescent screen
SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
 The specimen is coated with
gold or some other metal
 Emission patterns of secondary
electrons give a 3-D picture of the
surface
CELL FRACTIONATION

ELECTRON MICROSCOPES

 Technique for separating

(fractionating) parts of cells so
they can be studied by physical
and chemical methods
 A cell homogenate is
subjected to centrifugal force by
 The electron microscope (EM)
spinning in a centrifuge, which
allows researchers to study fine
separates the extract into two
details (ultrastructure) of cells
fractions: a pellet and a
 Some electron microscopes
supernatant
have resolving powers less than 1
 The supernatant is centrifuged
nm (magnifications of more than
again at a higher speed to obtain
1 million X)
BIO 228B .
13
Course: Zoology
a pellet with the next-heaviest  The part of the cell outside the
cell components (differential nucleus is cytoplasm
centrifugation)  The part of the cell within the
 Pellets can be resuspended and nucleus is nucleoplasm
components further purified by  The fluid component of
density gradient cytoplasm is cytosol
centrifugation  Many specialized organelles
 Biologists study cells using and a supporting framework
microscopes and biochemical (cytoskeleton) allow a larger
techniques such as cell size than prokaryotes
fractionation  Some organelles are present
PROKARYOTIC CELLS only in specific cells
 Bacteria and archaea are
prokaryotic cells
 ~1/10 the diameter of the
average eukaryotic cell

 DNA is located in a nuclear

area, or nucleoid
 Nuclear area is not enclosed by
a membrane
 No membrane-enclosed
internal organelles
 Most have cell walls outside  Membrane-enclosed
the plasma membrane compartments allow certain cell
 Many have prokaryotic flagella activities to be localized within
which operate like propellers specific regions of the cell – many
 Some have hair-like fimbriae different activities can go on
that increase adherence simultaneously
 Interior contains ribosomes  Many reactions that occur in
and storage granules successive steps are carried out
EUKARYOTIC CELL by enzymes organized close
 Eukaryotic cells are together on a membrane surface
characterized by highly organized  Membranes allow cells to
membrane-enclosed organelles maintain an electrochemical
 A nucleus contains DNA

BIO 228B .
14
Course: Zoology
gradient that stores energy and  The nucleus is the control
has potential energy center of the cell; the cell stores
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM information in DNA, and most
 Several types of membranes DNA is in the nucleus
make up the internal membrane  The nuclear envelope is a
system (endomembrane double membrane that separates
system) nuclear contents from the
cytoplasm; nuclear pores regulate
passage of materials between
 Membranes divide the cell into nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
many compartments:  The nuclear lamina helps
(1)Nucleus, organize nuclear contents, and is
(2)Ribosomes involved in DNA duplication and
(3)endoplasmic reticulum (ER), regulating the cell cycle
(4)Golgi complex,
(5)lysosomes,
(6)vacuoles,
(7)Peroxisomes,
(8)Mitochondria & Chloroplasts
(9)Cytoskeleton
(10) vesicles
 Vesicles move materials from
one organelle to another
 The plasma membrane
participates in activities of the
endomembrane system

Human pancreas cells

 Unlike prokaryotic cells,
eukaryotic cells have internal
membranes that divide the cell  Acetabularia, a single cell, has
into compartments, allowing cells been a model organism for
to conduct specialized activities investigating the role of the
within separate, small areas nucleus
NUCLEUS

BIO 228B .
15
Course: Zoology
 In eukaryotic cells, genetic
information coded in DNA is
located in the nucleus, which is
typically the most prominent
organelle in the cell
RNA
 Most nuclei have one or more
nucleoli (nucleolus) containing a
nucleolar organizer made up of
chromosomal regions with
instructions for making
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 rRNA is synthesized in the
nucleolus – proteins needed to
make ribosomes are synthesized
in the cytoplasm and imported
into the nucleolus
 Ribosomal RNA and proteins
are assembled into ribosomal
subunits that leave the nucleus
DNA through nuclear pores
 When a cell divides, DNA must RIBOSOMES
be reproduced and passed on to  Organelles found free in the
two daughter cells (DNA cytoplasm or attached to certain
replication) membranes
 DNA molecules include  Consist of RNA and proteins
sequences of nucleotides (genes) synthesized by the nucleolus
that contain coded instructions  Contain the enzyme that forms
for protein production peptide bonds, which join amino
 The nucleus transcribes acids into polypeptides
information from DNA to  Each ribosome has a large
messenger RNA (mRNA) subunit and a small subunit that
molecules, which move into the join to assemble polypeptides
cytoplasm, where proteins are ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
manufactured  Consists of a series of
 DNA is associated with RNA flattened, saclike structures that
and certain proteins, forming a form interconnected
complex called chromatin compartments within the
 Chromatin helps DNA cytoplasm
molecules pack inside the nucleus  The ER lumen is continuous
in a regular fashion as part of with the compartment between
structures called chromosomes the two membranes of the
 The nucleus of each human cell nuclear envelope
has 46 chromosomes – containing  The two surfaces of the
2 meters of DNA membrane and the ER lumen
each contain different sets of
BIO 228B .
16
Course: Zoology
enzymes, with different synthetic  The Golgi complex (Golgi
capabilities body or Golgi apparatus) consists
 The ER has two distinct of stacks of flattened
regions: membranous sacs (cisternae)
(1) rough ER  Each Golgi stack has three
(2) smooth ER areas:
SMOOTH ER (1) Entry surface (cis face)
 Appears tubular, with a smooth (2) Exit surface (trans face)
outer surface (3) Medial region in between
 Enzymes in the membranes  Cells that secrete large
catalyze synthesis of many lipids amounts of glycoproteins have
and carbohydrates many Golgi stacks
(phospholipids, cholesterol, GOLGI APPARATUS & PROTEINS
steroid hormones)  Transport vesicles carrying
 Smooth ER stores calcium ions proteins from the ER move along
 In liver cells, smooth ER breaks microtubules to the cis face of the
down stored glycogen (blood Golgi complex
glucose regulation), and  The Golgi complex processes,
detoxifies dangerous chemicals sorts, and modifies proteins
ROUGH ER  Carbohydrate of a glycoprotein
 Outer surface is studded with may be modified to route the
ribosomes (bound ribosomes) protein to a specific organelle
 Proteins exported from the cell  Proteins are packaged in
or destined for other organelles transport vesicles in the trans
are synthesized on bound face
ribosomes PATHWAY OF A SECRETED
 Polypeptides are transported GLYCOPROTEIN
through a tunnel in the ribosome (1)Polypeptides are synthesized
and a pore in ER membrane into on ribosomes
the ER lumen (2)Protein is assembled and
 In the ER lumen, proteins are carbohydrate component
assembled and modified by added in lumen of ER
enzymes that add carbohydrates (3)Transport vesicles move
or lipids to them glycoprotein to Golgi (cis face)
 Molecular chaperones (4)Glycoprotein is further
catalyze the efficient folding of modified in Golgi
proteins into proper (5)Glycoproteins are packaged in
conformations transport vesicles (trans face)
 Misfolded proteins are (6)Glycoproteins are transported
transported to the cytosol and to plasma membrane
degraded by proteasomes (7)Contents are released from cell
 Processed proteins are
transferred to other
compartments within the cell by
transport vesicles
GOLGI COMPLEX
BIO 228B .
17
Course: Zoology
 Primary lysosomes fuse with
the vesicle and degrade the
contents into their components
 Large vesicles are secondary
lysosomes containing various
materials being digested
VACUOLES
 Many functions carried out in
animal cells by lysosomes are
performed in plant and fungal
cells by vacuoles
 Vacuole is a large, single,
membrane-enclosed sac
 Tonoplast is the membrane of
the vacuole and is part of the
endomembrane system
 Small vacuoles coalesce to
form a large central vacuole that
LYSOSOMES occupies as much as 80% of the
 Small sacs of digestive volume of a plant cell
enzymes dispersed in the  The central vacuole contains
cytoplasm of most animal cells water, stored food and other
 Contain about 40 different materials, salts, pigments, and
digestive enzymes metabolic wastes
 Maintain an interior pH of
about 5  Hydrostatic pressure (turgor
 Primary lysosomes bud from pressure) in the central vacuole
the Golgi complex provides much of the mechanical
 One or more primary strength of plant cells
lysosomes fuse with a vesicle to  Hydrolytic enzymes break
form a secondary lysosome down wastes, unneeded
PRIMARY LYSOSOMES organelles and other cell
 Contain hydrolytic enzymes components
synthesized in rough ER
 Sugars attached to each
molecule direct the Golgi complex
to sort the enzyme to lysosomes
 Small vesicles are primary
lysosomes
SECONDARY LYSOSOME
 Bacteria (or debris) engulfed by
scavenger cells are enclosed in a
vesicle formed of plasma
membrane  Most protozoa have food
vacuoles,which fuse with
lysosomes that digest food
BIO 228B .
18
Course: Zoology
 Some protozoa have usually the chemical energy of
contractile vacuoles, which ATP
remove excess water from the  Mitochondria and chloroplasts
cell have their own ribosomes and
PEROXISOMES DNA molecules; this and their
 Membrane-enclosed organelles similarity in size to many bacteria
containing enzymes that help supports the theory of serial
transfer hydrogen from other endosymbiosis
compounds to oxygen MITOCHONDRIA
 Produces hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) which detoxifies certain
compounds
 Catalase splits excess
hydrogen peroxide to water and
oxygen, rendering it harmless
 Peroxisomes break down fatty
acid molecules
 Peroxisomes synthesize
phospholipids that are
components of the insulating  Mitochondria are the site of
covering of nerve cells aerobic respiration, which
 Peroxisomes in yeast cells converts the chemical energy in
degrade alcohol; in human liver certain foods to ATP
and kidney cells, peroxisomes  A double membrane forms two
detoxify certain toxic compounds, compartments within the
including ethanol mitochondrion: the
 In seeds, specialized intermembrane space and the
peroxisomes (glyoxysomes) matrix
convert stored fats to sugars  The outer mitochondrial
MITOCHONDRIA AND membrane is smooth and allows
CHLOROPLASTS small molecules to pass through
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts it; the inner mitochondrial
are organelles specialized to membrane strictly regulates
facilitate conversion of energy molecules that move across it
from one form to another  Folds in the inner membrane
(cristae) extend into the matrix
and increase surface area for
chemical reactions
 The inner membrane contains
enzymes and other proteins
needed to synthesize ATP
 Mitochondria are important in
 Chemical energy (in food programmed cell death
molecules such as glucose) or (apoptosis), a normal part of
light energy must be converted development and maintenance
into more convenient forms –
BIO 228B .
19
Course: Zoology
 Example: The hand of a human traps light energy for
embryo is webbed until apoptosis photosynthesis
destroys the tissue between the  Also contain light-absorbing
fingers
yellow and orange pigments
 Mitochondria can initiate
(carotenoids)
apoptosis by interfering with
 Chloroplasts are disc-shaped
energy metabolism or by
structures with a system of folded
activating destructive enzymes
membranes
 Example: Cytochrome c activates
caspases, which cut up vital  The inner membrane encloses
compounds in the cell a fluid-filled stroma, which
 Inappropriate inhibition of contains enzymes that produce
apoptosis may contribute to a carbohydrates from carbon
variety of diseases, including dioxide and water, using energy
cancer trapped from sunlight
 Mutations in mitochondrial DNA  An interconnected set of flat,
are associated with certain disc-like sacs (thylakoids)
genetic diseases, including arranged in stacks (grana) is
certain forms of blindness and suspended in the stroma
progressive muscle degeneration  The thylakoid membrane
 Mitochondria also affect health encloses the thylakoid lumen
and aging by leaking electrons  In the thylakoid membrane,
which form free radicals (toxic, chlorophyll molecules absorb
highly reactive compounds with energy from sunlight, which
unpaired electrons) excites electrons
 Energy in excited electrons is
used to produce ATP and other
molecules that transfer chemical
energy
 Chloroplasts are a type of
plastids, which produce and
CHLOROPLASTS store food materials in cells of
plants

 Above is the cutaway view of a

chloroplast.
 The two outer membrane layer
enclose a largely fluid interior
called the stroma.
 The thylakoid membrane
 Organelles that contain system weaves through the
chlorophyll, a green pigment that stroma.

BIO 228B .
20
Course: Zoology
PLASTIDS and structural components of
 All plastids develop from CILIA and FLAGELLA
proplastids
 Chromoplasts contain
pigments that give flowers and
fruits characteristic colors that
attract animals that serve as
pollinators or as seed dispersers
 Leukoplasts (unpigmented
plastids) include amyloplasts,
which store starch in many seeds,
roots, and tubers (such as white
potatoes)
CYTOSKELETON
 Dense network of protein fibers  Consist of two forms of the
 Gives cells mechanical protein tubulin (α-tubulin and β-
strength, shape, ability to move tubulin) which combine to form a
 Functions in cell division and dimer
transport of materials within the  Microtubules are manufactured
cell in the cell by adding dimers of α-
 Highly dynamic and constantly tubulin and β- tubulin to an end of
changing the hollow cylinder.
 Notice that the cylinder as
polarity.
 The end shown at the top of
the figure is the fast- growing, or
plus, end; the opposite end is the
minus end.
 Each turn of the spiral requires
13 dimers.

 The cytoskeleton is made of

three types of protein filaments:
microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments
 The cytoskeleton is a dynamic
internal framework that functions
in various types of cell movement  Fluorescent LM showing
MICROTUBULES microtubules in green.
 Rigid, hollow rods about 25 nm  A microtubule-organizing
in diameter center (pink dot) is visible beside
 Function in cytoskeleton or over most of the cell nuclei
structure: movement of (blue).
chromosomes during cell division,  Microtubule-associated
tracks for intracellular movement, proteins (MAPs):

BIO 228B .
21
Course: Zoology
(1) Structural MAPs regulate  Microtubules assemble and
microtubule assembly, and disassemble rapidly during cell
cross-link microtubules to division; tubulin subunits organize
other cytoskeletal polymers
into a mitotic spindle, which
(2) Motor MAPs use ATP energy
helps distribute chromosomes
to produce movement
 Motor proteins: Kinesin, CENTRIOLES
Dynein
Kinesin moves organelles
toward the plus end of a
microtubule

 Centrioles are 9 × 3 structures

consisting of nine sets of three
 Dynein moves organelles attached microtubules arranged
toward the minus end
(retrograde transport). to form a hollow cylinder
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
 Cilia and flagella help
unicellular and small multicellular
organisms move through a
watery environment
 Cells use cilia to move liquids
and particles across the cell
surface; flagella serve as the
tails of sperm cells
 Eukaryotic cilia and flagella are
structurally alike (but different
from bacterial flagella), with a 9
 Dynein or feet and move the
pairs so they slide against the + 2 arrangement of microtubules
other. Flexible lining proteins  Each cilium or flagellum is
prevent them from sliding too far. anchored in the cell by a basal
This causes a microtubular bend, body, which has a 9 × 3
resulting in a beating motion structure of microtubules
 Microtubule-organizing  Most vertebrate cells have a
centers (MTOCs) anchor the primary cilium on the cell
minus ends of microtubules to surface that serves as an antenna
other parts of the cell; in animal – its receptors bind with specific
cells, the main MTOC is the molecules outside the cell or on
centrosome
other cells
 The centrosome typically
MICROFILAMENTS
contains two CENTRIOLES, which
 actin filaments
are duplicated before cell division

BIO 228B .
22
Course: Zoology
 Flexible, solid fibers about 7  Many bundles of microfilament
nm in diameter (green) are found in the
fluorescent LM of fibroblasts, cells
in connective tissue.
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
 Consists of two intertwined  Tough, flexible fibers about 10
polymer chains of beadlike actin nm in diameter
molecules  Provide mechanical strength
 Linked by linker proteins and help stabilize cell shape
 Bundles of provide support for
cell structures
 Form the cell cortex, just
inside the plasma membrane
 Microfilaments generate
movement by rapidly assembling
and disassembling
 Muscle cells have two types of
specialized filaments:  Each intermediate filament
(1)Filament composed of the consists of component called
protein myosin protofilaments, which are
(2)Filaments composed of the composed of coiled protein
protein actin subunits
(3)ATP, actin, and myosin  Only some animal groups
generate forces that contract (including vertebrates) have
muscles intermediate filaments
 Amoebas, human white blood  Intermediate filaments include
cells, and cancer cells can creep keratins in vertebrate epithelial
along a surface by changing cells, and neurofilaments in nerve
shape cells
 Actin filaments push the  Abnormal neurofilaments are
plasma membrane outward, associated with the
forming bulges (pseudopodia) neurodegenerative disease
that adhere to the surface amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
 Contractions of microfilaments (ALS, or Lou Gehrig’s disease)
at the opposite end of the cell
force the cytoplasm forward in
the direction of locomotion

 Intermediate filaments are

stained green in this human cell
isolated from a tissue culture.
GLYCOCALYX

BIO 228B .
23
Course: Zoology
 Many cells are surrounded by a
glycocalyx (cell coat) formed
by polysaccharide side chains of
proteins and lipids that are part
of the plasma membrane
 Most eukaryotic cells are
surrounded by a cell coat
 The glycocalyx allows cells to
recognize one another, to make
contact, form adhesive or  Plant cell walls contain
communicating associations, and polysaccharide fibers (cellulose)
contributes to the mechanical that form cross links with other
strength of multicellular tissues polysaccharides in the cell wall
THE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX  A growing plant cell secretes a
(ECM) primary cell wall, which either
solidifies with growth or is
replaced by a secondary cell wall
with a different chemical
composition (such as wood)
 A middle lamella of pectins
lies between the primary cell
walls of adjacent cells and causes
them to adhere tightly to one
another
 Cells of most bacteria, archaea,
 Many animal cells secrete an fungi, and plants are surrounded
extracellular matrix (ECM) by a cell wall
consisting of a gel of
carbohydrates and fibrous
proteins (mainly collagen)
 Glycoproteins of the ECM
(fibronectins) organize the
matrix and help cells attach to it
 Receptor proteins (integrins)
in the plasma membrane
maintain adhesion between the
ECM and intermediate filaments
and microfilaments inside the cell
 Many animal cells are
surrounded by an extracellular
matrix
CELL WALL

BIO 228B .
24
Course: Zoology
THE REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS  Binary fission may be
 Two modes: lengthwise, as in flagellate
(1) Asexual Reproduction unicellular eukaryotes, or
(2) Sexual Reproduction transverse, as in ciliate unicellular
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION eukaryote.
Reproduction without SCHIZOGONY
Gametes
 Asexual reproduction each
organism can produce genetically
identical copies of itself as soon
as it becomes an adult.
 Asexual reproduction is the
production of new individuals
without fusion of gametes (eggs  Multiple fission, or
or sperm). schizogony, the nucleus divides
 Offspring have the same repeatedly before division of the
genotype (unless mutations cytoplasm, producing many
occur) and are clones of the daughter cells simultaneously.
parent.  Spore formation, called
 Bacteria, Unicellular sporogony, is a form of multiple
eukaryotes, Cnidarians, fission common among some
Bryozoans, Annelids, parasitic unicellular eukaryotes,
Echinoderms for example, malarial parasites
 Basic Forms: BUDDING
(1)Binary Fission
(2)Schizogony
(3)Budding
(4)Gemmulation
(5)Fragmentation
(6)Parthenogenesis  unequal
BINARY FISSION division of an
 Common among bacteria and organism.
unicellular eukaryotes
 In binary fission the body of the
unicellular parent divides by
mitosis into two approximately
equal parts, each of which grows
into an individual similar to the GEMMULATION
parent.

BIO 228B .
25
Course: Zoology
occurs, and the egg is formed by
cell division.
 Some species of flatworms,
rotifers, crustaceans, insects, and
probably others.
 In these cases, the offspring
are clones of the parent because,
without meiosis, the parent’s
chromosomal complement is
passed intact to offspring.
The formation of a new
 In some species of fishes, a
individual from an aggregation of
female produces diploid or
cells surrounded by a resistant
triploid eggs, and may be
capsule, called a gemmule
inseminated by a male of the
FRAGMENTATION
same or related species, but the
sperm serves to initiate cell
division in the egg
 The male’s genetic material is
rejected before it can penetrate
the egg (gynogenesis)
 A multicellular animal breaks MEIOTIC PARTHENOGENESIS
into two or more parts, with each A haploid ovum is formed by
fragment capable of becoming a meiosis, and it may or may not be
complete individual. activated by the influence of a
PARTHENOGENESIS male’s sperm.
 Flatworms, rotifers, annelids,
mites, and insects like bees,
wasps, and ants
 The haploid egg begins
development spontaneously; no
males are required to stimulate
activation of an ovum.
 The diploid condition may be
 Parthenogenesis (“virgin
restored by chromosomal
origin”) - development of an
duplication or by autogamy
embryo from an unfertilized egg
(rejoining of haploid nuclei).
or one in which the male and
female nuclei fail to unite
following fertilization.
 Types of parthenogenesis:
(1)Ameiotic parthenogenesis
(2)Meiotic parthenogenesis
AMEIOTIC PARTHENOGENESIS
 Ameiotic or diploid
parthenogenesis, no meiosis

BIO 228B .
26
Course: Zoology
traits that distinguish it from its
parents.
 Sexual reproduction, by
recombining parental
characters, multiplies variations
and makes possible evolution of
more diverse forms.
 Mechanisms for interchange of
genes between individuals are
more limited in organisms with
only asexual reproduction.
 It includes bisexual (or
biparental) reproduction as the
most common form, involving two
separate individuals.
 The male-female distinction is
more clearly evident in most
animals.
 In honey bees, the inseminated  Organs that produce germ cells
queen bee can either fertilize are called gonads.
eggs as she lays them or allow  The gonad that produces
them to pass unfertilized. sperm is a testis and that which
 Fertilized eggs become diploid forms eggs is an ovary
females (queens or workers), and  Gonads represent the primary
unfertilized eggs develop sex organs, the only sex organs
parthenogenetically to become found in certain groups of
haploid males (drones) animals.
 This type of sex determination
is called haplodiploidy
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Production of individuals from
the fusion of gametes.
 Involves germ cells
(gametes or sex cells) supplied
by two different individuals,
 United during the process of
fertilization and develop into a
new individual.
 The zygote formed from this
union receives genetic material
from both parent organisms, and
the combination of genes  Accessory sex organs (such
produces a genetically unique as penis, vagina, oviducts, and
individual, bearing characteristics uterus) that transfer or receive
of the species but also bearing germ cells.

BIO 228B .
27
Course: Zoology
the union of gametes from two
genetically different parents
 Offspring will thus have a new
genotype different from that of
either parent
Male sharks have two sexual members
called claspers, which have spurs so it
 Individuals sharing parenthood
stays in. are characteristically of different
sexes, male and female
 Each parent has its own
reproductive system and
produces only one kind of germ
cell, spermatozoon or ovum
 Separate sexes, and such a
condition is called dioecious (Gr.
di, two, + oikos, house)
 Animals that have both male
and female reproductive organs
are called monoecious

 Hermaphrodites

Two worms line up inverted from each other so

sperm can be exchanged.

 The octopus game of cat and  Sequential hermaphrodites

mouse actually has a very
important in the goal - mating.
 Male octopuses have specially
modifies “sex arm” that they use
to place a pack of sperm into the
female’s mantle cavity.
When the female dies, the dominant male
 The female then lays her eggs changes sex and becomes the female,
in a hole or under rocks. which is why Nemo’s dad is actually
 Once they hatch, the tiny female,
octopods float in the water for  Sex reversed tilapia
several weeks before returning to
the bottom
BISEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Bisexual reproduction is the
production of offspring formed by

BIO 228B .
28
Course: Zoology
Exogenous steroids given during the preparing to divide into cells half
gonadal development period can control
the phenotype overriding the expression of
their size.
the genotypically determined sex. This  Each of these primary
process is commonly referred to as sex spermatocytes undergoes a first
reversal (Oregon SU, n.d.). meiotic division, forming two
smaller haploid cells called
secondary spermatocytes
 The secondary spermatocytes
divide again, giving rise to four
haploid cells called spermatids,
which contains half of the father’s
genetic material
 Through a process called
spermiogenesis, the spermatids
change shape, transforming into
mature sperm cells
 The spermatid’s nucleus
condenses, the acrosome
appears, and the tail begins to
grow, much of the cytoplasm is
shed
 As spermiogenesis completes,
GAMETOGENESIS the sperm cells break free from
Origin & maturation of Germ the sertoli cell lining of the
Cells tubules into the lumina
(1)Spermatogenesis  The sperm cells are, then,
(2)Oogenesis stored in the epididymis where
SPERMATOGENESIS they functionally mature
OOGENESIS

 Sperm develop in the

seminiferous tubules of the testes
 Primordial sperm cells called
spermatogonia lie dormant in
the outer compartment of the
tubules from the late fetal period
until puberty.
 At puberty, the spermatogonia
undergo mitotic divisions, giving
rise to genetically identical cells.
 The cells grow gradually into
primary spermatocytes
BIO 228B .
29
Course: Zoology
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 The menstrual cycle refers to
the regular changes in the
activity of the ovaries and the
endometrium that make
reproduction possible.
 The endometrium is the layer
of tissue lining the inside of the
uterus. This lining consists of a
functional layer, which is subject
to hormonal changes and is shed
during menstruation, and a thin
basal layer which feeds the
overlying functional layer.
 The menstrual cycle actually
consists of two interconnected
and synchronized processes: the
ovarian cycle, which centers on
 The ovaries produce secondary the development of the ovarian
oocytes (the female sex cells) follicles and ovulation, and the
 During fetal development, uterine or endometrial cycle,
stem cells called oogonia go which centers on the way in
through mitosis which the functional
 Some of these cells develop endometrium thickens and sheds
into 46 chromosome primary in response to ovarian activity.
oocytes.  Menarche, which refers to the
 At the onset of female puberty, onset of the first menstrual
tens of thousands of primary period, usually occurs during
oocytes each form part of a early adolescence as part of
primordial follicle in the ovaries puberty.
 Menarche and menopause  Following menarche, the
each premordial follicle develops menstrual cycle recurs on a
into a mature follicle and its monthly basis, pausing only
primary oocyte completes during pregnancy, until a person
meiosis I reaches menopause, when her
 Some primary oocytes become ovarian function declines and she
secondary oocytes. 23 stops having menstrual periods.
chromosome cells can begin  The monthly menstrual cycle
Meiosis II. Then, pauses. can vary in duration from 20 to
 Each month one secondary 35 days, with an average of 28
oocyte is released into the days.
uterine tube.  Each menstrual cycle begins on
 Meiosis II is only completed the first day of menstruation, and
when the secondary oocyte is this is referred to as day one of
fertilized. The resulting ovum can the cycle.
develop into a zygote
BIO 228B .
30
Course: Zoology
 Ovulation, or the release of the causes the nearby anterior
oocyte from the ovary, usually pituitary gland to release follicle
occurs 14 days before the first stimulating hormone, or FSH,
day of menstruation (i.e., 14 days and luteinizing hormone, or
before the next cycle begins). LH.
 So, for an average 28-day  Before puberty, the GnRH is
menstrual cycle, this means that released at a steady rate, but
there are usually 14 days leading once puberty hits, the GnRH is
up to ovulation (i.e., the pre- released in pulses, sometimes
ovulatory phase) and 14 days more and sometimes less.
following ovulation (i.e., the  The frequency and magnitude
postovulatory phase). of the GnRH pulses determine
 During these two phases, the how much FSH and LH will be
ovaries and the endometrium produced by the pituitary.
each undergo their own set of  These pituitary hormones
changes, which are separate but control the maturation of the
related. As a result, each phase of ovarian follicles, each of which is
the menstrual cycle has two initially made up of an immature
different names to describe these sex cell, or primary oocyte,
two different parallel processes. surrounded by layers of theca
 For the ovary, the two weeks and granulosa cells, the hormone-
leading up to ovulation is called secreting cells of the ovary.
the ovarian follicular phase,  Over the course of the follicular
and this corresponds to the phase, these oocyte-containing
menstrual and proliferative groups of cells, or follicles, grow
phases of the endometrium. and compete for a chance at
 Similarly, the two weeks ovulation.
following ovulation is referred to  During the first ten days, theca
as the ovarian luteal phase, cells develop receptors and bind
which also corresponds to the LH, and in response secrete large
secretory phase of the amounts of the hormone
endometrium. androstenedione, an androgen
OVARIAN FOLLICULAR PHASE hormone.
 This phase starts on the first  Similarly, granulosa cells
day of menstruation and develop receptors and bind FSH,
represents weeks one and two of and in response produce the
a four-week cycle. enzyme aromatase.
 The whole menstrual cycle is  Aromatase converts
controlled by the hypothalamus androstenedione from the theca
and the pituitary gland, which are cells into 17β-estradiol, which is a
like the masterminds of member of the estrogen family.
reproduction.  During days 10 through 14 of
 The hypothalamus is a part of this phase, granulosa cells also
the brain that secretes begin to develop LH receptors, in
gonadotropin-releasing addition to the FSH receptors
hormone, or GnRH, which they already have.
BIO 228B .
31
Course: Zoology
 As the follicles grow and the uterus, meanwhile, is
estrogen is released into the preparing the endometrium for
bloodstream, increased estrogen implantation and maintenance of
levels act as a negative feedback pregnancy.
signal, telling the pituitary to  This process begins with the
secrete less FSH. menstrual phase, which is when
 As a result, some of the the old endometrial lining, or
developing follicles in the ovary functional layer, from the
will stop growing, regress and die previous cycle is shed and
off. eliminated through the vagina,
 The follicle that has the most producing the bleeding pattern
FSH receptors, however, will known as the menstrual period.
continue to grow, becoming the ENDOMETRIUM PROLIFERATIVE
dominant follicle that will PHASE
eventually undergo ovulation.  The menstrual phase lasts an
 This dominant follicle continues average of five days and is
to secrete estrogen, and the followed by the proliferative
rising estrogen levels make the phase, during which high
pituitary more responsive to the estrogen levels stimulate
pulsatile action of GnRH from the thickening of the endometrium,
hypothalamus. growth of endometrial glands,
 As blood estrogen levels start and emergence of spiral arteries,
to steadily climb higher and which grow a little under the
higher, the estrogen from the influence of estrogen, from the
dominant follicle now becomes a basal layer to feed the growing
positive feedback signal – that is, functional endometrium.
it makes the pituitary secrete a  Rising estrogen levels also help
whole lot of FSH and LH in change the consistency of the
response to GnRH. cervical mucus, making it more
 This surge of FSH and LH hospitable to incoming sperm.
usually happens a day or two  The combined effects of this
before ovulation and is spike in estrogen on the uterus
responsible for stimulating the and cervix help to optimize the
rupture of the ovarian follicle and chance of fertilization, which is
the release of the oocyte highest between day 11 and day
 For most of the follicular phase, 15 of an average 28-day cycle.
the pituitary saves its energy, OVARIAN LUTEAL PHASE
then when it senses that the  Following ovulation, the
dominant follicle ready for remnant of the ovarian follicle
release, the pituitary uses all its becomes the corpus luteum,
energy to secrete enough FSH which is made up of luteinized
and LH to induce ovulation. theca and granulosa cells,
ENDOMETRIUM MENSTRUAL meaning that these cells have
PHASE been exposed to the high LH
 While the ovary is busy levels that occur just before
preparing an egg for ovulation, ovulation.
BIO 228B .
32
Course: Zoology
 Luteinized theca cells keep  During this time spiral arteries
secreting androstenedione, and grow the most and become
the luteinized granulosa cells coiled, and the uterine glands
keep converting it to 17β- begin to secrete more mucus.
estradiol, as before.  After day 15 of the cycle, the
 However, luteinized granulosa optimal window for fertilization
cells also respond to the low begins to close.
luteinizing hormone  The cervical mucus starts to
concentrations that are present thicken and becomes less
after ovulation by increasing the hospitable to the sperm.
activity of cholesterol side-chain  Over time, the corpus luteum
cleavage enzyme, or P450scc for gradually degenerates into the
short. nonfunctional corpus albicans.
 This enzyme converts more  The corpus albicans doesn’t
cholesterol to pregnenolone, a make hormones, so estrogen and
progesterone precursor. progesterone levels slowly
 So luteinized granulosa cells decrease.
secrete more progesterone than  When progesterone reaches its
estrogen during the luteal phase. lowest level, the spiral arteries
 Progesterone acts as a collapse, and the functional layer
negative feedback signal on the of the endometrium prepares to
pituitary, decreasing release of shed through menstruation.
FSH and LH.  This shedding marks the
 At the same time, luteinized beginning of a new menstrual
granulosa cells begin secreting cycle and another opportunity for
inhibin, which similarly inhibits fertilization.
the pituitary gland from making SUMMARY
follicle stimulating hormone.  The menstrual cycle begins on
 Both of these processes result the first day of menstruation.
in a decline in estrogen levels,  For an average 28-day
meaning that progesterone menstrual cycle, the changes
becomes the dominant hormone which occur in the ovary during
present during this phase of the the first 14 days are called the
cycle. follicular phase.
 Together with the decreased  Ovulation usually occurs at day
level of estrogen, the rising 14, as a result the estrogen-
progesterone level signals that induced surge in luteinizing
ovulation has occurred and helps hormone.
make the endometrium receptive  The last 14 days of the cycle
to the implantation of a fertilized are the luteal phase, during which
gamete. progesterone becomes the
UTERUS SECRETORY PHASE dominant hormone.
 Under the influence of  While the length of the
progesterone, the uterus enters follicular phase can vary, the
into the secretory phase of the luteal phase almost always
endometrial cycle.
BIO 228B .
33
Course: Zoology
precedes the onset of menses by  In a normal delivery your
14 days. baby's head will rotate to face
 The uterus also goes through your back
its own set of changes.  During active labor your uterus
 During the first 14 days of the is divided into an active segment
cycle, the endometrium goes that contracts, pushing the baby
through the menstrual phase and downward and a flexible passive
the proliferative phase, and segment that remains relaxed,
during the last 14 days it goes stretching to provide more room
through the secretory phase. for the baby to pass through
LABOR AND BIRTH
 During a vaginal child birth the
first stage of Labor lasts about 12
to 19 hours and starts when your
baby settles lower into your
pelvis in response your cervix
begins to become thinner and
dilate or widen.
 During this time you may feel
strong regular contractions
occurring every 5 to 20 minutes  When the top of your baby's
and back pain and cramping that head appears or crowns your
doesn't go away doctor may make a small cut
 You may see a brownish or called an episiotomy to enlarge
reddish mucus discharge which the vaginal opening
could be the mucus plug at the  Then, your doctor or Midwife
opening of your cervix falling out will give you instructions on how
 Your water may break which to push your baby out
can either be a large gush of fluid  As your baby's head passes
or a continuous trickle through the birth canal it moves
 If you experience any of these into an elongated shape and an
symptoms contact your doctor or elongated head shape will resolve
Midwife to see if you should go to itself within a few days as the
the hospital skull bones shift back into place
 At the beginning of stage two  After your baby's head exits
of Labor which usually lasts from the birth canal his or her head
20 minutes to 2 hours and shoulders will rotate to help
 Your cervix is fully dilated to 10 the shoulders pass through the
cm and your baby's head has birth canal your baby shoulders
moved beyond the cervical are delivered one after the other
opening into your birth canal in order to fit through your pelvis.
 Your doctor or Midwife will  Once the shoulders emerge,
instruct you to push during your the rest of your baby slides out
contractions and rest between easily
them  After your baby is born his or
her umbilical cord will be cut

BIO 228B .
34
Course: Zoology
 In stage three of Labor which
may last 5 to 30 minutes, mild
contractions will help push the
placenta out of the uterus
 During this stage you and your
baby may begin bonding through
skin-to-skin contact and
breastfeeding
STRUCTURE OF REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMS
 The basic components of VERTEBRATE REPRODUCTIVE
reproductive systems are similar SYSTEMS
in sexual animals, although  Urogenital system because of
differences in reproductive habits their close anatomical connection,
and methods of fertilization have especially in males
produced many variations.
 Sexual systems consist of two
components:
(1)Primary organs
 The gonads that produce
sperm and eggs and sex
hormones
(2)Accessory organs
 Assist the gonads in formation and
delivery of gametes, and may also
serve to support the embryo.
 They are of great variety, and
include gonoducts (sperm ducts and
oviducts), accessory organs for
transferring spermatozoa into the
female, storage organs for
spermatozoa or yolk, packaging
systems for eggs, and nutritional
organs such as yolk glands and
placenta.

OPISTHONEPHROS

BIO 228B .
35
Course: Zoology
and morphogenesis contribute to
the development of form
 The development of form
requires not only cell division and
growth but also cell
determination and cell
differentiation; and pattern
formation and morphogenesis
CELL DIFFERENTIATION &
DETEMINATION
 Functional kidney of adult  As embryonic development
lampreys, fishes, and amphibians proceeds, cell division gives rise
METANEPHROS to increasing numbers of cells
 In cell differentiation, certain
cells become biochemically and
structurally specialized to carry
out specific functions
 Cell differentiation occurs
through cell determination, in
which activities of certain genes
are altered to progressively
commit a cell to a particular
differentiation pathway
DIFFERENTIAL GENE EXPRESSION
 The principle of nuclear
equivalence states that all cells of
 Functional kidney of adult an animal contain the same
reptiles, genetic information, but each cell
birds, and mammals type expresses a different subset
DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH of that information
 This differential gene
expression is responsible for
variations in chemistry, behavior,
and structure among cells
 Not all cells differentiate –
stem cells remain
 Development includes all the undifferentiated and retain the
changes that take place in an ability to give rise to various cell
individual during its life types
 The zygote divides by mitosis, PATTERN FORMATION AND
forming an embryo MORPHOGENESIS
 In animals, growth occurs  During development,
primarily by an increase in the differentiated cells become
number of cells progressively organized into a
 Cell determination, cell multicellular animal
differentiation, pattern formation
BIO 228B .
36
Course: Zoology
 Development of form  Egg coverings facilitate
(morphogenesis) proceeds fertilization by sperm of the same
through the process of pattern species and bar interspecific
formation fertilization in species with
 Pattern formation is a series external fertilization (e.g. sea
of steps requiring signaling urchin)
between cells, changes in shapes
of certain cells, precise cell
migrations, interactions with the
extracellular matrix, and
apoptosis (programmed cell
death) of some cells
FERTILIZATION
 In fertilization, a motile sperm  Sea urchin eggs are covered by
fuses with a large, immotile two layers that interact with
ovum to produce a zygote sperm: a vitelline envelope and a
 Fertilization has two important glycoprotein jelly coat
genetic consequences:  When a sea urchin sperm
(1)Restoration of the diploid contacts the jelly coat, the sperm
chromosome number undergoes an acrosome
(2)Determination of the sex of reaction – membranes
the offspring surrounding the acrosome fuse,
 Fertilization also activates the and pores in the membrane
egg, initiating reactions that enlarge
permit development  Proteolytic enzymes digest a
 Fertilization involves four path through the jelly coat –
processes: bindin, a species-specific binding
(1) The sperm contacts the protein on the acrosome, adheres
egg and recognition to bindin receptors on the egg’s
occurs vitelline envelope
(2) The sperm or sperm SPERM ENTRY
nucleus enters the egg  In sea urchins, enzymes from
(3) The egg becomes the acrosome dissolve the
activated, and certain vitelline envelope in the area of
developmental changes the sperm head
begin  Microvilli on the plasma
(4) The sperm and egg nuclei membrane of the egg surround
fuse the head of the sperm, and the
CONTACT AND RECOGNITION plasma membranes fuse, forming
 An egg is surrounded by a a fertilization cone
plasma membrane and one or
more external coverings – a
mammalian egg is enclosed by a
thick, noncellular zona
pellucida, which is surrounded
by a layer of granulosa cells
BIO 228B .
37
Course: Zoology
 The completion of meiosis in
the egg forms the female
pronucleus
 The sperm nucleus swells and
forms the male pronucleus
 The haploid male and female
pronuclei fuse to form the diploid
Fertilization cone of sea urchin
nucleus of the zygote – DNA
 The fertilization cone draws the synthesis occurs in preparation
sperm into the egg for the first cell division
POLYSPERMY DIFFERENT PROCESSES IN
 Fertilization of the egg by more MAMMALS
than one sperm (polyspermy)  Before a mammalian sperm
results in offspring with extra sets participates in fertilization, it first
of chromosomes – a lethal undergoes capacitation, a
condition maturation process in the female
 In the fast block to polyspermy, reproductive tract
the egg plasma membrane  In mammals, a fertilization
depolarizes, which prevents envelope does not form –
fusion with additional sperm enzymes released during
exocytosis of the cortical granules
alter sperm receptors on the zona
pellucida so that no additional
sperm bind to them
CLEAVAGE
 The zygote is totipotent – it
gives rise to all the cell types of
the new individual
- In the slow block to  The zygote undergoes
polyspermy (cortical reaction), cleavage (rapid mitotic divisions
enzymes dissolve the protein with no period of growth),
linking the vitelline envelope and producing many small
the plasma membrane, forming a blastomeres
fertilization envelope  At about the 32-cell stage, the
EGG ACTIVATION embryo is a solid ball (morula)
 Release of calcium ions into  64 to several hundred
the egg cytoplasm stimulates the blastomeres form the blastula –
cortical reaction and triggers the a hollow ball with a fluid-filled
activation program, a series of cavity (blastocoel)
metabolic changes within the egg  Yolk is a mixture of proteins,
 Aerobic respiration increases; phospholipids, and fats that
maternal enzymes and other serves as food for the developing
proteins become active; and the embryo – the amount and
egg nucleus is stimulated to distribution of yolk vary among
complete meiosis different animal groups
SPERM AND EGG NUCLEI FUSE
BIO 228B .
38
Course: Zoology
 Cleavage, a series of rapid cell
divisions without growth, provides
cellular building blocks for
development
ISOLECITHAL EGGS
 Most invertebrates and simple
chordates have isolecithal eggs
with relatively small amounts of
yolk uniformly distributed through
the cytoplasm
 Isolecithal eggs divide
completely (holoblastic
cleavage) – cleavage of these
eggs is radial or spiral
RADIAL CLEAVAGE
 Radial cleavage is
characteristic of
deuterostomes, such as
chordates and echinoderms
(1) First division (vertical) splits Sea star development
the egg into two equal cells
(2) Second division, (vertical, at
right angles to the first
division) separates the two
cells into four equal cells
(3) Third division (horizontal, at
right angles to the other two)
separates the four cells into
eight cells
 Radial cleavage occurs in
echinoderms and amphioxus

Cleavage and Gastrulation in

Amphioxus
SPIRAL CLEAVAGE
 Spiral cleavage is common in
embryos of protostomes such as
annelids and mollusks
 In spiral cleavage, after the
first two divisions, the plane of
cytokinesis is diagonal to the
polar axis, resulting in a spiral
arrangement of cells – each cell is
located above and between two
underlying cel

BIO 228B .
39
Course: Zoology
8exhibit highly regulative
development, in which
individual cells produced by
cleavage divisions are equivalent
 Developmental patterns of
most animals fall somewhere
between these two extremes
 In some species, distribution of
Spiral Cleavage in an Annelid Embryo developmental determinants in
TELOLECITHAL EGGS the unfertilized egg is rearranged
 Telolecithal eggs of reptiles by sperm penetration
and birds have large amounts of  In amphibians, some of the
yolk at the vegetal pole and a cortical cytoplasm shifts,
small amount of cytoplasm at the revealing a gray crescent
animal pole opposite the point of sperm
penetration
 The position of the gray
crescent establishes right and left
halves of the embryo –
blastomeres with gray crescent
material develop into the dorsal
The blastodisc is a small disc of region of the embryo
cytoplasm on the upper surface of the
egg yolk.
 The yolk never cleaves – cell
division occurs in the blastodisc
at the animal pole (meroblastic
cleavage)

 Blastomeres or the blastodisc

form two layers separated by the
blastocoel cavity: an upper
epiblast and a lower hypoblast
 Some animals have rigid
developmental patterns (mosaic
development) due to unequal
distribution of developmental
determinants in the cytoplasm of
the zygote
 Mammals’ zygotes have very GASTRULATION
homogeneous cytoplasm – they
BIO 228B .
40
Course: Zoology
 The blastula becomes a three-
layered embryo (gastrula) by the
process of gastrulation
 Cells become arranged in three
distinct germ layers, or
embryonic tissue layers:
(1)Ectoderm, the outermost
layer
(2)Endoderm, the innermost
layer
(3)Mesoderm, the middle layer
 Each germ layer develops into
specific parts of the embryo
GASTRULATION IN ECHINODERMS Frog Gastrulation
 Simple gastrulation begins
when the vegetal pole of the
blastula wall flattens and bends
inward (invaginates), forming a
double-walled, cup-shaped
structure
 The new internal wall lines the
newly formed cavity of the
GASTRULATION IN BIRDS
developing gut (archenteron)
 In birds, cells of the epiblast
 In deuterostomes, the opening
migrate toward the midline to
of the archenteron to the exterior
form the primitive streak
(blastopore) is the site of the
 A narrow primitive groove at
future anus
the center of the primitive streak
GASTRULATION IN AMPHIBIANS
sinks inward then moves outward
 In amphibian (and amphioxus)
– the functional equivalent of the
embryos, large yolk-filled cells
blastopore (no archenteron)
obstruct any inward movement at
the vegetal pole
 Cells from the animal pole
move to the surface region
derived from the gray crescent,
then move to the interior, forming
the C-shaped dorsal lip of the
blastopore
 As the process continues, yolk-
filled cells fill the space enclosed  Hensen’s node forms at the
by the lips of the blastopore, anterior end of the primitive
forming the yolk plug streak – cells destined to form the
 The archenteron expands at notochord sink and move
the anterior end of the embryo anteriorly, forming a narrow
extension of the node

BIO 228B .
41
Course: Zoology
ORGANOGENESIS
 Gastrulation leads to organ
formation (organogenesis)
 Ectoderm forms the outer
layer of skin and gives rise to the
nervous system and sense organs  Cells of the neural plate move
 Also gives rise to the outer layer of downward and form a depression
the skin (epidermis), its associated (neural groove) between two
structures (nails, hair, etc.), and the neural folds (approx.. 19 days
pituitary gland
for humans)
 Endoderm forms tissues that
line the digestive tract, and
organs that develop as
outgrowths of the digestive tract
(including liver, pancreas, and
lungs)
 Also gives rise to the lining of the
respiratory system
 Neural folds meet and fuse to
 Mesoderm forms skeletal
form the neural tube – the
tissue, muscle, and the
anterior portion differentiates into
circulatory, excretory, and
the brain; the rest develops into
reproductive systems
 Also gives rise to the notochord,
the spinal cord
inner layer of the skin (dermis) outer
layers of digestive tube and of
structures that develop from it such as
part of the respiratory system
DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
 One of the earliest events in
organogenesis (organ  Motor nerves arise from the
development) is neurulation, developing brain and spinal cord –
the origin of the central nervous sensory nerves arise from
system ectoderm (neural crest) cells
 Notochord, brain, and spinal MESODERMAL STRUCTURES
cord are among the first organs  Blocks of mesoderm (somites)
to develop in the early vertebrate that form on either side of the
embryo neural tube give rise to the
 The notochord (mesodermal vertebrae, muscles, kidneys,
tissue) forms a cylindrical rod of reproductive structures, and
cells which eventually is replaced circulatory organs
by the vertebral column HEART
 Notochord cells stimulate
(induce) differentiation of
overlying ectoderm to form the
precursor of the central nervous
system, the neural plate

BIO 228B .
42
Course: Zoology
(1)Chorion
(2)Amnion
(3)Allantois
(4)Yolk sac
CHORION
 outermost membrane
 Encloses the entire embryo
and other membranes
 Major organ of gas exchange
AMNION
 Encloses the embryo
 Secretes protective amniotic
 Heart and blood vessels are fluid that fills the amniotic cavity
among the first structures to form between the embryo and the
– two blood vessels fuse to form amnion
an atrium and ventricle, which  Amniotic fluid obtained by
are partitioned into right and left amniocentesis can be analyzed
chambers for biochemical or chromosomal
DIGESTIVE TRACT AND LUNGS abnormalities
 The digestive tract forms as a ALLANTOIS
separate foregut and hindgut –  An outgrowth of the developing
the body wall grows and folds, digestive tract
cutting them off as two simple  In reptiles and birds, it stores
tubes lined with endoderm nitrogenous wastes
 The liver, pancreas, and  In humans, its blood vessels
trachea originate as hollow, contribute to the formation of
tubular outgrowths from the gut umbilical vessels joining the
 The trachea gives rise to lungs embryo to the placenta
PHARYNGEAL POUCHES YOLK SAC
 The anterior part of the foregut  Encloses the yolk, slowly
becomes the pharynx digests it, and makes it available
 Pharyngeal pouches bud out to the embryo – connected to the
laterally and meet inpocketings embryo by a yolk stalk
from overlying ectoderm  Walls form blood cells
(branchial grooves) temporarily
 Branchial arches between
the grooves contain skeletal,
neural, and vascular elements of
the face, jaws, and neck
 In fishes, pharyngeal pouches
and branchial grooves form gill
slits – in terrestrial vertebrates, a
pharyngeal pouch forms the
middle-ear cavity and eustachian
tube
EXTRAEMRYONIC MEMBRANES
BIO 228B .
43
 Course: Zoology

 The embryo undergoes cleavage

and enters the uterus about the fifth
day of development
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT  In the uterus, the cells form a
 The human gestation period blastocyst
averages 266 days (38 weeks, or 9  The outer layer (trophoblast)
months) from fertilization to birth of eventually forms the chorion and
the baby amnion that surround the embryo
 Fertilization occurs in the oviduct  The inner cell mass, which
– within 24 hours the zygote has projects into the cavity of the
divided to become a two-celled blastocyst, gives rise to the embryo
embryo proper
 About the seventh day of
development, the embryo begins to
embed in the endometrium of the
uterus (implantation)
 Trophoblast cells secrete enzymes
that erode the area of implantation
in the endometrium

THE PLACENTA
 In placental mammals, the
placenta provides nutrients and
oxygen for the fetus and removes
wastes – it also secretes
estrogens and progesterone to
maintain pregnancy
BIO 228B .
44
Course: Zoology
 The placenta develops from  Muscles develop, and the
embryonic and maternal tissues embryo becomes capable of
– chorionic villi invade the movement
endometrium and become  The brain begins to send
vascularized as the embryonic impulses that regulate the
circulation develops functions of some organs, and a
 The umbilical cord connects few simple reflexes are evident
the embryo to the placenta –  After the first two months of
umbilical arteries carry embryonic development, the embryo is
blood to capillaries in the referred to as a fetus
chorionic villi; the umbilical vein
returns blood to the embryo
 Maternal and fetal blood do not
mix – the two are separated by a
membrane through which
substances may diffuse or be
actively transported
 The placenta produces several
hormones:
 Trophoblastic cells release
human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG), which signals the corpus
luteum to produce large amounts of
progesterone and estrogens
 After the 11th week, the placenta
produces progesterone and
Human fetus after 10 weeks
estrogens to maintain pregnancy
FIRST TRIMESTER  By the end of the first
 Gastrulation occurs during the trimester, external genital
second and third weeks of structures have differentiated,
development; the notochord indicating the sex of the fetus
begins to form and induces  Ears and eyes approach their
formation of the neural plate and final positions
neural tube  Some of the skeleton becomes
 The heart begins to beat distinct, and the developing
spontaneously after 3.5 weeks vertebral column has replaced
 Near the end of the fourth the notochord
week, limb buds that give rise to  The fetus performs breathing
arms and legs begin to movements, pumping amniotic
differentiate fluid into and out of the lungs
 Forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain appear by the fifth
week
 Organs continue to develop SECOND TRIMESTER
during the second month  During the second trimester
(months 4-6), the fetal heart can
be heard with a stethoscope
BIO 228B .
45
Course: Zoology
 During the fifth month the fertilized egg, and have identical
mother usually becomes aware of sets of genes
weak fetal movements  Dizygotic twins (fraternal
(“quickening”) twins) develop when two eggs are
THIRD TRIMESTER ovulated and each is fertilized by
 The fetus grows rapidly during a different sperm – each zygote
third trimester (months 7-9) – has its own distinctive genes
final differentiation of tissues and  A family history of twinning
organs occurs increases the probability of
 During the seventh month, the having dizygotic twins – giving
cerebrum grows rapidly and birth to monozygotic twins is not
develops convolutions – grasping influenced by heredity or other
and sucking reflexes are evident, known factors
and the fetus may suck its thumb ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR
 Any infant born before 37 AFFECTING THE EMBRYO
weeks (out of 40) is considered  Prenatal development is
premature – a full-term baby highly sensitive to environmental
weighs about 3000 g (6.6 lb) and substances that travel across the
measures about 52 cm (20 in) in placenta (e.g. nutrients, drugs,
total length pathogens, and gases)
 Teratogens (drugs or other
substances that interfere with
morphogenesis) cause
malformations
 Smoking, alcohol use, and poor
nutrition contribute to low birth
weight – responsible for many
infant deaths
 Timing is important – each
developing structure has a critical
period during which it is most
susceptible to malformations
 Because most structures form
during the first three months of
embryonic life, the embryo is
most susceptible to
environmental factors during the
first trimester
 During part of this time, the
woman may not even realize she
is pregnant and so may not take
special precautions to minimize
potential dangers
MULTIPLE BIRTHS
 Monozygotic twins (identical
twins) develop from a single

BIO 228B .
46
 Course: Zoology
ARCHITECTURAL PATTERN OF AN (22) Tardigrada (water
ANIMAL bears)
(1)Animal Phyla (23) Onychophora (velvet
(2)Hierarchal Organization worms)
(3)Animal Planes (24) Priapulida (priapulids)
ANIMAL PHYLA (25) Echinodermata
 Zoologists recognize 32 phyla (starfish, sea urchins, sea
of multicellular animal. cucumbers)
(1)Porifera (sponges) (26) Hemichordata (acorn
(2)Cnidaria (corals, jellyfish, worms)
anemones) (27) Chordata (vertebrates
(3)Placozoa (simple, flattened and their closest relatives)
animals) (28) Chaetognatha (arrow
(4)Ctenophora (comb jellies) worms)
(5)Acoelomorpha (acoels) (29) Cycliophora (small,
(6)Orthonectida (parasites of tentacle-bearing animals)
invertebrates) (30) Entoprocta
(7)Rotifera (rotifers) (tentacle-bearing animals)
(8)Gastrotricha (microscopic, (31) Gnathostomulida (jaw
aquatic animals) worms)
(9)Platyhelminthes (flatworms) (32) Micrognathozoa (tiny
(10) Nemertea (ribbon jaw animals)
worms) HIERARCHAL ORGANIZATION OF
(11) Annelida (segmented ANIMAL COMPLEXITY
worms) (1) Protoplasmic
(12) Mollusca (snails, (2) Cellular
clams, octopuses) (3) Cell-tissue
(13) Brachiopoda (4) Tissue-organ
(lampshells) (5) Organ-system
(14) Bryozoa (moss PROTOPLASMIC
animals)
(15) Phoronida (horseshoe
worms)
(16) Nematomorpha
(horsehair worms)  Protoplasmic grade of
(17) Nematoda organization-characterizes
(roundworms) unicellular organisms.
(18) Kinorhyncha (mud  All life functions are confined
dragons) within the boundaries of a single
(19) Loricifera (tiny marine cell, the fundamental unit of life.
animals)  Within a cell, protoplasm is
(20) Priapulida (penis differentiated into organelles
worms) capable of performing specialized
(21) Arthropoda (insects, functions.
spiders, crustaceans)  Examples are unicellular
organisms like Paramecium

BIO 228B .
47
 Course: Zoology
CELLULAR  An excellent example of a tissue
in cnidarians is the nerve net, in
which nerve cells and their
processes form a definite tissue
structure, with the function of
coordination.
 Cellular grade of organization- TISSUE-ORGAN
an aggregation of cells that are
functionally differentiated.
 A division of labor is evident, so
that some cells are concerned
with, for example, reproduction,  Tissue-organ grade of
and others with nutrition. organization-an aggregation of
 Some flagellates, such as tissues that form organs in a
Volvox, that have distinct somatic further step in complexity.
and reproductive cells are placed  Organs are usually composed of
at the cellular level of more than one kind of tissue and
organization. have a more specialized function
 Many authorities also place than tissues.
sponges at this level.  Chief functional cells are called
CELL-TISSUE parenchyma and the supportive
tissues are the stroma
 Example: the secreting cells of
the pancreas are the parenchyma
and the capsule and the
connective tissues represent the
stroma.
 Cell-tissue grade of  This is the overall organizational
organization-an aggregation of level of flatworms
similar cells into definite patterns (Platyhelminthes), which possess
or layers and organized to perform well-defined organs such as
a common function, to form a eyespots, proboscis, and excretory
tissue (highly coordinated unit). organs.
Animals at or beyond the cell-  In flatworms, the reproductive
tissue grade of organization is structures are organized into a
called eumetazoans system that is characteristic of the
 Sponges are considered by next level of organizational
some authorities to belong to this complexity.
grade, although jellyfish and their ORGAN-SYSTEM
relatives (Cnidaria) more clearly
demonstrate the tissue plan.
 Both groups are still largely of
the cellular grade of organization
because most cells are scattered  Organ-system grade of
and not organized into tissues. organization-organs working
together to perform some function,

BIO 228B .
48
 Course: Zoology
producing the highest level of
organization-an organ system.
 Systems are associated with
basic body functions such as
circulation, respiration, digestion,
skeletal, muscular, integumentary,
execretory, nervous, endocrine,
immune and reproductive.
 The simplest animals having
this type of organization are
nemertean worms, which have a
complete digestive system distinct
from the circulatory system.
 Most animal phyla demonstrate
this type of organization.  Applies to forms that can be
ANIMAL BODY PLANES divided into similar halves by more
(1)Animal Symmetry than two planes (like slicing a pie)
(2)Body Cavities and Germ  Tubular, vase, or bowl-shaped
Layers that have a longitudinal axis as an
(3)Complete Gut oral side (mouth) and the other as
(4)Segmentation an aboral surface. Ex: Radiata
ANIMAL SYMMETRY (Cnidaria & Ctenophora.
(1)Spherical symmetry  These animals are either
(2)Radial symmetry sessile, freely floating or weakly
(3)Bilateral symmetry swimming.
SPHERICAL SYMMETRY  However, those with no anterior
or posterior end can interact with
their environment in all directions
BIRADIAL SYMMETRY

 Any plane passing through the

center divides a body into
equivalent, or mirrored, halves
 Are best suited for floating and
rolling.
RADIAL SYMMETRY
 Where the organism can be
divided, like radial symmetry, but
in two planes only
 Example: comb jellies
BILATERAL SYMMETRY

BIO 228B .
49
Course: Zoology

 Animals that can be divided

along a sagittal plane into two
mirrored portions— right and left
halves
 Bilateral animals form a
monophyletic group of phyla
called the
Bilateria.
 Associated with cephalization
(differentiation of the head where
they move through the
environment head first).
 More fitted for forward
movement than radial animals
REGIONS OF LOCATION
Anterior  head end
Posterior  opposite, tail
end
Dorsal  Back or upper
side
Ventral  front or belly
side
Medial  Midline of the
body
Lateral  sides
Distal farther from the
middle of the body
Proximal  nearer to the
body

BIO 228B .
50
Course: Zoology
Frontal or  divides the body
coronal into dorsal &
plane ventral halves
Sagittal  Left and right
axis
Transver  Divides into
se anterior and
posterior (cross-
section)
Pectoral  chest area
Pelvic  hip region

BIO 228B .
47
Course: Zoology
A COMPLETE & INCOMPLETE GUT arrangement includes both
(1)Blind or incomplete gut cavity external and internal structures of
(2)Complete gut several systems.
BLIND OR INCOMPLETE GUT  There is repetition of muscles,
CAVITY blood vessels, nerves, and setae
of locomotion
 Segmentation permits greater
body mobility and complexity of
structure and function
BODY CAVITIES AND GERM
 Where food must enter and
LAYERS
exit the same opening
 A body cavity is an internal
COMPLETE GUT
space like a gut cavity or
 There is a one-way flow of food
digestive tract.
from mouth to anus
 All animals, develop from a
zygote to a blastula stage. A
typical spherical blastula is com
posed of a layer of cells
surrounding a fluid-filled cavity, a
blastocoel that has no external
SEGMENTATION opening, so it could not serve as a
 Segmentation, also called gut.
metamerism, is a serial repetition  In animals other than sponges,
of similar body segments along development proceeds from a
the longitudinal axis of the body. blastula to a gastrula stage, as
 Each segment is called a one side of the blastula pushes
metamere, or somite. inward, making a depression,
called a gut cavity, gastrocoel
or archenteron.
 The external opening is the
blastopore (becomes mouth or
anus)
 The gut lining is the
endoderm and the outer layer if
cells surrounding the blastocoel is
the ectoderm.
 Two germ layers: dipoblastic
 The third germ layer is the
 In forms such as earthworms mesoderm animals with 3 germ
metamerism is most clearly layers are trripoblastic
represented, the segmental

BIO 228B .
48
Course: Zoology

BIO 228B .
49
Course: Zoology
COMPONENTS OF ANIMAL BODIES  Provide mechanical stability
 Animal bodies consist of and protection.
cellular components, derived  Act also as a storage depot of
from the three embryonic germ materials for exchange between
layers—ectoderm, mesoderm, the cells and interstitial fluid, and
and endoderm— as well as serve as a medium for
extracellular components. extracellular reactions.
EXTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS CELLULAR COMPONENTS: TISSUE
 two important non-cellular
components:
(1)Body fluids
(2)Extracellular structural
elements.
BODY FLUIDS
 body fluids are subdivided into
two fluid “compartments”:
(1) Intracellular space, within
the body’s cells
(2) Extracellular space,
outside the cells.
EXTRACELLULAR SPACE
 Animals with closed vascular
systems
 the extracellular fluids are EPITHELIAL TISSUE
subdivided into  A sheet of cells that over
(1)blood plasma – the fluid external or internal surface
portion of blood  The study of tissues is
(2)interstitial fluid – also histology
called tissue fluid, occupies (1)Simple Squamous epithelium
the spaces around the cell (2)Simple Cuboidal epithelium
 Many invertebrates have open (3)Simple Columnar epithelium
circulatory systems, however, (4)Stratified squamous epithelium
with no true separation of blood (5)Transitional epithelium
plasma from interstitial fluid. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
 Supportive material of the
organism, including connective
tissue (especially well developed
in vertebrates but present in all
animals), cartilage
(molluscs and chordates), bone
(vertebrates), and cuticle
(arthropods, nematodes,
annelids, and others).  Composed of flattened cells
that form the lining of blood
BIO 228B .
50
Course: Zoology
capillaries, lung and other
surfaces where diffusion of gas
and the transport of other
molecules in & out of cavities
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

 two or more layers of cells to

withstand mild abrasion and
distortion
 composed of short box-like  Desmosomes (junctional
cells complexes) are found between
 lines small ducts and tubules thse cell where they resist
lie kidney, and salivary glands epithelial cell distortion
 may have active secretory or  Line the oral cavity,
absorptive functions esophagus, and the anal canal
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM and the vagina or mammals
 The epidermis is also made up
of this tissue with the upper layer
being keratinized to protect the
lower layers
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

 Like cuboidal but taller and

elongated nuclei
 Found in highly absorptive
surfaces like the intestinal tract
 Stratified epithelium
 Most have microvilli to increase
specialized for great stretching
absorptive surface
 Found in the urinary tract and
 In female reproductive cells,
the bladder of vertebrates
they can be cilated
 It can appear to be 4 or 5
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
layers thic but when stretched
EPITHELIUM
appears to have only 2 or 3 layers
of flattened cells
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Serve various binding and
supportive function
 Composed of a few cells and
extracellular fibers and a
BIO 228B .
51
Course: Zoology
ground substance where fibers
are suspended. Together they are
called a matrix
(1)Loose connective tissue
(2)Dense connective
(3)Cartilage
(4)Bone
(5)Adipose Tissue
(6)Blood

LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE  Forms tendons, ligament and

faciae (arranged as sheets or
band along the skeletal muscle)
CARTILAGE

 Also called areolar connective

tissue
 The packing material of the  Semi-rigid form of connective
body that support blood vessels, tissue composed of a firm matrix
nerve and organs containing cell (chondrocyte)
 Has fibroblasts that synthesize located in pockets called lacunae
fibers and ground substance and collagen and/or elastic fibers.
 This includes collagen fibers  Hyaline cartilage is the most
(thick and stained purple) and common
thin elastic fibers (branching &  Because cartilage lacks blood
black in the picture) supply, all nutrient and waste
COLLAGEN materials must diffuse through
 A protein of great tensile ground substance from
strength surrounding tissues, and it heals
 for resistance, flexibility and slowly after damage
stretching BONE
DENSE CONNECTIVE

BIO 228B .
52
Course: Zoology

 For the transport of oxygen

around the body
 Strongest of vertebrate MUSCULAR TISSUE
connective tissues composed of a  Most abundant tissue in the
calcified matric with salts body of most animals
organized around collagen fibers.  Originates from mesoderm and
 Lacunae within the matrix it unit is the muscle cell or fiber
contain bone cell and osteocytes for contraction
which communicate with each  Striated muscle appears
other by cellular processes that transversely striped with
form gap junction with processes alternating light and dark bands
from neighboring osteocytes under the microscope
ADIPOSE TISSUE  Two types of striated muscle:
(1) Skeletal Muscle
(2) Cardiac Muscle
 Obliquely striated muscle is in
soft bodied animals that has
diagonally arranged fibers. It has
slower contraction rates
compared to striated muscles
 Another muscle type lacks the
stripes and is called:
 Fat storage (3) Smooth muscle
 Found underneath the skin,  Cytoplasm of muscle fibers is
breasts, and the abdomen the sarcoplasm while contractile
BLOOD proteins within the fiber are
myofibrils
SKELETAL MUSCLE

BIO 228B .
53
Course: Zoology
from the brain may alter pace
activity)
SMOOTH MUSCLE

 Occurs in both invertebrates

and vertebrates
 Long cylindrical fiber which are
multinucleate cell that reach from  lacks alternating bands like
one end of the muscle to the striated muscle
other.  Long and tapering with 1
 A voluntary muscle because it central nuclei
contracts when stimulated by  Most common muscle type
nerves under the conscious which serve as body-wall
central nervous system control musculature and surrounds duct
 Controlled by both stimulatory and sphincters
or inhibitory nerve activity  In vertebrates, it also
CARDIAC MUSCLE surrounds the blood vessels and
internal organs like the intestine
and the uterus
 Involuntary muscle because its
contraction is not consciously
controlled
NERVOUS TISSUE
 Specialized for reception of
stimuli and conduction of
impulses from one body region to
another.
 only in vertebrates  Two basic cell types:
 cells are shorter and have one (1) Neurons (nerve) – basic
nucleus only functional unit of nervous
 Branching fibers with cell system
interconnected by junctional (2) Neuroglia – non-
complexes called tercalated neuronal cell type that
discs. insulates neuron
 An involuntary muscle because membranes and serve
it does not respond to nerves various supportive
under conscious control functions
 The heart rate is controlled by  From the nucleated cell body,
specialized pacemaker cells in or soma, extend one or more
the heart. (autonomic nerves dendrites, which receive
BIO 228B .
54
Course: Zoology
electrical signals from receptors
or other nerve cells, and a single
axon that carries signals away
from the cell body to other nerve
cells or to an effector organ.
 The axon is often called a
nerve fiber.
 The insulating sheath or
myelin sheath increases the
speed at which electrical signals
are transmitted along an axon.
 Neurons are separated from
other neurons or from effector
organs by specialized junctions
called synapses.

BIO 228B .
55
Course: Zoology
SYTEMATICS jefferyi – father of
discoverer)
BIODIVERSITY (2)Homo sapiens (wise man)
 Biologists estimate that less HISTORY OF SYSTEMATICS
than 10% of bacteria, 10% of  From the time of Aristotle to
fungi, 2% of nematodes, and 20% the mid-19th century, biologists
of insect species have been divided organisms into two
identified kingdoms: Plantae and Animalia
 The variety of living organisms  In 1866 Ernst Haeckel
and the ecosystems they are part proposed that a third kingdom,
of are referred to as biological Protista, be established for
diversity (biodiversity) bacteria and other
 Unfortunately, human activity microorganisms
is seriously reducing biodiversity,  1969: R. H. Whittaker proposed
and species are becoming extinct a five-kingdom classification
faster than researchers can study based on cell structure and mode
them of nutrition
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISM  Kingdom Fungi was
 Systematics is the scientific established for mushrooms,
study of the diversity of molds, and yeasts
organisms and their  Kingdom Prokaryotae was
evolutionary relationships established for bacteria
 Taxonomy is science of  1970s: Carl Woese showed that
naming, describing, and there are two fundamentally
classifying organisms different groups of prokaryotes,
 Classification is arranging so prokaryotes were divided into
organisms into groups based on two groups: Bacteria and Archaea
similarities that reflect  Today, many biologists have
evolutionary relationships among also abandoned kingdom Protista
lineages (as well as a kingdom
THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM classification for plants and
 Carolus Linnaeus simplified animals) and now assign the
scientific classification by eukaryotes to five “supergroups”
developing a binomial system based on molecular data
of nomenclature in which each TAXONOMIC LEVELS
species is assigned a unique two-  A taxon is a formal grouping of
part name organisms at any given level
 The first part designates the  Linnaeus’ system assigns each
genus species to a hierarchy of
 The second part (specific increasingly broader groups
epithet) designates the species (taxa)
 Example: Species > Genus > Family >
(1)Pithecophaga jefferyi Order >
(Pitheco – monkey, Class > Phylum > Kingdom >
phaga/phagus - eating; Domain
Si Gaga Friendly On Camera Pero Kirida
Daw
BIO 228B .
56
Course: Zoology
 Traditionally, biologists have  Key components of the
named organisms using a biological species concept
binomial system (in which each include:
species has a genus name (1)Interbreeding Capability
followed by a specific epithet) (2)Reproductive Isolation
and have classified organisms in (3)Fertile Offspring
taxonomic categories arranged in INTERBREEDING CAPABILITY
a hierarchy from most inclusive  Members of the same species
(domain) to least inclusive are capable of interbreeding with
(species) one another.
 This means that they can mate
and produce viable, fertile
offspring.

REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
 Reproductive isolation refers to
the barriers that prevent
members of different species
from successfully interbreeding.
 These barriers can be
prezygotic (before fertilization) or
postzygotic (after fertilization).
(1)Prezygotic Barrier
(2)Postzygotic Barrier
PREZYGOTIC BARRIER
 Before mating or gametic
recognition
POSTZYGOTIC BARRIER
 Horse (Equus ferus caballus)
and Donkey (Equus africanus
asinus) Hybrids (Mules)
FERTILE OFFSPRING
 Successful interbreeding
SPECIES
should result in the production of
 The biological species concept,
fertile offspring.
which defines a species as a
 If the offspring are sterile or
group of individuals that are
have reduced fertility, it may
capable of interbreeding and
indicate that the parent
producing fertile offspring under
organisms belong to different
natural conditions and are
species.
reproductively isolated from other
PROBLEMS OF BIOLOGICAL
such groups
SPECIES
 Popularized by biologist Ernst
(1)Asexually Reproducing
Mayr.
Organisms
KEY COMPONENTS
(2)Fossils
(3)Hybridization
BIO 228B .
57
Course: Zoology
(4)Geographic Isolation  Biologists now classify
(5)Ring Species organisms in three domains:
(6)Variation in Reproductive Archaea, Bacteria, and
Compatibility Eukarya (eukaryotes)
(7)Closely Related Species
(8)Cultural and Social Factors
SOME ALTERNATIVE SPECIES
CONCEPTS
(1)Ecological Species Concept
(2)Morphological Species Concept
(3)Phylogenetic Species Concept
(4)Typological Species Concept

ECOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT

 Defines a species based on its
ecological niche and interactions
BACTERIA
with the environment.
 Prokaryotes
 It emphasizes the role of
(Lack distinct
adaptations to specific ecological
nuclei and other
conditions.
membranous
MORPHOLOGICAL SPECIES
organelles)
CONCEPT
 Unicellular
 Defines a species based on
 Microscopic
observable physical traits
 Cell walls generally composed
(morphology).
of peptidoglycan
 Organisms that look similar are
Ecological Roles
considered members of the same
 Most are decomposers; some
species.
parasitic (and pathogenic)
PHYLOGENETIC SPECIES
 Some chemosynthetic
CONCEPT
autotrophs; some photosynthetic
 Defines a species as the
 Important in recycling nitrogen
smallest monophyletic group on a
and other elements
phylogenetic tree.
 Some used in industrial
 It considers evolutionary
processes
relationships and common
ARCHAEA
ancestry.
 Prokaryotes
TYPOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT
 Unicellular
 Each species is thought to
 Microscopic
have a "type specimen" that
 Peptidoglycan
embodies the essential
absent in cell
characteristics of that species.
walls
 Variations within a species
 Differ biochemically from
were often considered as
bacteria.
deviations from this ideal type.
Ecological Roles
DOMAINS
BIO 228B .
58
Course: Zoology
 Methanogens are anaerobes  Eukaryotes
that inhabit sewage, swamps, and  Heterotrophic
animal digestive tracts  Absorb
 Extreme halophiles inhabit nutrients
salty environments  Do not
 Extreme thermophiles inhabit photosynthesize
hot, sometimes acidic  Body composed of threadlike
environments. hyphae that form tangled masses
EUKARYA that infiltrate food or habitat
 Includes kingdom Protista,  Cell walls of chitin.
Plantae, and Fungi. Ecological Roles
PROTISTA  Decomposers
 Protists formerly  Some parasitic (and
classified in pathogenic)
kingdom Protista  Some form important symbiotic
now assigned to a relationships with plant roots
number of (mycorrhizae) or algae (lichens)
"supergroups"  Some used as food
 Eukaryotes  Yeast used in making bread
 Mainly unicellular or simple and alcoholic beverages
multicellular.  Some used to make industrial
Ecological Roles chemicals or anti- biotics
 Protozoa are an important part  Responsible for much spoilage
of zooplankton. and crop loss.
 Algae are important producers, ANIMALIA
especially in marine and  Eukaryotes
freshwater ecosystems; important  Multicellular
oxygen source. heterotrophs
 Some protists cause diseases,  Many exhibit
for example, malaria. tissue
PLANTAE differentiation and
 Eukaryotes complex organ systems
 Multicellular  Most able to move about by
 Photosynthetic muscular contraction nervous
 Possess tissue coordinates responses to
multicellular stimuli.
reproductive organs Ecological Roles
 Alternation of generations  Consumers
 Cell walls of cellulose.  Some specialized as
Ecological Roles herbivores, carnivores, or detritus
 Terrestrial biosphere depends feeders.
on plants in their role as primary CLADE
producers  Many systematists argue that
 Important source of oxygen in Linnaean categories are limiting
Earth's atmosphere. and do not fit well with recent
FUNGI findings
BIO 228B .
59
Course: Zoology
 Some systematists prefer
classifying organisms into clades
classify them in one of the three
domains
 A clade is a group of organisms
that share characters
(characteristics) inherited from a
common ancestor
 Some biologists use
PhyloCode, in which organisms
are grouped into clades based on
evolutionary relationships
 A species is defined as a
segment of a population lineage,
and taxonomic ranks are not
required
CLADOGRAM The Tree of Life
 Phylogenetic trees LATERAL GENE TRANSFER
graphically represent  When we think of how
hypothesized evolutionary organisms acquire their genes,
relationships we think of vertical gene
 A cladogram is a type of transfer in which genes are
phylogenetic tree in which each transmitted from parent to
branch represents a clade, a offspring within the same species
group of organisms with a  Genes can also move from one
common ancestor species to another species in the
 Each branching point (node) same generation – gene
represents the divergence of two swapping between organisms in
or more new groups from a one taxon and unrelated
common ancestor organisms in another taxon is
 Each branch of a cladogram called horizontal gene
represents one or more transfer, or lateral gene transfer
characteristics shared by the  Horizontal gene transfer can
clade, but not found in the occur by exchange of DNA among
ancestors of the clade different populations or species of
 The node at the base of the bacteria, or by interbreeding
cladogram (root) represents the between closely related groups
most recent common ancestor of  In eukaryotes, horizontal gene
all clades in the tree transfer has occurred by
 Cladograms depict endosymbiosis – one organism
evolutionary relationships of each living inside the cell of another
group, but not when a particular  Some systematists argue that
species evolved the common ancestor of all living
things may have been a
community of species that traded
genes (ring of life)
BIO 228B .
60
Course: Zoology
including structural,
developmental, behavioral, and
molecular similarities, as well as
from fossil evidence
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
 Identifying homologous traits
(structures derived from a recent
common ancestor) is important in
inferring phylogeny
 Not all similar traits are
Three-Domain Approach with
homologous – similar structures
Horizontal Gene Transfer
sometimes evolve when
unrelated species adapt to similar
environmental conditions
(convergent evolution)
 For example, bones in bat
wings, dog paws, and human
hands are homologous – butterfly
wings are not homologous

 Another challenge in
identifying homology is reversal,
Ring of Life Approach
in which a trait reverts to its
PHYLOGENY
ancestral state (removes a
 Modern taxonomy reconstructs
similarity that had evolved)
phylogeny – the evolutionary
history of a group of organisms
from a common ancestor
 Phylogenies help us
understand evolutionary patterns,
and to predict characteristics of
new species
 Evolutionary relationships
among species depend on the
degree of genetic divergence
since their populations branched  A characteristic that appears
from a common ancestor homologous but is acquired by
 Modern systematics seeks to convergent evolution or reversal
reconstruct phylogeny is said to exhibit homoplasy
(evolutionary history of a group of SHARED ANCESTRAL
species) based on common CHARACTERS
ancestry inferred from shared
characters (characteristics),
BIO 228B .
61
Course: Zoology
of birds: beaks, absence of teeth,
egg laying, and endothermy

MOLECULAR MARKERS
 Variations in structure of
specific macromolecules, like
 Determining which traits differences in anatomical
indicate evolutionary structure, result from mutations
relationships is extremely
important
 Shared ancestral characters
(plesiomorphies, "near form")
 Features that were present in
an ancestral species and remain
present in all groups descended
from that ancestor
 Characteristics found in the
largest group (such as phylum or  All living things can be
class) of organisms being studied, identified by unique sequences of
indicating the most remote DNA or RNA, like a genetic
common ancestry marker or barcode
 Example: Vertebral column in  This method can be used to
the subphylum Vertebrata distinguish among species that
look alike, for example, two
species of African elephants
MOLECULAR HOMOLOGIES
 The science of molecular
systematics focuses on molecular
structure to clarify evolutionary
relationships
 Macromolecules that are
 Determining which traits best functionally similar in two
illustrate evolutionary different types of organisms are
relationships can be challenging considered homologous if their
 Organisms are typically subunit sequence is similar
classified on the basis of a  The more subunit sequences of
combination of traits rather than two species correspond, the more
on any single trait closely related the species are
 Example: The duck-billed considered to be
platypus has many characteristics

BIO 228B .
62
Course: Zoology
 Also called a clade
 Includes an ancestral species
and all its descendants
 Defined by shared derived
characters
 Sister taxa share the most
recent common ancestor on a
cladogram

 Group I and group II are

monophyletic groups, or clades.
Each includes a common ancestor
and all its descendants
PARAPHYLETIC GROUP
 Contains a common ancestor
and some, but not all, of its
descendants
 Share ancestral characters

EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS
 Cladograms show three types
of taxonomic relationships:
(1) monophyletic,
(2) paraphyletic, and  Group III is paraphyletic. It
(3) polyphyletic includes some, but not all of the
descendants of the recent
common ancestor indicated at
node D.
POLYPHYLETIC GROUP
 Consists of several
evolutionary lines that do not
share the same recent common
MONOPHYLETIC GROUP ancestor
BIO 228B .
63
Course: Zoology
 Unnatural grouping that
misrepresent evolutionary
relationships

 Group IV is polyphyletic.
Members of this group do not
share the same recent common
ancestor.
Approaches to Systematics
(1)Phenetic approach  Cladists classify birds and
(2)Cladistics reptiles together because they
(3)Evolutionary systematic have a recent common ancestor
approach and are a monophyletic group.
 The cladogram shows the
PHENETIC APPROACH branching points in the evolution
 Numerical taxonomy of the major groups of reptiles.
 Based on the number of shared  Lizards, snakes, and crocodiles
characters are phenotypically most similar,
 Does not distinguish between but crocodiles, dinosaurs, and
shared ancestral characters and birds are most closely related
shared derived characters because they evolved most
 Currently used with molecular recently from a common ancestor
data (node D).
 Example: Species are placed at  Node F represents the
relative distances from one branching of two clades of
another based on the number of dinosaurs from a common
differences in amino acid ancestor, and the subsequent
sequence branching of birds from the
CLADISTICS dinosaurs.
 Phylogenetic systematics EVOLUTIONARY SYSTEMATIC
 Based on recent common APPROACH
ancestry (shared derived  Uses phenotypic similarity and
characters that can be structural, a combination of shared ancestral
behavioral, physiological, or characters and shared derived
molecular) characters to establish
 Expressed in cladograms evolutionary relationships and
 Example: Crocodiles, classifications
dinosaurs, and birds constitute a  Recognizes both monophyletic
monophyletic group, or clade and paraphyletic taxa
BIO 228B .
64
Course: Zoology
 Example: Recognizes the class
Reptilia (snakes, lizards,
crocodiles, dinosaurs, and turtles)
as a valid group even though is
paraphyletic and does not include
birds

 All of the seven vertebrate taxa

shown here have jaws, except the
lamprey. Jaws are a shared
derived character for these six
taxa.

 Evolutionary systematists
recognize the common ancestry
of birds and reptiles, but assign
them to different classes because
of their many unique adaptations.
 In this approach, reptiles are a  Tetrapod limbs are a shared
paraphyletic group. derived character for all
OUTGROUP ANALYSIS vertebrate taxa shown here
 Outgroup analysis is used to except the lamprey and sunfish.
estimate which attributes are
shared derived characters in a
given group of organisms
 An outgroup is a taxon
considered to have branched off
earlier than the taxa under
investigation, the ingroups
 An ideal outgroup is the closest
relative of the group being
studied, its sister taxon

 The taxa represented by lizard,

bear, chimpanzee, and human

BIO 228B .
65
Course: Zoology
are amniotes. They share the  The branching process
derived character amniotic egg. continues, using all the
characters, until all clades are
established
 As you trace the tree from root
to tips, each branch reflects the
addition of one or more shared
derived characters
 The order of divergence
(branching) is indicated by
relative distance from the base of
the diagram
 Relationships are determined
by tracing along branches back to
 Of the vertebrate taxa shown
the most recent common
here, only the chimpanzee and
ancestor
human share the derived
 The ancestor itself remains
character opposable thumb.
unspecified
CLADOGRAM STYLES
(1)Diagonal Branches
(2)Rectangular Branches
DIAGONAL BRANCHES

CONSTRUCTING A CLADOGRAM
 Cladograms (a type of
phylogenetic tree) are diagrams
of hypothetical evolutionary
relationships; they are  This cladogram, the style used
constructed by analyzing shared in this book, has diagonal
derived characters branches.
 Character states (present or
absent) are organized into their
correct evolutionary order using
outgroup analysis
 The root, or base, of the
cladogram represents the
common ancestor for all taxa
being analyzed
 To form a valid monophyletic
group, all members must share at
least one derived character
BIO 228B .
66
Course: Zoology
with the fewest homoplasies) be
accepted as most probable

 This is another way to depict

the same relationship shown in
the previous cladogram
RECTANGULAR BRANCHES  Hypothesis 1: Dolphins and
bony fishes are close relatives

 This cladogram has rectangular

branches and is rotated 90  Hypothesis 2: Dolphins and
degrees. However, it illustrates terrestrial mammals are close
the same relationships as the relatives.
other cladograms. MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD
PRINCIPLES OF PARSIMONY - A statistical method used to
 When choosing between make decisions, especially when
multiple, competing cladograms, analyzing molecular data
the most common criterion is the  Complex computer programs
principle of parsimony – the analyze large data sets and
simplest explanation to interpret report the probability of a
the data particular tree
 Parsimony requires that the  Example: The probability that
cladogram with the fewest nucleotide sequences in DNA and
changes in characters (the one
BIO 228B .
67
Course: Zoology
RNA change at a constant rate (9)Sessile
over time (10) Reproduction
PHYLUM PORIFERA MULTICELLULAR
(1)The Origins of Multicellularity
(2)Characteritics of Sponges
(3)Survey of Sponges
(4)Canal Systems and Water
movement
(5)Class Placozoa
THE ORIGINS OF  Body an aggregation of several
MULTICELLULARITY types of cells differentiated for
 Evolution of a eukaryotic cell various functions, some of which
was followed by diversification are organized into incipient
into many lineages, whose tissues with some integration.
descendants may be unicellular,
colonial, or multicellular.
 In colonial organisms, the body
is made of multiple cells but there
is no specialization among cells.
The model choanoflagellate called S.
 Seen in choanoflagellates, the rosetta which forms a ball of cells which
sister taxon of animals within the look like an animal embryo which shows us
opisthokont clade. the transition to multicellularity
 To be “multicellular,” an  However, the pinacoderm
organism must specialize cell approaches a true tissue
function and limit sexual epithelium in homoscleromorph
reproduction to certain cells. sponges.
 Animals traditionally were PORES, CANALS, AND CHAMBERS
divided into single-celled
“animals” called protozoans, and
multicellular “animals” called
metazoans.
 Because protozoans, now
divided among many taxa of  Body with pores (ostia),
unicellular eukaryotes, belong canals, and chambers that form a
outside the animal kingdom, unique system of water currents
metazoan is now synonymous on which sponges depend for
with “animal.” food and oxygen
CHARACTERITICS OF SPONGES AQUATIC
(1)Multicellular
(2)Pores, canals, and chambers
(3)Aquatic
(4)Radial symmetry or none
(5)Pinacocytes and Choanocytes
(6)Skeletal Structure  All sponges are aquatic and
(7)No organs and True tissues most of them are marine meaning
(8)Reactions to stimuli
BIO 228B .
68
Course: Zoology
they live in a salt water combined with variously modified
environment. collagen (spongin)
RADIAL SYMMETRY OR NONE

 Most sponges are

 Type IV collagen, characteristic
asymmetrical but some may
of other animals, occurs only in
exhibit radial symmetry
homoscleromorph sponges
PINACOCYTES AND
NO ORGANS OR TRUE TISSUES
CHOANOCYTES

 Outer surface of flat

pinacocytes
 Most interior surfaces lined  They have no developed
with flagellated collar cells organs or tissues so digestion is
(choanocytes) that create water simply intracellular
currents  Excretion and respiration
 A gelatinous protein matrix happens by diffusion
called mesohyl contains
amebocytes of various types REACTIONS TO STIMULI
and skeletal elements  Reactions to stimuli apparently
SKELETAL STRUCTURE local and independent in cellular
sponges
 Electrical signals occur in
syncytial glass sponges
 Nervous system probably
absent
SESSILE

 Skeletal structure of fibrillary

collagen (a protein) and
calcareous or siliceous
crystalline spicules, often
BIO 228B .
69
Course: Zoology
 Skeleton Absent or of siliceous
spicules without an axial filament
CLASS CALCISPONGIAE
 Like all sponges it has an
internal
system of
pores and
canals
 All adults sessile and attached  Has calcium
to substratum carbonate spicules
REPRODUCTION CLASS HEXACTINELLIDA
 Asexual  Like all sponges it has an
reproduction by internal system of pores and
buds or canals
gemmules  Has siliceous spicules
 Can also organized around a filaments
undergo sexual  Its spicules have six rays
reproduction by eggs and sperm  Has a syncytial trabecular
- free-swimming flagellated larvae reticulum
in most CLASS DEMOSPONGIAE
SURVEY OF SPONGES  Like all sponges it has an
(1)Class Calcispongiae internal system of pores and
(2)Class Hexactinellida canals
(3)Class Demospongiae  Like class Hexactinellida, it has
(4)Class Homoscleromorpha siliceous spicules organized
CLASS HOMOSCLEROMORPHA around a filaments
 Like all sponges  However, its spicules do not
it has an internal have six rays
system of pores  A sponging network is often
and canals present
CANAL SYSTEMS
AND WATER
MOVEMENT
(1)Asconoid
(2)Syconoid SYCONOID
(3)Leuconoid
ASCONOID

Leucosolenia

BIO 228B .
70
Course: Zoology
 From the Greek word knide
meaning nettle, and + L. aria
meaning like or connected with
 The name is related to cells
called cnidocytes, which contain
organelles (cnidae) exclusive
characteristic of the phylum,
most common type of this
organielle is the nematocyst
(stinging organelle).

Sycon

LEUCONOID

 Consists of more than 10,000

species
 Fossil record reaches back 580
million years
FORM AND FUNCTION
 Morphological types
(dimorphism) cnidarian forms:
Euspongia (1) Polyps
CLASS PLACOZOA (2) Medusas
Plate animals POLYPS

 A polyp, or hydroid form, which

is adapted to a sedentary or
sessile life
 Tubular bodies
 From the word “plax” or
“plakos” meaning plate and
“zōion” meaning animal
PHYLUM CNIDARIA

BIO 228B .
71
Course: Zoology

 Mouth surrounded by tentacles

defines the oral end of the body.
 Blind gut or gastrovascular
cavity
 Aboral end of the polyp is
usually attached to a substratum
by a pedal disc  Mouth is usually centered on
 Polyps may reproduce the concave (subumbrellar) side,
asexually by budding, fission, or and it may be pulled downward
pedal laceration into frilly lobes that extend a long
 colonies may include several way beneath the umbrella or bell
morphologically distinct polyps,  Tentacles extend outward from
each specialized for a certain the rim of the umbrella.
function, such as feeding,  Medusae have sensory
reproduction, or defense structures for orientation
(polymorphism) (statocysts) and light reception
 Feeding polyps, or hydranths (ocelli).
 Reproductive polyps, or  Sensory information is
gonangia integrated with motor response
by a nerve ring

MEDUSA
 A medusa, or jellyfish form,
which is adapted for a floating or
free- swimming existence
 Medusae are usually free-
swimming and have bell- or
umbrella-shaped bodies

BIO 228B .
72
Course: Zoology

CHARACTERISTICS OF A  Cnidocytes ('stinging cells')

CNIDARIAN are specialized cells that define
(1)Body wall the phylum Cnidaria
(2)Cnidocytes  Contain a type of organelles
(3)Feeding and Digestion called cnidae which has three
(4)Nerve Net type:
BODY WALL (1) Nematocyst
(2) Ptychocyst
(3) Spirocyst
NEMATOCYST

 This is the main type, present

 Outer epidermis, derived from in all Anthozoa.
ectoderm  With a harpoon-like structure
 Mesoglea in between which holds and paralyses small
 Inner gastrodermis, derived prey.
from endoderm

PTYCHOCYST
CNIDOCYTES

BIO 228B .
73
Course: Zoology
(1)Class Hydrozoa
(2)Class Scyphozoa
(3)Class Cubozoa
(4)Class Anthozoa
Tube anemones (5)Class Myxozoa
 This puts out a sticky CLASS HYDROZOA
substance.
 Used to hold on to prey, and to
help make tubes for burrowing
tube anemones.
SPIROCYST

 Are marine and colonial in

form, and a typical life cycle
includes both an asexual polyp
and a sexual medusa stage
 This is a lasso-like string that is  Includes Trachyline-like
fired at prey. hydrozoa, Hydroids, Man-o-war,
 Wraps around the prey and other hydrozoa
FEEDING AND DIGESTION CLASS SCYPHOZOA
 Are typically carnivorous,
catching prey with their tentacles,
and passing them through the
mouth into the gastrovascular
cavity for digestion
NERVE NET

 Includes most of the larger

jellies, or “cup animals.”
 Movement is by rhythmical
pulsations of the bell.
 Referred to as “true jellyfish”
 Dominant medusa stage
 About 200 recognized species
 widely recognized organisms
CLASS CUBOZOA

Viper jellyfish
 Solitary
 Polyp stage reduced;
 Bell-shaped medusae square in
cross section, with tentacle or
SURVEY OF CNIDARIANS group of tentacles hanging from a
BIO 228B .
74
Course: Zoology
bladelike pedalium at each corner
of the umbrella

 Body is reduced to a few cells

with no obvious cnidarian
features except a polar capsule
with an extrusible filament that
resembles the nematocyst
 Margin of umbrella entire,
without velum but with velarium
 All marine
 Example: Box jellyfish
CLASS ANTHOZOA
 Myxozoans or “slime animals”
were first discovered in the
1880’s and originally categorized
under Protista since all are
obligate parasites and many are
single-celled
 One species is incapable of
Rose sea anemones aerobic respiration, Henneguya
 Anthozoans, or “flower salminicola, a common salmon
animals,” (as the name means) parasite
are polyps with a flowerlike  Further genetic analysis proved
appearance. this wrong since myxozoans
 No medusa stage. actually evolved unicellularity
 All marine and occur in both from jellyfish-like ancestors
deep and shallow water and in making them animal
polar as well as tropical seas.
 Can be solitary or colonial.
 Supported by skeletons.
CLASS MYXOZOA

 They have complex parasitic

 Spore-producing aquatic life cycles that involve an
endoparasites whose typical life intermediate or secondary host,
cycle alternates between fish and usually fish, and a definitive or
annelid worm hosts. primary host like worms or
bryozoans

BIO 228B .
75
Course: Zoology
 Daughter cells develop inside
the mother cells (cell-in-cell
state)
 They divide and spread via the
nervous or circulatory systems
and eventually produce
myxospores that leave the fish
or the intermediate host’s body
 Myxospores are consumed by
tubifex worms or the definitive
host.
 They, then, attach to the gut
epithelium using their
nematocysts or polar filaments
and multiply.
 They produce sexual stages
and release spiny actinospo res
that exit the host by anus and
float in the water column
 If actinospores come in contact
with the skin or gills of the fish
they penetrate to cause an
infection

BIO 228B .
76