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CONTENTS

Module 1 ……………………………………………………

Unit 1: Conceptual Frame Work of Research

Unit 2: Skills of Scientific Investigation

Unit 3: Methods of Data Collection in Research

Unit 4: Interviews and Observations

Unit 5: Problem Identification in Research

Module 2 ……………………………………………………

Unit 6: Steps in Research Agenda

Unit 7: The Typologies of The Research Methods

Unit 8: Philosophical and Historical Research

Unit 9: Naturalistic Inquiry and Case Study

Unit 10: Descriptive Research

Module 3 ……………………………………………………

Unit 11: Experimental and Action Researches

Unit 12: Population and Sampling

Unit 13: Statistical Tools of Analysis

Unit 14: Writing Research Reports and Proposals

Unit 15: Research Referencing, Proposal Contents and Ethnical Issues

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UNIT 1: CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK OF RESEARCH

THE CONCEPT OF RESEARCH

Let us start this section by saying that research is the way in which we acquire dependable and useful
information about everyday life process. Research may be broadly described as any systematic
endeavors or striving towards the understanding, on perceiving certain complex situational problem of
more than immediate personal concern and stated in a problematic form. (Heros, 1960). Travers (1969)
has described research as an activity directed towards the development of an organized body of
scientific knowledge about the events with which human beings are concerned. The goal is to discover
general principles or interpretations of behaviour, to explain, predict and control events in everyday life
situations.

Now tell me, when you spend the whole day or days in the library making notes from textbooks and
other publications, when you visit many websites through your computer to collect information or when
you rummage through available sources to retrieve some information, are you doing research? Some
people may claim they are doing research. Let us see other definitions by other scholars. For instance
Leedy (1997) defines research as the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in
order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested.
Leedy (1997) has gone further to clarify for us what research is classified with and what research is NOT.
Let us start with what research is NOT. According to him research is not:

Mere information gathering

Mere transformation of facts from one location to another

Merely rummaging information and

A catch word used to get information.

Leedy (1997) tells us that research is a process through which we attempt to achieve systematically, and
with the support of data, the answer to a question, the resolution of a problem, or a greater
understanding of a phenomenon. This process has eight distinct characteristics. These are:

Research originates with a question or problem: Everywhere around us is filled with many answered
questions and unresolved problems. When we look around, we observe things that make us wonder and
to ask questions. These questions may start to spark igniting chains of reactions which terminate in the
research process. An inquisitive mind is the beginning of research.

Research requires a clear articulation of a goal: It is critical to have a clear and unambiguous statement
of the problem. This statement gives you an exercise in intellectual honesty. The ultimate goals of the
research should be given in a grammatically complete sentence which is precise and clear.

Research requires a specific plan of procedure: You should not hope that the data necessary to solve the
problem would somehow fortuitously come up. You have to have rather a planned attack, a search –
and – discover mission explicitly planned or designed in advance.

Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems: A whole is made
up of parts. This is a natural law universally accepted. So when you think about your principal goal in
research, try to observe this goal precept.

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Research is guided by specific research questions, problems or hypothesis: These guide you and direct
you on what to do and how to do it in order to arrive at the solution to the problem.

Research accepts certain critical assumptions: These must be self-evident truths. These assumptions
must be valid in order to make the research to proceed. You must let others know what you assume
with respect to your study.

Research requires the collection and interpretation of data: You need to collect appropriate data,
organize them in a meaningful way so that they can be analyzed and interpreted.

Research is cyclical or helical: The process of research follows a cycle. It begins simply and follows logical
developmental steps. Before we leave this section, let us touch briefly on another definition of research
by Best and Kalin (1995). This definition is a more comprehensive and operational definition. It sees
research as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead
to the development of generalizations, principles or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly
ultimate control of events. Now let us look at the characteristics of research to classify this definition.

i. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be

helpful in predicting future occurrences.
ii. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
iii. Research demands accurate observation and description.
iv. Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
v. Research is often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous
analysis.
vi. Research requires expertise.
vii. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached.
viii. Research involves the quest for answers to unresolved problems.
ix. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
x. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
xi. Research requires courage sometimes.

Looking at the definitions and characteristics of research in this section, you must note that for you to
be a research worker, you should be a scholarly imaginative person of the highest integrity, who is
willing or spend long hours painstakingly seeking for the truth.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The major characteristics of any research are; Objectivity, precision, design and verifiability.

Objectivity.

In an ideal situation, a research is beyond the subjective bias of the researcher. As a researcher, you
have to make deliberate efforts to eliminate all personal preferences. You should resist the temptation
to seek only such data which support your hypotheses or your line of taught. In a scientific research,
emphasis is on testing the hypothesis not to prove it. You have to willingly suspend your personal

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judgment in order to allow the data and logic to lead independently to a sound conclusion. If you want
to achieve objectivity in your investigation, you have to use standardized research instruments, choose
appropriate research design and analytical tools and also ensure the dependability of data.

Precision

When you conduct a good research and write the report but your readers do not understand what you
have done, you may have succeeded in wasting your time and efforts. Every research should use a
technical language in order to convey the exact meaning to the readers. Such research languages
include validity, reliability, random sampling variables etc. The most precise expression in quantitative
research is the mathematical equation or statistical finding which explains or represents the truth. But in
qualitative research, precision is achieved through words rather than numbers. So you have to use a
very precise language to describe your study accurately. This is done so that the study can be replicated
or the results correctly used.

Design

If you want to have a good research, you must have a very good and systematic design.

This implies that every scientific inquiry will generally undergo such steps as: -

Definition of the problem

Statement of the hypothesis

Collection and analysis of data

Testing and confirmation or rejection of hypothesis.

Reporting of the results.

Any research, which has no orderly design, cannot be replicated for verification.

Verifiability

When you conduct a research, you write your report. This presents the research design and the findings
to the professional community. From this point other researchers and scholars will study the report,
analyze it in order to confirm or reject the outcomes. This tells you that research is a social enterprise.
Its information is open for public scrutiny. Verification is related to objectivity and precision. It is only
through further investigation or replication of the study can the results of any study be confirmed,
revised or rejected. It is also through this process that a body of new knowledge is developed and new
questions identified. Verifiability can be achieved through two different approaches.

Analyzing the same data on the same sample through alternative analytical tools or statistical methods.

Replicating the study on a different sample.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE: 1

In your own words define the concept research.

Discuss the characteristics of research.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research in general can be classified in many different ways. If we want to classify research based on its
goal or objective, then we think of two major types. These are fundamental or basic research and
applied research.

Fundamental Research:

The main purpose of these types of research is to obtain empirical data which can be used to formulate,
expand or evaluate a theory. It is not actually directed in design or purpose towards the solution of
practical problems. The main aim is to expand the frontiers of knowledge without the intention of
having practical applications. However, the results may be applied eventually to practical problems that
have social values. Let us use hotel management as an example. You will see that all the advances made
in this area are dependent upon basic researches in foods and nutrition, catering and hospitalities. In the
same way, the progress made in business administration practices has been related to progress in the
discovery of economics theories, administrative theories and management theories. But you have to
bear in mind that the primary concern of basic research is to create knowledge solely for the sake of
knowledge. Its design is not in any way hampered by considerations of special usefulness of the findings.

Applied Research:

Unlike basic research, this type is directed towards the solution to an immediate, specific and practical
problem. It is the type of research which you can conduct in relation to actual problems and under the
conditions in which they are found in practice. You can use the applied research to solve problems at the
appropriate level of complexity. Take for instance in the area of business management, or
administration or even your own area of specialization, you can depend on basic research for
discovering the more general laws of management or administration, but you have to employ applied
research to determine how these laws operate in the real situation if scientific changes are to be
affected in our lives, this approach will continue to be very essential.

At this juncture, you have to note that there is no sharp line of demarcation between basic and applied
research. This is because applications of theory help in solving practical problems. You always apply the
theories of administration or organization in your business management. On the other hand, basic
research can also depend upon the findings of applied research to complete the theoretical
formulations for example an organizational experiment could shed some light on a learning theory. At
the same time, observations in a practical situation serve to test theories and may lead to the
formulation of new theories.

When research is classified according to methodology, if can also be classified according to Creswell
(1994) into two broad areas. These are quantitative and qualitative approaches.

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Quantitative and Qualitative Research:

According to Leedy (1995) Quantitative research is an inquiry into a social or human problem, based on
testing a theory composed of variables measured with numbers or figures and analyzed with statistical
procedures in order to determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true. He also
defines Qualitative research is an enquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based
on building a complex, holistic picture formed with words reporting detailed views of information, and
conducted in a natural setting. Whereas quantitative research, sometimes referred to as the traditional,
the positivist, the experimental or the empiricist approach, is typically used to answer questions about
the relationships among measured variables with the purpose of explaining, predicting and controlling
phenomena; the qualitative research is used to an answer questions about the nature of phenomena
with the purpose of describing and understanding the phenomena from the participant‟s points of view.
The qualitative research is sometimes referred to as the interpretative, the naturalistic, the
constructivist or the postpositive approach.

Other Categorizations:

These are other classifications of research based mainly on their specific method and goals. The
different types of research are:-

Action research: - A type of applied research that focuses on finding a solution to local problem in a
local setting

Case and field study research: - A type of qualitative research in which data are gathered directly from
individual or social or community groups in their natural environment for the purpose of studying
interactions, attitudes or characteristics of individuals or groups.

Correlational research: - A statistical investigation of the relationship between one factor and one or
more other factors. It looks at the surface relationship but does not necessarily probe for casual reasons
underlying them

Descriptive or Normative Survey: - A survey method used to describe the incidence, frequency and
distribution of certain characteristics of a population.

Ethnography: - A type of qualitative inquiry that involves an in-depth study of an intact cultural group in
a natural setting.

Expost facto or Evaluation research: - A type of research which observes existing causal comparative
searches back research and through the data for plausible causal factors.

Grounded theory research: - A type of qualitative research studies that aim at deriving theory through
the use of multiple stages of data collection and interpretation.

Historical research: - A type of research that attempts to solve certain problems arising out of historical
context through gathering and examining of relevant data.

Phenomenological research: - A type of qualitative research method that attempts to understand

participants‟ perspectives and views of social realities.

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Quasi-experimental research: - An experimental research that is not based on randomization and
control.

True-experimental research: - An experimental study based a random assignment of subjects to groups

and the administration of possibly different treatments followed by observations or measurements to
assess the effect of the treatments. (Leedy. 1995)

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

From what you have read so far in this unit you can simply say that the purpose of research is the
development of theories by discovering broad generalizations or principles. It becomes evident
therefore that a researcher deals with a wide range of associations, from concrete day to day activities
and problems to a philosophical level of search for truth. We can then capture in a hierarchical or
taxonomic fashion the main purpose of research as: - training, problem solving and search of truth or
knowledge generation.

Training in Research

By going through this course, you are subjecting yourself to be trained on how to conduct researches.
Training takes different shapes. It depends on whether the project you are undertaking is for the award
of degree of Bachelors, Masters or Doctoral in research methodology. Many of you who are taking this
course or taking any Bachelors degree programme are not trained on how to conduct research. You may
have been working in educational institutions or even out side the educational system, you may be
working as a business consultant, a producer, a marketer, an advertiser, a tourism guide or an hotelier,
you need to lave this training. If you want to conduct a research project in a scientific manner, you need
training in research methods. This curse is meant to provide you with the theoretical background for
year project.

It will help you to make the right choice of research designs, tools and techniques for your research.
Therefore, training in research methodology is an integral purpose of research in this programme. But if
you have had any training already in research, this course can still help to refine your skills.

Problem solving

This involves diagnosing and solving the problems in the system. You know your own system, banking
and finance, tourism, Business management, hotel management among others. While we talk of
problem solving, it is necessary you develop a more comprehensive view of it. It means a realistic
understanding of a situation on the basis of data and statistics. Let us take the case of risk management
in financial accounting. You may undertake to study the difference in the application of different aspects
of risk management in the accounting system of the banks. These days most countries of the world
invest considerable amount of money on the provision of electronic transactions-e-banking, e-payment,
e-commerce, e-everything. You can take studies on the various aspects of the electronic business and
utilization and show the differential out these using electronics and these who do not. What we are

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saying is that a series of studies can go into the diagnosis in order to develop better understanding of
the practices in a system. You may also set out studies to actually get into experimenting with an
innovative solution. You can device various methods of receiving customers and making their
comfortable. The important thing to note here is that research can contribute to solving day-to-day
problems.

Search for Truth

This is the biggest challenge in research. A research in search of truth is most of the times classified as
pure research. It is the ability to generalize and create knowledge. Such generalizations are derived from
occurrences in repeated instances. Generalizations are drawn primarily on two bases. These are
repeated observations in various possible situations and applications of statistical designs where the
variables are statistically controlled.

Generalizations are drawn through tests of significance, level of confidence and such others types of
analyses. Have you heard about statements like significant at 0.05 or 0.01 levels? These are typical
research statements, which basically promise that such and such instance, will happen in 95% or 99% of
the cases, and to that extent the phenomenon is generalizable.

Your project research which is the prime focus of this course is unlikely to achieve the sophisticated level
of search for truth. But it is quite possible for you to undertake a study that could come close to
generalization through application of statistical models and methodologies; such research will be based
on quantitative techniques. However, whether you are using qualitative or quantitative method, the
most important emphasis is on the use of scientific approach to research. This scientific approach has
series of steps, which may vary from one author to another. These steps are:

Certain phenomena are observed

A problem situation which develops therein, is noted and clarified

A more or less formal hypothesis is derived

A design developed to test the hypothesis

The hypothesis is verified or refuted and

The results are subjected to farther tests and refinements.

The conclusions of a research are integrated into the existing knowledge of the subject. This process
involves such subsidiary steps as:

Review of research of experiences

Manipulation of factors

Measurement of the quantities

Defining of variable and

Analysis and interpretation of data

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research.

Explain the three purposes of research.

CONCLUSION

Research project is a normal part of year course work in the university. This course gives an
understanding of the primary functions and structural steps of the entire research process. This is
because if the research project is carefully designed, genuinely conducted and co-ordinate, you derive a
lot of value from the entire activity. This process is much of an intensive academic exercise, which gives
you the process of scientific thinking and way of doing things. This scientific way thinking is a
conventionally acceptable and recommended way of approaching problems in true life situation and the
goal is to search for dependable and data supported solutions to some problems in real life situation.
The goal of the research process therefore is to give you or equip you with the knowledge, philosophy,
attitude and skill of approaching problem solving in the scientific way.

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that research is a formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying out the
scientific method of analysis, involving a more systematic structure of investigation usually resulting in
some sort of formal record of procedures and results or conclusion.

You also learnt that the characteristics of research are objectivity, precision, design and verifiability. The
types of research were discussed. Also discussed in this unit is the purpose of research which includes
training, problem solving and search for truth.

Tutor Marked Assignment

How can you define research in you own words?

Explain the characteristics of research

Describe the purposes of research

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

Research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information in order to

increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are interested.

The characteristic of research are:

(a) Objectivity (b) precision. (c) Design and (e) Verifiability.

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EXERCISE 2.

Quantitative research inquirers into social or human problem based on testing of theory composed of
variables measured with numbers or figures and analyzed with statistical procedures in order to
determine if the predictive generalization of a theory holds true. But qualitative research deals with the
understanding of a social or human problem based on building a complex, holistic picture formal with
words reporting detailed views of informants and conducted in a natural setting.

ii. The purposes of research are:-

Training in research.

Problem solving and

Searching for truth.

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UNIT 2.0: SKILLS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND ACTIVITIES

Let we start this section by saying that the underline goal of the scientific investigation or method of
thinking is rooted in the broad goal of science. Those of you who have studied science in one course or
the ether will know that the broad goal of science is to understand natural phenomena. To understand
these natural phenomena, three basic steps are recognized. These basic steps are:-

Accurate description

Explaining the specified conditions necessary to obtain the phenomenon in order to attain easy
prediction of the phenomenon

Organizing the available evidence supporting the phenomenon in order to obtain an overall picture of
the relationships surrounding all the components or variables relating to the phenomenon under
consideration.

Now, in order to achieve the goal of understanding the phenomenon, the scientific method rests
squarely on some basic assumptions.

Research practices shape their values based on assumptions. In the same way scientific inquiries have
some assumptions which are represented by certain Key words. These are order, determinism,
parsimony and empiricism.

The assumption of order: - This states that nature is ordered and not haphazard. All the events in nature
follow each other in regular sequences. According to wood (1977) the assumption of order means that
there is an overall pattern or scheme or order of events and it is discernible.

The assumption of determinism: - This states that events have courses, determinants or antecedents
that can be detected. This means that events in nature are related and their patterns of relationships
can be detected. That is to say that the relationship among events can be discovered.

The assumption of parsimony: - This state that the universe is organized and an explanation of natural
phenomena should be simple and should be preferred to complex explanations. You can see that this is
the foundation of the scientific research practice. It talks about general explanations to problem over
explanations that are appropriate only to a limited range of phenomena. This assumption is a dictate of
what science should be that is, in science you should generalize the results of an experimental
investigation to cover what are real on other similar situations. You have to note that the extent to
which the generalization of your research findings is possible depends in part on the area of research
considered.

The assumption of Empiricism: - this states that science investigations must be systematic and
controllable. They should be empirical in using observable events in testing theories. The assumption as
you can see refers to a reliance on field demonstration, observation and experiment. It insists that
scientific investigations or researchers must avoid the common errors of selecting evidence that is
consistent with their position or points of view. This is because it has been noticed that some people
select and use only the type of data that can support their views. This is not very good. Any scientific

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description must be such that will allow one to predict what happens in a given circumstances and to be
sure that if given particular circumstances again, the same thing will always happen. This is the hall mark
of scientific investigation. It is called Replication.

Scientific Activities:-

In the foregoing section, we have been discussing the scientific method of research. Although, it looks a
bit abstract but it is the truth for which we are doing the research. Now, let us go further to list the
sources of knowledge as (1) custom and tradition, (2) authority, (3) personal experience, (4) syllogistic
reasoning from self-evident proposition and scientific inquiry. You can see that we have already made
case for the scientific inquiry as a perfect method of searching for knowledge or what men call the truth.
Man uses the scientific thinking as a source of evidence, in his current intellectual equipment for solving
the mysteries of life and nature. In this context, and in your research efforts, your desire should be to
search for the truth, to establish the truth and provide evidence for the truth. This is what we call
EMPIRICISM

The other sources of knowledge have with the passage of time been discarded as reliable method of
generating evidence for truth. This is because of the gross inaccuracies associated with their usage.

In other to make research work more scientific, all sources of errors and inaccuracies must be avoided.
Therefore the following steps of activities making up the process of scientific thinking employed in
research work must followed logically.

These include:-

Location and definition of a problem cast in a topic statement and a question from.

Survey of past experiences with the problem, previous investigations and already recorded and available
data on the topic to get ideas about past and possible future solution and method of investigation.

The formulation of hypotheses to represent tentative solution to the problem under investigation, and
to be employed as a guide in the collection of additional data.

The mental elaboration of the hypotheses. That is checking for agreement with facts, verifiability and
logical consistency.

The collection of additional data (if necessary) through a new appeal to experience by means of
measurements, observation and experimentation methods.

The analysis, classification and summary of data collection for the formulation of new generalizations
representing observed uniformity, explanatory principles or scientific laws.

FACTS AND THEORIES

Scientific enquiry starts with facts and then moves towards theorizing. To make the facts useful, they
must be organized. So you now see that the primary purpose of the scientific method is to develop a
mechanism for organizing the facts as they accumulate and become meaningful from the stand point of

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their objectives. Scientists gather facts through empirical investigations. The accumulation of these facts
brings about the need for investigation, organization and classification in order to make the isolated
findings meaningful.

When isolated facts are integrated into a conceptual scheme, they promote a better understanding of
their nature and significance. Science must remain close to facts. These facts should be put in proper
scientific perspective. Therefore, you must identify and explain significant relationships in the data. So
theories must be formulated. You may be wondering what a theory is.

It is a set of interrelated constructs or concepts, definitions and propositions that present a systematic
view of a phenomenon by specifying the relationship among variables, with the purpose of predicting
and explaining the phenomenon. (Kerlinger 1973). A theory knits together the results of observations in
order to enable Scientifics make general statements about variables and relationship among variables.

Can you remember any laws in your sciences? For instance look at the Boyle‟s law which is a familiar
generalization that summarizes the observed effects of changes in temperature on the volume of gases.
This law summaries previous information and goes further to predict other phenomena by telling us
what to expect about any gas under any changes in temperature. We can then say that just as facts
underlie theory, theories underlie facts. Both facts and theories raise themselves like a spiral to an
increasingly precise scientific formulation.

According to Van Dalen (1973), facts derive their significance from theoretical framework into which
they bring facts into focus. You can see that this is a constant and intricate relationship between facts
and theory. Fact without theory or theory without facts lack significance. So facts take their significance
from the theories, which define, classify and predict them. Theories have significance when they are
built upon, classified and tested by facts. The growth of science is dependent upon the accumulation of
facts and the formulation of new or broader theories. This is very true about the early stages of scientific
development. Research must confine its efforts to seek answers to highly specific and particularized
problems.

HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY

A hypothesis can be used to explain a small number of facts and the relationship among them.
Generalization is a hypothesis based on broader phenomena. Theory is used to explain even more facts
and their relationships. Theories themselves range from the simple to the more sophisticated. Finally,
we have laws which have the greatest scope and generality. At this juncture, you have to note that
theory plays a very important role in research. A theory has to be amended or abandoned when the
discovery of new facts can no longer accommodate it. Some theories, especially those generated
through these means we have enumerated above, do not lead to “eternal truth‟.

They should be looked upon as useful conceptual frameworks which are adequate for present purpose
or a given situation. Therefore, every theory is subject to modification as and when we have new facts
and evidence that contradict the generalizations made earlier on.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What are the assumptions of scientific inquiry?

What is a theory?

PURPOSE OF THEORY:

A theory serves several purposes in the development of science. These purposes include:

It Summarized and puts the existing knowledge in a particular area in order. This permits a deeper
understanding of data and translates empirical findings into a more easily retainable and
adaptable form.

It provides a provisional explanation for observe events and relationships. Variables which are related
are identified. The natures of their relationships are also identified. If you take one theory of
learning as an example, you will notice that it could explain the relationship between learning
speed and efficiency and such other variables as motivation, reward, practice etc.

It permits the prediction of the occurrence of phenomena and enables the investigator to postulate and
eventually, to discover unknown phenomena. Theory stimulates the development of new
knowledge by providing the lead for further inquiry.

DEVELOPING A THEORY

It is very important for you to know that good theories are not born out of imagination. They do not
originate merely through arm chair reflection. A theory is built upon collected facts. You as an
investigator do some searches, make intelligent guesses as to how the fact are ordered, you are missing
ideas or link and put forward a hypothesis. You then deduce facts which are consistent or otherwise
with the deductions.

You build a wider generalization or conceptual framework on more facts. Eventually, you outline a
theory. Theories are solidly based on evidence. They are very important practical tools which enable us
to advance our knowledge still faster.

You have to note that once a theoretical framework has been elaborated we know what fact to look for
to confirm or to deny the theory. We also have a conceptual framework inside with which our evidence
can be tested. Theories involve such terms, which refer to matter that cannot be directly observed.
These terms of theory or theoretical statements are sometime referred to as constructs. For instance,
gravity and gravitation are theoretical terms, which cannot be observed directly, but their effect can be
observed. Another example is the motivational factor in behaviour which many learning theories refer
to. You can see that motivation is not directly observable. It is a theoretical term which we may refers to
as a construct. This term implies that it is a construction of the scientist’s imagination.

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LEVELS OF THEORIZING

In the behavioral sciences, a product of all researchers is a set of conclusion which involves theoretical
terms. Some of these conclusions may be at a sophisticated level of theorizing while others may be at a
low level of theorizing. Psychologists agree that it is better to keep theorizing down to the levels that
involve a minimal use of abstract terms. You have to remember this when you do some theorizing.
There are six levels of theorizing.

Level 1: Hypothesis formation: - if you are going to use any hypothesis as a basis for your research, such
hypothesis must go beyond the fact on which it is based. You need to establish the existing state of
affair. Most of the surveys are conducted for this purpose. You may conduct a survey of what customers
of a hotel think of a particular aspect of the services provided for them, how much time is spent by your
customers in watching television etc

Level 2. Elementism: - Primitive forms of classification in terms of some significant set of ideas are
example of theories at this level.

In the case of hotel management, such classification of supervisory abilities of hotel stuff or accounting
abilities derived from factor analysis or the classification of hotel acts that may be the result of extensive
observation in hotel management would come under the level of elementism.

Level 3. Descriptive theories and taxonomies: - when you formulate descriptive theories and
taxonomies, you are operating at a more complex level than mere classifications. A hierarchal
categorization of different cases varying from the most simple to the most complex, example is the
Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive behaviour.

These are under this level.

Level 4. Classification: If you want to develop any kind of useful classification system, there must be a
set of theoretical ideas to underline the classification. For instance, the classification of animals became
significant only after it was realized that the species could be fitted into a system in which the
evolutionary relationships among animals became the basis for classification.

LEVEL 5 & 6. Postulates and Theories:

The higher levels: - here we have the highest levels of theorizing. They can only be observed in the
physical sciences. Here, a theory consists of a set of basic statements called axioms of theory, which tell
us what the theory is all about. This axiomatic statements or postulates include primitive terms which
are initiatively understood and cannot be otherwise completely defined.

If we want to distinguish between levels 5 and 6, we will say that level 5 is reserved for incomplete
theories, while levels 6 theories represent the ultimate in scientific formulation. However, both of them
represent the closest approximations to what we may call the accurate description of universal laws.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2:-

Describe briefly the different levels of development of a theory?

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CONCLUSION

A typical research process actually entails the efforts of searching for data – supported (verifiable)
solutions to some defined problem or question. The concern of research is to attempt to provide
acceptable and verifiable explanations to the problems or questions raised in order to explore the reality
of the problems through the use of the scientific method of inquiry. In this unit, you have worked
through scientific investigations, which are the hall work of research activities. You should always
employ them in all your research works.

SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt the underlying goal of scientific investigation is rooted in the broad goal of
science. Scientific inquiry has some assumptions. These include the assumption of order, determinism,
parsimony and empirism. You also learnt the steps of activities in the process of scientific thinking, facts
and theories hypothesis and theory and developing a theory. There are six levels of theorizing. These
include hypothesis formation, Elementism, descriptive theories and taxonomies, classification postulates
and theories; the higher levels. In the next units, we shall now look at how to gather information in
research.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the assumptions of scientific inquiry?

Explain the levels of theorizing in research.

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES EXERCISE 1

The assumptions of scientific inquiry are:-order, determinism, parsimony and empiricism.

A theory is set of interrelated constructs or concepts, definitions and propositions that present a
systematic view of a phenomenon by specifying the relationship among variables, with the purpose of
predatory and explaining the phenomenon

EXERCISE 2:-

The six levels of theorizing are: -

Level 1. Hypothesis formation level 2: - Elementism

Level 3. Descriptive theories and taxonomies.

Level 4. Classification.

Level 5 and 6: postulates and theories: the higher Level

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UNIT 3.0 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN RESEARCH - 1

DATA COLLECTION IN RESEARCH

Data can be regarded as information. It can be given out or taken for the purpose of making
interferences in research. In this case, it may include numerical or statistical results or figures such as
percentages. It may also include verbal materials like newspaper accounts, scholastic essay etc. we can
therefore say that any collection of verbal or numerical information from which inferences or
conclusions can be drawn or analyzed is regarded as data. It means that data can be quantitative or
qualitative.

Any information which comes in numbers, figures, measures or quantities is said to be quantitative.
Whereas any information which comes as a verbal description of attribute or characteristics is regarded
as qualitative. So when you have evidences obtained from other research studies, observations made
from the field and laboratory settings, information extracted from records and documents, score
collected from tests of various types etc; you say you have data.

Remember that you go to the field to collect data for the purpose of using the data carefully collected
from your subject, to test your hypotheses in order to draw your inferences and conclusions. These
inferences and conclusions are about rejecting the hypotheses or supporting them as away of providing
answers to your problem of study. Therefore, the data you collect and the tools which you use for
collecting them must be relevant to your hypotheses and research design. According to Tolbert (1967)
all data gathering devices should be closely related to the design of the study. You can conveniently
describe data collection then, as a research activity involving the process of gathering relevant
information with reference to the stated hypotheses, variables and design.

TYPES OF DATA USED IN RESEARCH INVESTIGATIONS

There are basically two categories data collected and used in research. These, according to Gupte (1979)
are: - Primary data and Secondary data. Let us touch on them briefly.

Primary data

These are information, facts or statistical materials which you as a researcher originate for the purpose
of the inquiry on hand. This is sometimes popularly called the “First-hand information” or “information
from the horses mouth”. They are referred to as eye witness account of an event or phenomenon. Such
information is extracted from the actual participants themselves. It may be through oral interviews or
discussions or through written diaries, minutes, proceedings, pictures, objects etc.

For instance, supposing you want to conduct an inquiry on the cost of living of people in two different
societies. You will see that all the facts pertaining to this inquiry may be collected directly from the
members of the societies themselves. Such information or data collected would be called Primary data.

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Secondary data

These refer to information, facts or statistical materials which are not originated by you as the
researcher or investigator. These are materials from someone else‟s records or other documents like
books, journals, newspaper reports and other research works that may be got from the libraries. In the
simplest form, secondary data are not first hand information. They are reported information if you refer
to the inquiry and comparism of the cost of living in the two different societies above, you will notice
that instead of going to the people themselves to obtain information as in primary data, you may
depend on research reports from journals, newspapers and magazines: you may also resort to obtaining
other records showing the peoples expenditure on living. These data are called Secondary data

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

What are the two types of data in research?

Explain the two sources of data in research?

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA

Let us start this section by letting you know that any time you want to collect data. You will need to
consider some factors before you choose the suitable method. These factors include:

Purpose, problem and hypothesis of the study

Time required for the study

The accuracy desired of the study

Funds available for the study

Other facilities available and

The nature of the person conducting the research in terms of the level of training.

Most researchers, who conduct survey researches, make use of the questionnaire as the instrument for
data collection. The questionnaire is generally a form containing some questions which the respondents
fill out without any help or comment from the researcher. It enables data to be collected from large
samples. However, if you decide to use it, you must make sure it is very carefully constructed. This is
because data collected from the questionnaire depend solely on the respondent perception of the
questions and their goodwill to take time to complete it.

A questionnaire is used when factual information is desired (Best and Khan 1995). When opinions rather
than facts are desired; an opinionates or attitude scale is used. According to Okpata, Onuoha and
Oyedeji (1993) a questionnaire is a self reporting instrument that has received a good use in
educational, researches, psychological and social science researches, programme evaluation etc. it is
described as the most common type of research instrument. It is therefore very important that you as a
researcher, master how to construct a questionnaire. This will enable you develop an appropriate

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instrument, especially when you cannot lay hand on already existing instrument that are valid and
reliable. Like the test, questionnaires are constructed for specific purposes. It is necessary for you to
think of a specific study and design before determining whether it is appropriate for you to use a
questionnaire.

In constructing a questionnaire, you should make every effort to ensure that the terms or questions are
structured in good forms. In other words each question must be easily understood by the respondents
and must elicit the specific information needed to test the hypotheses. It means that every item must be
checked for clarity and relevance, as well as for effectiveness in eliciting the accurate or needed
information from the subjects. This is because to ask a respondent a question which is not relevant to
the research hypotheses and design amounts to a waste of time. It means that you have to pre-test the
instrument. This is because nothing can be more frustrating than a situation of finding out that after all
the data you have collected; you discover that you should have asked an additional or more specific
question to generate the needed data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

The characteristics of a good questionnaire are: -

i. A questionnaire deals with a significant topic. The topic or problem should be such that any
respondent will recognize it as important enough to warrant spending his time on.
Therefore, the significance should be clearly and carefully stated either on the questionnaire
or in the accompanying letter.
ii. It seeks only such information which cannot be obtained from other sources like financial
reports, census data etc.
iii. It is as short as possible, and only long enough to get the essential data. Do not make the
instrument very long. This is because most people find it time wasting. Most of the times,
long questionnaires find their ways into the waste basket. Therefore, make the
questionnaire response clear and very easy to complete. Keep the writing required to a
minimum.
iv. It is attractive in appearance. It is neatly arranged and clearly printed or produced.

Instructions are clear and complete. Important terms are defined. Each item deals with a single idea and
is worded as simply and possible.

CONSTRUCTION OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

According to Okpala, et al (1995) a researcher is faced with respondents who have great amount of
information that could go untapped unless the questionnaire items are valid and reliable enough to
elicit the required information. Henderson et al (1978) suggested eight steps to which the process of
developing and using a questionnaire can be divided. These are;

Identifying the programmes objectives and specific information to be obtained.

Select a response format

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Identifying the frame of reference of the respondents.

Writing the items/questions

Preparing a data summary sheet

Critiquing the questions, trying them out and revising them

Assembling the questionnaires

Administering the questionnaires

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

There are two main types of questionnaires based on two basic types of question formats. These are
closed ended questions and open-ended questions. Closed ended questions and those that provide
respondent with fixed set of alternatives from which they are to choose. For instance, the response
format of multiple choice-items and scales are all closed-ended.

Whereas open-ended questions are those questions to which the respondents write their own response,
as it is in an essay examination questions. Now lets us look at the two main types of questionnaires.

The Closed – Ended Questionnaire

It can also be called restricted or closed form type. All questionnaire instruments that call for short,
check-mark responses belong to this category. For example, you may be asked to mark yes or no, check
an item from a list of suggested responses. Let us give some specific examples.

Yes or No type: - Accountancy is a difficult subject. Yes/No

Short response type: - The science subjects that deals with living things is……………….

Marking from a list of suggested response.

All hotel management students should offer accountant courses. Strongly agree, Agree, Neutral,
Disagree, Strong disagree.

The Federal Palace Hotel is a …………. Hotel. 5-star, 4-star, 3-star, 2-star, one-star

Ranking: - Kindly rank the options in your order of importance. Why did you choose to study Hotel
management?

Advice from friends

Reputation of the programme

Expense factor

Professional choice

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Availability of job opportunities

Others (specify)

The Open – Ended Questionnaire:

This can also be called unrestricted questionnaire or free response type. It demands that the subjects
respond in their own words. Look at this question again. Why did you choose to study Hotel
Management? You can see that no clue is given here. The advantage is that open form provides for
greater depth of response. The respondents may reveal their frame of reference and sometimes the
reasons for their responses. It has such disadvantages as: very low returns due to greater efforts needed
on the part of the respondents in filling the questionnaire. Again, the items can be difficult to interpret,
tabulate or summarize in the research report. The questions can generally take this form

List the causes of ………

What are your opinions about ……….?

How do you feel about ………..?

What do you think about ……….?

HOW TO IMPROVE QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS

The questionnaire is the basic data gathering instrument. It is therefore very important that the items
are worded carefully. You know that most questionnaires do not provide opportunities for the
clarification of questions to the respondents. Again any ambiguity in the questions introduces sources of
substantial errors. You should therefore follow these steps to improve on your questionnaires.

All Statements or question should be clear, simple and direct. Each item should express only one idea.
No complex statements like; Open and Distance Learning mode of education is very good, everybody
should therefore support it. You can see that this is not a good item. This is because it is possible some
respondents would agree with the first part but disagree with the second part or vice-versa.

Every slang terminology or technical jargon should be avoided. Otherwise, it should be carefully defined
or explained.

Define, qualify or explain all terms that could be misinterpreted

Beware, and if possible avoid double negative. Underline negative terms and phrases for clarity. e.g.
Discounts and bonuses should not be given to customers who do not patronize the hotel on regular
basis. Which of these is not a term in catering?

Always avoid inadequate alternatives. e.g. Married……. Yes/No. You can see that the options are
inadequate. Widowed, Separated or Divorced are excluded.

If you wish to show special emphasis, underline such words or phrases e.g. all undergraduate
programmes should include study skills in the ODL system.

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Avoid unwanted assumptions

Include only these items which are appropriately phrased for all the respondents.

Construct items that will give a complete response.

Do not include items which are socially unacceptable in the setting in which you respondents are.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE: 2

I. Develop a questionnaire instrument with 5 open ended questions.

II. Develop a questionnaire instrument with 5 closed ended questions.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE.

When you have concluded the process of developing the instruments, you need to administer them to
the subjects. But before this is done, you will have to ensure that the instrument is usable, valid and
reliable. You have to do these through the process of trial testing or pilot testing.

Pilot testing of the Questionnaire

Every instrument used for data collection in research should be trial tested or pilot tested. There are so
many reasons for doing this. Among these reasons are:

i. To find out how long it takes the respondents to complete

ii. To ensure that all questions and instructions are clear
iii. To enable the researcher to remove any items which do not yield usable data
iv. To enable you include any item deemed necessary to yield some relevant data.
v. To use the results to find the reliability of the instrument.
vi. To use the results to do the item analysis of the instrument
vii. To ensure the usability of the instrument.

Do not fall to the temptation of going straight to the distribution stage. No matter how pressed for time
you are, do your best to give the questionnaire a trial run. You should try out the instrument on group
similar to the one that will form the samples of your study. When you do these, you come out with a
good questionnaire. Your respondents will not experience difficulties in filling out the instrument. Again
you can carry out a preliminary analysis at the data collected.

Administering the Questionnaire proper

There are different methods of administering the questionnaire. You shall therefore try to make early
decision about how to distribute them to the respondents. You also need to decide what to do about no
response. The different methods of administering the questionnaires are: -

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Administering the questionnaires personally. This has some advantages. You can explain the purpose of
the study of your respondents. The questionnaires can be completed and returned on the spot. In this
case, you have high percentage of returns. Again you are likely to get better co-operation if you can
establish personal contact with the respondents.

Using research assistants: - You can persuade your friends and colleagues to lend a helping hand in the
distribution. You can also use research assistants. In this case, you have to make out time to train them
on how to administer and collect the instruments.

Mailing the questionnaires. If your respondents are far away and you can not personally reach them,
you can sand the instruments to them by past. You should note that postal services are expensive, waste
time and response rate is generally low.

Covering letter

Remember to accompany your questionnaire with an introduction letter or a covering letter. This should
inform the respondents about the objectives of the study and therefore the questionnaire. You need to
let them know that will be done with the information collected. They need to know the deadline for the
return of the questionnaire. It will also assure them about the anonymity and confidentiality of the
information supplied.

CONCLUSION

You have seen that for you to start collecting data for your research studies you need to define clearly
the purpose of your study in very clear terms. Again you need to write out the statement of the problem
and the hypothesis of the study. These will help you determine the kind of data you need and the type
of instrument for collecting the data. When you decide to use the questionnaire, you have seen how to
go about it in this unit, however, if you decide to go about that too in the next unit.

SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that data can be regarded as information which can be given out or taken for the
purpose of making inferences in research. Data can be qualitative or quantitative. The two sources of
data are primary and secondary sources. Factors to consider in choosing a suitable method of data
collection are: -

Purpose, problem and hypothesis of the study.

Time required for the study

The accuracy desired of the study.

Funds available for the study.

Other facilities available and

24
The nature of the person conducting the research in terms of the level of training. You have learnt that a
questionnaire is a self-reporting instrument.

It has been described as the most common type of research tool. You have learnt the characteristics of a
good questionnaire, three methods of administration are: administering it personally, using research
assistants and mailing the questionnaire.

You also studied the steps in constructing a questionnaire. There are two types of questionnaires. These
are the closed ended or restricted and the open-ended or free response questionnaires. You have also
studied how to improve the questionnaire items. All instruments for data collection must be trial tested
before use. In the next unit we shall look at other methods of data collection.

Tutor Marked Assignment

Describe the two sources of data in research.

Explain the two types of questionnaire.

Briefly discuss the methods of administering a questionnaire

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES:

Exercise 1.

The two types of data are quantitative and qualitative.

The two sources of data are primary and secondary sources. (Students are required to explain)

Exercise 2.

Students are required to develop the 5-1tem instrument.

Same as in

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UNIT 4.0 INTERVIEWS AND OBSERVATIONS

WHAT IS AN INTERVIEW

An interview is a face to face oral interaction between the investigator and the respondents. You as the
investigator, otherwise called interviewer or your assistant as the case may be read the questions
directly to the respondents. The responses are recorded for analysis. The interview gives you a degree of
flexibility which is not available in the questionnaire. The research interview is not as widely used as the
questionnaire. The reason is that it takes a great deal of time and fund to conduct. But you should
realize that the interview is quite useful when greater depth of information is needed. It is highly
required when there is a need to follow up leads that may arise. It is also used when an exploratory
investigation of a problem is to be done.

The interview technique is used routinely in normative survey research. During the process, the
respondents or interviewees respond to some sort of direct questions posted to them by the
investigator.

The major purpose of interviewing is to find out what is in the mind of the interviewee. You can use
open-ended questions or structured questions. You do not need to put things in the respondents‟ mind.
But you need to elicit and assess relevant information from them. You have to be conscious of the fact
that sometimes people provide information based upon what they think you want to hear. It is critical
for you to make sure the interviewees understand that you as the investigator do not hold any
preconception or notions regarding the outcome of the study.

You can use the interview to collect information an individual‟s experience, knowledge, opinions,
beliefs, feelings and demographic data. You can also use interview to determine past or current
information as well as prediction for the future.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

The different types of interviews used in research are: -

Informal Conversation Interview.

This is characterized by the fact that the questions emerge from the immediate context or situation and
are asked in the natural course of things. There are predetermined questions or topics or wordings. This
has some advantages. They include: -

It increases the silence and relevance of the questions

Interviews are built on and emerge from observations.

The interview can be matched to individuals and circumstances.

The disadvantages are: -

Different information’s are collected from different questions.

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It is less systematic and comprehensive

Data organization and analysis can be quite difficult.

Interviewer guided approach:

In this type, topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance, in an outline format. You as an
interviewer will decide the sequence and wording of the questions in the course of the interview. The
advantages include: -

The outline increases the comprehensiveness of the data.

It makes data collection somewhat systematic.

Logical gaps in data can be anticipated and closed.

Interview is fairly conversational and situational

The disadvantages include: -

Important and silent topics may be inadvertently omitted.

Interviewer flexibility in sequencing and wording of questions can result in substantially different
responses from different perspectives. This will reduce the comparability of the responses.

Standardized Open-ended interview:

In this case, the exact wording and sequencing of the questions are determined in advance by the
researcher. All interviewees are asked the same basic question in the same order. Questions are worded
in a completely open – ended format. The advantages include: -

All respondents answer the same questions. This increases the comparability of the responses.

Information collected are complete for each respondents on the topics addressed in the interview.

It reduced interviewer effects and biases when several interviewers are used.

It permits the users of evaluations to see and review the instrument used for evaluation.

It facilitates organization and analysis of the data.

The disadvantages include: -

Little flexibility in relating the interview to particular individuals and circumstances.

Limited and constrained naturalness and relevance of questions and answers.

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Closed or Fixed Response Interview

In this type which is the most popular in research studies, questions and response categories are
determined in advance. Responses are fixed. The respondents choose from among the fixed responses
provided. The advantages include: -

Data analysis is simple

Responses can be directly compared and easily aggregated

Many questions can be asked and answered in a short time

The disadvantages may include:

Respondents must fit their experiences, knowledge and feeling into the researcher‟s response
categories.

Sometimes it may be seen as impersonal, irrelevant and mechanistic

There can be a distortion of what respondents really mean or experienced by so completely limiting
their response choices.

STEPS IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF INTERVIEWS.

For the successful handling of the interviews as a data collection technique for your research studies,
you will need to follow some simple but very important steps. These steps include: -

You should set up the interview plan used in advance.

You will prepare and send the set of questions which you will ask to the interviewee in advance

Sort for permission to tape-recorded the interview

Confirm the date of interview in writing

Send a reminder, together with the same set of questions to the interviewee, about 10 days to the
interview date.

On the interview day, be prompt, have another copy of the set of questions for your interviewee, should
he/she has misplace his/her copy?

Follow the questions serially as it is in the set.

After the interview, prepare and submit a type script of the interview either in soft or hard copy to the
interviewee tries to get a written acknowledgement of its accuracy or a corrected copy from the
interviewee.

Ask for final approval and written permission to use the information in your research report.

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After you have incorporated the information in your research report, send the relevant section of the
report to the interviewee.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

What is an interview?

Explain the types of interview used in research studies?

HOW TO CONDUCT AN INTERVIEW

An interview is a social interaction or relationship designed to exchange information between the

interviewer and the interviewee. The goal is to collect data and not make friends. Therefore the quantity
of information exchanged or received depends on how astute and creative you are at understanding and
managing the relationship. According to Schofield (1972) much of the success or failure of the interview
depends on how you handle the opening few minutes. This signifies the need for good public relations
and good approach in conducting the interview. This is to enable you and the respondents establish a
report of a good two-wag communication.

If you can achieve this fit, you will be assured of a successful interview that will be a pleasant experience
for you and your respondents. In appearance, you must be neat, clean and business-like but also
friendly. Make sure that your first contact with the interviewee must be appealing. Note that such
characteristics as socio-economic statues, age, race and ethnicity might influence the interview schedule
the interview to begin with the simple non-threatening questions and then let the interview progress
according to the schedule. Employ the use of probes, or follow-up questions that are intended to elicit
clearer and most complete responses. Use probe as a pause in conversation to encourage your subject
to elaborate or an explicit request to classify on elaborate or something. Note also that an open-ended
questions in which your respondents are encouraged to answer in their own words at some length is
likely to provide greater depth of response. Closed questions are easier to record but may yield more
superficial information. In order to obtain valid interview results Schofield (1972) advised the researcher
to:-

Listen to the respondent in a friendly and patient but intelligent critical manner.

Refrain from showing an authoritarian attitude

Refrain from giving advice on moral instruction.

Avoid asking questions which compel the subject to give the reply which you want to have.

Avoid leading or prompting the subject towards certain answers.

Avoid entering into argument with your interviewee.

Avoid the use of double-barreled questions.

You can only use questions or statements in order to: -

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Prompt the interviewee to talk freely and coherently.

Congratulate the subject on the quality of his response, the originality of his ideas and so on.

Clarify points on which there are uncertainties and to ascertain precisely what the subject means in
places where the interviewer could interpret the candidate‟s remarks in a way detrimental to him.

Strengths of the interview

The interview is often regarded as being superior to other data-collecting devices. One of the reasons is
that people prefer to talk than to write, especially when it comes to controversial issues. When the
interview has gained support or when you have established a friendly relationship with your
interviewee, certain confidential information may be obtained. Such information that an individual
might be reluctant to put in writing could be elicited from subjects. You can explain more explicitly the
purpose of the investigation and what type of information you want, especially: - If the subjects
misinterpret the questions, you may also follow with a clarifying question. It is possible to seek the same
information in several ways during the interview. It is also possible to stimulate the interviewee and
possibly explore significant areas not anticipated in the original plan of investigation. Again interview is
particularly appropriate when dealing with children and illiterate respondents.

Recording the Responses

As an interviewer, your central task is to record the responses from the respondents. There are four
most common ways of recording responses. These are: - Classifying responses into predetermined
categories; summarizing the high points of what is said; taking verbatim notes or recording the interview
with a tape recorder or video machine.

To record the responses you can be taking notes as the interviews are going o, or take the notes
immediately after, when the information is still fresh in your mind. This is called mental note.
Alternatively, you can record the interview with recording machines.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE: 2

Identify a problem situation in your area of study.

Develop 5 free response questions and 5 structured questions that can be used for collection of data on
the problem you have identified.

OBSERVATION AS A DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE

Observation can be described as the act of looking out for and recording the presence or absence of
both verbal and non-verbal behaviour of an individual or group of individuals. When you use a specially
designed evaluation instrument to collect observational data, it is referred to as observational

30
technique. If you look back from the earliest history of scientific activity, you would see that observation
has been the prevailing method of inquiring. When the observation of natural phenomena is aided by
systematic classification and measurement, it leads to the development of theories and laws. Every type
of research, whether experimental, descriptive or qualitative, incorporates the use of observational
techniques.

According to Monette, et al (1994) observational technique is the collection of data through direct visual
or auditory behaviour or experience. It includes video or audio recording of behaviour. It means that you
as a researcher looks or listens in order to see or hear the behaviours or words respectively. These
provide the information needed for the research.

There are two main types of observation. The first is called participant observation. In this case the
researcher become part and participates in the activities of the people, group or situation that is being
studied. Participant observation is very good for a highly qualitative research. The second is the non-
participant observation. In this case the researcher is not part of and does not in any way participate in
the activities of the people, group or situation. He observes through recording instruments or from
outside.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD OBSERVATION.

Observational process as data collection method in research demands a rigorous utilization of the spirit
of scientific inquiry. According to Best and Khan (1995) the following standards should be the
characteristics of observers and their observations. These characteristics are: -

Observation is carefully planned. Observers who are systematic and perceptively know what to look for.
They are not distracted by irrelevant situations.

Observers are aware of the wholeness of what is observed. They are alert to significant details. They
know that the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts.

Observers are objective. They recognize likely bases and strive to eliminate their influence on what they
see and report.

Observers separate the facts from the interpretation of facts. They observe the facts and make their
interpretations later.

Observations are checked and verified by repetition or comparison with the other competent observers.

Observations are expertly recorded. They use appropriate instruments to systematize, quantify and
preserve the results of their observations.

Observations are made in such a way as to make sure that the data collected are valid and reliable.

USES OF OBSERVATION.

Yoloye (1977) has given a summary of the situations in which observational data could be useful. These
are: -

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Measuring classroom process variables

Measuring attainment of programme objectives

Measuring the extent of programme implementation

Identifying difficulties in programme use.

Identifying changes introduced by hotel owners, teachers etc

Identifying typical pathways to customer services.

Supplementing data from other sources.

What to be Observed

There are some general categories of things you have to observe and record. These include

The Setting: - This could be a hotel, a bank, a company etc. The records should contain descriptions of
the general physical and social setting being observed.

The People: - These include customers, staff, management etc. The records should include a physical
and social description of the main characters who are the focus of your observation

Individual Behaviour: - The cares of observations in most studies are the behaviour of the individuals in
the settings.

Group Behaviours: - Most of the times, the behaviour of a group of individuals like customers, staff etc.
may provide an important bit of information for your studies.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What are the things you can observe to collect data?

RECORDING OBSERVATION

There are different kinds of devices used extensively to aid the recording of information gained through
observation. These devices include checklist, rating scales, scorecards, scaled specimens etc. these
provide systematic means for summarizing and/or quantifying data collected through observation or
examination. For instance, you can prepare a type of form or sheet of paper to rate such things as type
of food served, quality of served, neatness of the staff, neatness of the rooms, neatness of the bidding,
services provided, entertainment provided etc. such assessment sheet from the observational scale
which you can use for your studies.

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CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have been exposed to two other techniques employed in data collection in research. It
means that you can now use any of the methods, depending on the type of investigation you are
making, and the type of subjects you are dealing with. You have to note that the goal of data collection
in research is the generation of error-free, objective, relevant and dependable data for testing your
hypotheses. Invalid and irrelevant data implies invalid and undependable research analysis and findings.

SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that interview is a face to face oral interaction between the investigator and
the respondents. Interview can be employed to collect data about people‟s knowledge, opinions,
beliefs, feelings etc. the types of interview are

Informal conversational

Interviewer guided approach

Standardized open-ended interview and

Close or fixed responses interview.

You have seen the steps in the arrangement of interviews, how to conduct an interview, the strength of
the interview. The four ways of interview responses are classifying responses into predetermined
categories; summarizing the high points of what is said, taking verbatim notes or recording the interview
with a tape recorder or video machine.

Observation is the act of looking out for and recording the presence or absence of both verbal and non-
verbal behaviour of an individual or group of individual. The two main types of observation are
participant and non-participant observations. You have studied the characteristics of good observation,
uses of observation and recording of observation. You also studied that the things to be observed are
the setting, the people, individual behaviour and group behaviour.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Explain the types of interview you can use in research?

ii. What is an interview?

iii. What are the things to be observed?

IV. What are the two types of observation?

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ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

An interview is a face to face oral interaction between the investigator and the respondents.

II. The types of interview are:-

Informal conversational interview

Interview guided approach

Standardized open-ended interview.

Close or fixed response interview.

EXERCISE 2:-

Students should identify the problem and develop the questions.

EXERCISE 3:-

What to be observed are

The setting

The people

Individual behaviour

Group behavior

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UNIT 5.0 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION IN RESEARCH

THE CONCEPT OF PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH

In a research process, you have to select a topic of study from your area of study. After this you narrow
down this topic for your study. The next concern is to define the problem which you are focusing on.
Kerlinger (1979) defines a research problem in two ways. The first is in a general sense in which he
regards a research problem as a question that states situation needing discussion, inquiring, decision or
solution. The second one which is a more satisfactory definition, he regards a research problem as a
question that asks for how two or more variables are related. It means therefore that a research
problem must state and show how two or more variables are related. This may be stated in a question
form. The most important fact here is that the relationship between two or more variables must be
specified in the research problem. Look at these problems. Does the social class/status of parent play
significant role in the academic achievement of secondary school students in Abia state of Nigeria? Does
intelligence differ in the children from the middle and lower income class families? Does the size of a
hotel play significant role in the type of services rendered to customers? Do customers‟ satisfactions
depend on hotel management styles? Looking at these definitions and examples of problems in
research, you should be able to identify some key characteristics of problems in research. Now let us
look at the characteristics of research problem.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

From the examples in section 3.1 above, you can see that a research problem is always stated in a
sentence, in a question or interrogative form. You have also noticed that a research problem is a
question which states the relationship among Phenomena or variables. According to Tuckman (1972)
some characteristics of a problem in research are outlined as follows: -

It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables

It should be stated clearly and unambiguously, usually in question form

It should be possible to collect data on it so as to answer the question(s) asked.

It should not represent a moral or ethnic position indicating bias or feeling of preference.

From these you must note that every research topic must have two more variables that can be
measured or manipulated or controlled. The research problem must ask for the relationships between
the variables contained in it. E.g. what is the relationship between the socio-economic status of parents
and the intelligent quotient of their children? A problem must be researchable i.e. testable through
empirical methods of field or laboratory observation and collection of data. You should try as much as
you can to avoid value prepositions, ideals and moral judgments that are expressed by words like good,
bad, best, desirable, reliable etc when writing research problems. It is very difficult to realistically collect
data on human judgment and its moral imperatives which by all standards are highly subjective.

Remember that your research problem should be an empirically testable proposition stated in a
question form containing two or more measurable or manipulative variables whose relationships are

35
sort for in the problem statement itself. As a researcher, you are required to state your research
problems in accordance with some principles. These principles listed by Egon Guba (1973) are as follows:

State the problem in terms intelligible to someone who is generally sophisticated but who is relatively
uninformed in the area of the problem

Define and delimit the specific area of the research.

Fore-shadow the hypothesis to be tested or the questions to be raised in the problem statement.

You have to note that these principles are intended to make the problem statement in any research
report to be clear and specific.

SOME SOURCES OF SUITABLE RESEARCH PROBLEMS

Most of the problems confronted in the school system, the community, banking industry, hotel and
hospitality industries, etc, lend themselves to investigations. You can see that today we are having
technological changes and developments. These are constantly bringing forth new problems and new
opportunities for research.

The whole area of computer education and literacy provide avenue for a good number of research
topics through the internet and websites. You can also get topics through international abstracts typed
for computer processed.

Classroom lectures, class discussions, seminar reports and out of class exchanges of ideas with fellow
students and lecturers can suggest many stimulating problems for solution. When you read
assignments, journal articles, textbooks, research report, term paper, etc can also suggest additional
area of needed research.

Some research topics can be selected on the basis of their use in verifying and testing a particular
theory. You know that every research has some implications for existing theory. Therefore some
research topics are selected specially for the purpose of testing some aspects of a given theory. In your
exploration in an area, you may come across additional problems that need resolving. Most of these
problems are often theoretically framed.

Another fruitful source of research problem is prior research. All research projects have limitations, new
questions may be raised by the findings, research reports have discussions of weakness and limitations
of the research, including suggestions for further research, so focusing on these unanswered questions
or expending on previous research is a good way to find research problems. Again, if you have any
reason to doubt or question the results of an original study or you wish to replicate another research
study, it gives you the opportunity of having a research problem. This is possible because of numerous
opportunities for errors or biases to influence research results.

Programme evaluation and practice effectiveness evaluation can form important activities for research
purposes. Other sources of problem selection include political issues. Some of these may attract

36
financial sponsorship from external interests like the government or its agencies, non-governmental
organizations, private research organizations etc.

Consultation with your supervisor or advisor may be helpful in providing research problems for your
study. A very important function of your supervisor is to help you clarify your thinking, achieve a sense
of focus and develop a manageable problem from one that may be vague, complex or not researchable.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Enumerate 5 sources of research problems.

SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Selecting a research problem is one of the most difficult tasks you have to face in the research process.
This statement of fact is not in anyway intended to discourage you. However, we are going to discuss
some appropriate guidance to make it easier for you. According to Best and Khan (1995) one of the most
difficult phases of the graduate research project is the choice of a suitable problem. This is because most
students often select problems that are too broad in scope. Of course, they do this because they lack the
understanding of the nature of research and systematic problem-solving ability. Sometimes, they are so
enthusiastic to solve an important problem quickly. But you have to understand that research is often
very tasking, slow and rarely spectacular.

Because it is the search for truth and solution to very important problems, it takes a great deal of time
and energy. It takes intensive application of logical thinking. You should therefore follow some guiding
principles to aid you in your problem identification and selection in research encounters. The most
important and controlling point of view in selecting a research problem for your study should be that
the problem should contribute to the overcoming of obstacles in your area of study. According to Good
et al (1945) you should painstakingly select your problem of study upon these considerations: -

Novelty (newness) of the problem.

Your interest in the problem

Practical value of the research on the problem to you and others in the society.

Your special qualification to handle the problem

Availability of data on the problem

The cost of doing the investigation on the problem.

The time required and available for the completion of the study.

In his own contribution, Okpala (1995) insists that in selecting a topic, all effort should be made to
ensure that it:

Falls within the discipline (i.e. in time and space)

37
Is not a duplication of an existing work?

Conveys some reasonable information on the nature of the research problem, the variables and how
they are matched.

It is not too lengthy

It is not vague

SHAPING AND REFINING THE PROBLEM

You have been informed earlier in this unit that it could be frustrating if you become ensnared in
choosing a topic which is too broad and encompassing but by itself offers little guidance in terms on
how to move on or proceeds. Look at this topic for instance; Equity in hotel management and tourism in
Nigeria. You can see that this is too broad and lacks focus. So when you choose a problem area, the next
step is translating the general topic of interest into a precise researchable problem.

You will now narrow down the scope of the problem into a manageable proportion. The refining,
shaping, narrowing and focusing of a research problem do not occur at once. It is a continuous process
involving a number of procedures such as conceptual development, review of literature, etc. The
successful selection of a research problem means it has to be definitely formulated, structural and well
stated.

Problems in research can be stated in these various forms:

As a question or questions namely: -

A single question

Several questions

A single question followed by several sub questions.

As a declarative statement taking the form of being

A single statement

A single statement containing several phrases

A series of complete statement

A general statement followed by subordinate statements

As a statement followed by a re-statement in the form of a question.

As a statement followed by a series of propositions.

You are advised to use each of these forms one at a time to state a single problem. The types of
statement you may employ in stating a formulated problem depend on your preference and the nature
of the problem structured for study in your research encounter.

38
What are we saying is that after the formulation of your research problem, you still need to define and
delimit it? You are at liberty to use any or many of the procedures available in defining and delimiting
your study in order to make for clarification.

However you are expected to specify the problems in details and with precision. You need to specify
each question and sub-ordinate question to be answered. The assumptions made and the limits of the
investigations should also be determined and specified. Now let us look at the principles of Engelhard
(1928) and Egon Guba (1973) as various ways of defining the problem in research.

Analysis of the major problem or problems in terms of sub-ordinate problems.

Statement of the limits or scope of study.

Orientation of the problem which include giving: -

A historical account, remote or recent

An analysis of previous studies or related subject.

A survey of previous studies or related studies

Preliminary survey of the problem context

Description of the general nature of the problem: - in terms of type, procedure and sources

Statement of limitations of technique employed in the investigation

Recognition of assumptions and implications of the problem

Identification of the importance, value or significance of the study

Definition of terms related to the problem that will provide further understanding.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE: 2

Identify a researchable problem in your area of specialization.

State this problem as research topic

CONCLUSION

You have gone through a very important aspect of your research process. Remember it is not very easy
to select a topic that is researchable. But following the guidelines and principles specified in this unit,
you should be able to select your research project topic without much difficulties. In this next unit we
shall expose you to the research methods which you can use in conducting your investigation after you
have selected the problem.

39
SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that a research problem must state and show how two or more variables are
related. These variables should be measurable or manipulated. You have seen the characteristics of a
research problem as outlined by Tuckman (1972) and that of Egon Guba (1973). You looked at some
sources of the research problems. These include problems from the schools, community, banking, hotel
industries, society etc. problems can come from the technological changes and developments, computer
education and literacy, classroom lectures and discussions, seminar reports, exchange of ideas, lectures,
assignments, journal articles, textbooks, research reports, term papers, verifying and testing a particular
theory, prior research, programme evaluation, political issues, external interests and advice from your
supervisor.

You have gone through how to select the problem; you have seen the guidelines provided by Good et al
(19450 and these by Okpala (1995). You also read how to shape and refine the problem you have
selected.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Select a problem in your area of specialization. Shape the problem as a researchable topic.

Identify the research variables that should be measured or manipulated.

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

Sources of research problems include: -

Problems from the schools, community, banking, hotel etc.

Technological changes and developments

Computer education or literacy

Classroom lectures and discussion

Seminar reports

Exchange of ideas

Lectures

Assignments

Journal articles

Textbooks

Research reports

40
Term paper

Verifying & testing

Prior research

Political issues

Programme evaluation

External interests

Supervisors.

EXERCISE 2:-

Students are required to identify a researchable problem and state it in clear and concise form.

41
UNIT 6.0 STEPS IN RESEARCH AGENDA

COMPONENT OF SETTING THE PROBLEM

In every research process or encounter, there are components which help in shaping and refining the
problem in order to provide a focus and manageable scope for the research. These components help
you to quicken the pace of the study and that of the reader of the research report in understanding it.
Before we look at these components, let us first list the steps which you will follow when conducting
your research.

Step I. identifying the problem

You have already studied this step in details in the last unit. But let us say that it involves the discovery
and definition of scientific research problem within a topic area which you have chosen to study. It may
include questions which require answer in our area of study. For instance, what are the causes and
effects of lecturers‟ strike on the standard of Education in Nigeria? Are men better managers than
women?

Step II. Constructing Hypotheses

When you identify a researchable problem, it automatically leads to the proposition of a hypothesis as a
tentative answer. Once you have identified a problem, you use the logical processes of deduction and
induction to formulate an expectation of the outcome of the study. This expectation should be stated
and tested. This implies that you are hypothesizing about the probable relationship existing between the
concepts, variables identified in the problem. The hypotheses are the pointers to your solutions.

Step III. Identifying and labeling the variables

The next step is to identify and label all the variables in the problem and hypotheses stated.

There are different types of variables in research. We shall look at them later.

Step IV. Proposing Operational definition of terms

All terms, concepts and variables should be converted from their abstract or conceptual forms to
operational forms that can be quantified or measured using some forms of specified measurement
instruments. In technical terms, when you aperationalise the variables in your research, it means that
you are stating them in observable and measurable forms which make them available for clear
understanding, definition, manipulation, control and examination.

Step V. Manipulating and controlling variables.

If you have to manipulate and control the variables in your study, you must understand the concepts of
internal and external validity. This is because you need to control or manipulate and regulate these
variables in order to study the relationship between variables in research. You will have them discussed
later.

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Step VI. Constructing the Research Design

You can describe a research design as a specification or plan of operation for the testing of a stated
hypothesis under a given set of conditions. It comes in specific types such as one-variable design,
factorial design, experimental and quasi-experimental design etc.

Step VII. Identifying and constructing data collection Devices

After defining your variables and choosing the design for the study you need to adopt, adapt or develop
some instruments for measuring the selected variables. You can use standardized instruments or
construct your own as you have learnt in this course.

Step VIII. Constructing Questionnaires and Interview Schedules:

Most research studies in the social sciences and business rely on questionnaires and interviews as their
source of data. You should employ recommended guidelines to develop and use these measurement
devices for your data collection to test your hypotheses.

Step IX. Sampling and Collection of Data:-

As soon as you have got your instrument for data collection, you are expected to choose your
respondents or subjects. You to do this according to some specified statistical methods of sampling
either in the random techniques or non-random way. After getting your respondents or samples from
the population of your target, you now administer the instruments to them in order to extract the
needed information from them.

Step X. Carrying out Statistical Analysis or Data Analysis

The data you have collected above must be reduced, arranged and presented in an arranged and
presented in an organized form for easy analysis. The data as organized are subjected to specified or
suitable statistical indices for testing the hypothesis in order to generate some results or findings. From
these conclusions, generalizations are drawn. You can employ the use of computers for easy and
accurate data analysis. This aspect is very sensitive and requires some professional expertise, care and
endurance.

Step XI. Discussion of Research Findings

You have to discuss at this stage, your research findings or the results from the data analysis. This is to
justify, interprete, explain and further develop a given theory for knowledge based on the findings
generated. This is where you show your disposition and prowess. You have to note that the discussion
flows normally in the context and direction of the information collected in the process of review of
related literature. The implication is that you have to make thorough and adequate review of literature
related to your topic or area of study. This is because sound literature review in research makes for very
sound and balanced discussions of the findings or results.

Step XII. Drawing Conclusions, Generalizations and Recommendation

At this stage you are expected to draw your conclusions from your findings and to make generalizations
of the findings generated from the samples to the larger population from which the sample was drawn.
It is very important that your findings must be valid, your generalizations must be correct and your

43
recommendations from the research findings must be possible for application so as to bring progress in
the development and practice of the area.

Step XIII. Writing the Research Report:

Writing the final research report is very important and constitutes the major secretariat or clerical
activities of the research process. There are different styles and formats with their respective
instructions and guidelines. You can therefore choose a desired format in order to produce your final
research report. The American Psychological Association (APA) format is the most popular and most
used in research. Your supervisor will make it available to you if you demand it.

Delimitations

Delimitations give you the boundaries of the study. The conclusions are not to be extended beyond
these boundaries. It tells you about the target population, what the research intends to do and what he
intends not to do. When stating the delimitations, you are required to rule out all variables and issues
considered irrelevant to the research. It is not the same thing as limitations. For the purposes of
clarification limitation are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place
restrictions on the conclusions of the study and their applications to other situations. These may include
the use of unvalidated instrument, inability to randomly solid and assign subjects to experimental and
control groups, some administrative policies etc.

Assumptions

These are statement of what the researcher believes to be facts but cannot be verified. They are what
the research takes for granted. You have to state your assumptions in a study because it is easier to
evaluate your conclusions based on the assumptions. You should not leave anything on your problem
must be clearly and unreservedly spelt out.

Significance of the study:

What is the use of the study? What are the practical values of the study? Who are the beneficiaries of
the findings and how would they benefit and how the study will be useful to them?

Definition of terms:

You have to define all unusual terms that could be misinterpreted. These definitions will help you to
establish the frame of reference with which you approach the problem. The definitions are in
operational forms. Without explicitly knowing what a term means, you cannot evaluate the research or
determine, if you have carried out what you set out as the main objectives of your study. The definitions
must interpret the terms as they are used in relation to the study. This means that you determine what
you wish the term to mean within the contact of the problem or its sub-problem.

44
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Enumerate the steps you take in your research process.

Distinguish between limitations and delimitations.

HYPOTHESIS

Let us start this section by describing a hypothesis as tentative but intelligent guess posited to direct
your thinking toward the solution of the problem. It is a tentative proposition set forth a possible
explanation for an occurrence or a provisional conjecture to assist in guiding the investigation of a
problem. Hypotheses and research questions are very helpful in research because you need some points
around which to orient the research in searching for relevant data and in establishing tentative goals
against which to project the data.

Hypotheses can be stated in two different forms. These are the null hypothesis, H0 and the alternative
hypothesis H1.

The Null Hypothesis H0:

This type relates to a statistical method of interpreting conclusions about population characteristics that
are inferred from the variable relationships observed in samples. It asserts that observed differences or
relationship merely results from chance errors inherent in the sampling process. It is a non-directional
hypothesis. e.g. there is no significant difference in the academic performance of day students and
boarders. There is no significant difference in the spending pattern of men and women in relation to
fashion. There is no significant difference in the choice of accommodation between the young and
elderly people.

Alternative Hypothesis H1:

This is directional hypothesis. It gives the directory of the relationship between the variables. E.g.
Women spend more money in fashion than men. Young people choose costlier accommodations than
the elderly people etc.

VARIABLES

A variable is a property that takes on different values. According to Kerlinger (1977) a variable is a
symbol to which we assign numerical values.

Some important variables in the humanities are sex, income, social class, aptitude, anxiety etc. A
variable may have only two values e.g. male, female, dead or alive etc. Some variables used in
behavioural researches are true dichotomies. This means that they are characterized by the presence or
absence of a property e.g. good-bad, employed-unemployed etc. Some variables are polytomies e.g. the
Nigerian citizens can be Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba, Efik, Nupe, Gwari, TIV, etc. Most variables are theoretically
capable of taking on continuous values e.g. intelligence, achievement etc.

The different types of variables are:

45
Independent and Dependent Variables:

An independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable which is the presumed effect.
The independent variable is the antecedent while the dependent variable is the one that is consequent.
In experiments, the independent variable is the one that is manipulated while the dependent variable is
the effect of the manipulation. Let us look at this topic. Effect of increased funding on the quality of
services depends on the increased funding. It means that increased funding is the independent variable
and quality of services is the dependent variable. If you increase the funding, the quality of services will
improve and vice-versa.

Discrete and continuous variables:

Discrete variables are those with finite number of distinct and separate values. They have only whole
numbers and no fraction e.g. sex, race, number of days, family size etc. Continuous variables are those
that least theoretically can take an infinite number of values. It can take both number and fractions e.g.
age, test scores etc. there are other types of variables. These are to be treated in other units. These
include extraneous, intervening, moderating etc variables.

Feasibility of a Research Problem

This implies that before you have a full scale investigation into the problem of your study, you would
have considered in clear terms the practical issues involving feasibility. It involves consideration of
practical issues of what can be reasonably accomplished given the time and resources available. This will
help you to decide to reduce the scope or to increase it.

You have to carefully and honestly assess the time and fund required to accomplish the study. The major
aspects to be considered are

Time constraint:

You need to find out if the time available is sufficient and adequate to complete the study. Factor
related to time are:

i. Population: - Time to cover the population in relation to the required characteristics.

ii. Proper development of measuring devices. You need to consider the time to develop and validate or
trial test your data collection instruments

iii. Time required for data collection. This should be

iv. considered Time for analysis of data should be considered.

46
Financial Constraint:

All the financial expenses for the study should be assessed. The major areas of financial involvement
include: Production of instrument, payment for research assistants, transportation cost, cost of analysis
of data, office supply and equipment and miscellaneous.

Anticipating and Avoiding Problems:

Whether you are knowledgeable in research or not, you have to be able to identify potential trouble
spots in your proposal. You can make some modifications to avoid them. You need to conduct a pilot
study. This involves a preliminary run through on a small scale of all the procedures that will be
employed in the study. If there are problems in the pilot study they can be estimated and taken care of.
If the problem is that of time or money, you can scale the problem down by reducing the sample size,
the number of hypothesis etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE: 2

In any topic of your choice, propose three hypotheses each of null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

CONCLUSION

In this unit you have gone through the necessary steps in a research process. You have also studied the
various components and aspects of setting up a problem. The onus lies on you to choose your topic by
applying all that you have learnt here.

SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied the steps you will follow in conducting the research. These steps are:-

Identifying the problem

Constructing the hypotheses

Identifying and labeling the variables

Proposing operational definition of terms

Manipulating and controlling variables

Constructing the research design

Identifying and constructing data collection devices.

Constructing questionnaire and interview schedules

Sampling and collection of data

47
Carrying out statistical analysis or data analysis

Discussion of Results or Research findings

Drawing conclusion, Generalizations and Recommendation

Writing the Research report.

You have also learnt that delimitations are the boundaries of the study, while limitations are those
conditions beyond the contract of the researcher which may place restrictions on the conclusions of the
study and their applications to other situation.

Assumptions are statements which you believe to be facts but which cannot be verified. The significance
of the study involves the use or practical values of the study. It involves the beneficiaries of the results
and how they will benefit. You have to define all unusual terms that could be misinterpreted. Hypothesis
is a tentative but intelligent guess posited to direct your thinking toward the solution of the problem.
Hypothesis can be stated in two forms-the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.

You were told that variables are symbols to which we assign numerical values. They can take on
different values. They can be true dichotomies, polytomies etc. We have independent and dependent,
discrete and continuous variables. You also learnt that you have to do feasibility of the research problem
before the full scale investigation. This is to enable you consider practical issues of what can be
accomplished given the time and resources available. In this case, you consider time constraint, financial
constraint and how to avoid other problems. In the next unit we shall be looking at the types of research
methods available for you.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Select a research topic in your area of study.

Propose 4 alternative hypotheses and 4 null hypotheses.

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

The steps are: -

Identification of the problem

Constructing the hypotheses

Identifying and labeling the variables

Proposing operational definition of terms

Manipulating and controlling variables

Constructing the research design

48
Identifying and constructing data collection devices.

Constructing questionnaire and interview schedules

Sampling and collection of data

Carrying out statistical analysis or data analysis

Discussion of Results or Research findings

Drawing conclusion, Generalizations and Recommendation

Writing the Research report.

Delimitations are the boundaries of the study while limitations are the conditions beyond your control
and which may affect the result and conclusions of your study.

EXERCISE 2:-

Students are expected to propose the hypotheses.

49
UNIT 7.0 THE TYPOLOGIES OF THE RESEARCH METHODS I

EMPIRICISM

Let us start this section by section by stating that an empiricist is one who practices empiricism. The
question then is what is empiricism? Any system which does not agree with all past knowledge which
rests solely on experience can be regarded as empiricism. In other words it lays emphasis on induction,
the use of direct observation to confirm ideas and the linking together of observed facts to form
theories or explanations of how natural phenomena and events work. You know that social life is visibly
chaotic. Its concrete ingredients are people. The substance of our observation remains the events and
phenomena. Each of these are unique, just as human beings are unique. Therefore to be an empiricist,
you must be ready to confront the truth. You should be ready to work with apparent disorder,
nonreplicable people and non-repetitive events and phenomena.

Empirical Enquiry

An empirical scientific research can be regarded as a way of looking at things. We can also think of it as a
method of approaching to the empirical world. You already know that science consists of theory and
facts. You also know that a fact is an empirically verifiable observation and a theory tries to find
relationships among facts. The facts of science are the products of observations. The construction of a
theory is the most important purpose of empirical scientific inquires. Theory gives orientation to
empirical inquiries it guides the collection of relevant date and offers conceptual scheme that will bind
them together in a more systematic manner, theories are said to represent improvement in knowledge.
This is the main focus in research. While theories help us to predict facts, facts help to initiate theories
and to test the validity of existing theories. Facts clarify and redefine theory. But theories and facts
stimulate each other and contribute to the growth of empirical knowledge.

Empirical studies make use of all research tools. These include observations, both participant and non-
participant; interviews which can be structured, semi-structured and in-depth; key informant
testimonies, analysis of personal and institutional documents, mass media analysis, examination of
official documents and statistics, archival searching, review of published literature. Empirical social
research employs a wide range and variety of analytical techniques such as ethnographic
interpretations, historical reconstructions, action research, multivariate analysis structuralist
deconstruction and semiological analysis.

Empirical Research Process

In empirical research method, you proceed in a systematic and orderly manner in order to pursue the
truth as determined by facts and logical considerations. The main purpose is to find a systematic
interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation and logical procedures. It means that it can only
be conducted based on a rigorous impersonal procedure dictated by the demand of logic and objective
procedures. The steps involved are

i. Data collection through careful and critical observation with patience, precision and impartiality

50
Measurement

Classification, Organization and Tabulation of data

Data analysis and Reduction

Formulation of hypotheses and

Formulation of theory and Law

The main features of empirical scientific research are:

Observation: In order to obtain knowledge, empirical research relies on observation. It is the

cornerstone of any empirical inquiry. It supplies us with the thing that we try to understand and explain
observation in an empirical research is not casual, but a conscious and deliberate activity designed to
reduce error. It requires improved accuracy. It uses certain devices which add great precision to
scientific observation. Meaningful observation results in the establishment of facts. These are used for
verifying empirical theories, building them and modifying or improving them.

Concepts: These are the building blocks of scientific empirical research. Theories consist of several inter-
related concepts.

Although concepts are said to be fundamental to all human communication and thought, yet the
concept we use in our day to day affairs are not always clear and precise. They have to be defined with
precision to foster clear thinking; precise definitions convey exact meaning and explanation to both the
empiricist and the readers.

Objectivity: This indicates that all the conclusions you reach in your empirical research are not affected
by your personal views, values or biases. It permits repetition of observations under practically identical
conditions, to get the same results. It facilitates the verification of facts and theories by many empiricists
independently.

Verifiability: The findings of your research are said to be empirical if only they can be verified. Any
theory which contains facts that cannot be verified tends to be metaphysical rather than scientific.
Therefore all empirical conclusions are liable for verification at any time. An empirical scientific theory of
generalization stands to be rejected or modified at anytime.

Predictability: Accurate and precise predictions constitute one of the most impressive achievements of
empirical researches. Predictability depends on the nature of the phenomena and our knowledge of the
causes of the phenomena. If there is more number of cause‟s predictions become more and more
difficult. Prediction also depends on our ability to have precise theories and accurate measurement.

Systematic Nature: Empirical investigations are systematic, thorough and rigorous in making use of
designs to guard against errors from data collection, interpretation and generalization from the data.
Empirical investigations are systematic in the methods used for data collection, formulation of
hypotheses, data analysis techniques and the logic use for making generalizations. It self – correcting
because you have the opportunity to find any flows that may come in at any stage of investigation. It is
the systematic nature of empirical inquiry that distinguishes it from other non-scientific investigations.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

What are the steps involved in empirical research?

Describe the main features of empirical research?

PHENOMENOLOGY

This is a philosophy of knowledge which emphasis directs observation of phenomena. It refers to a

person’s construction of the meaning of a phenomenon as opposed to the phenomenon as it exists
external to the person. It is a research method that attempts to understand the participant’s perspective
and views of social realistic. The phenomenologists seek to perceive reality and to describe it in words
rather than numbers. It is a qualitative research employing the use of words that reflect consciousness
and perception. The phenomenologist concentrates on the phenomena and tries to produce convincing
descriptions of what they experience rather than ordinary explanations and causes. The phenomenon
experienced or studied may be an event, a relationship, an emotion or a programme. Phenomenologist
try to understand that a particular experience is all about by describing it as it is found in concrete
situations and as it appears to the people who are involved in it. The central qualities of
phenomenological research are attention to experience and intention to describe the experience.

Phenomenological Approaches in Social Research

Hermeneutical Phenomenology: This is one of most influential phenomenological field work. It involves
a dialogue between a text, such as myth, drama, fairy story, dream report, oral history, etc and the
experiences evoked in people participating in the text. The meaning of the text can be developed within
the consciousness of living people. There is a movement from the initial hearing of the text that may
then lead to experiences that illuminate the meaning of the text.

People can later start reflecting conceptually on both the text and the memory of experiences related to
the text.

Transpersonal Phenomenology: This involves the recognition of extraordinary experiences as legitimate

and useful data. Such experiences that in some sense go beyond the boundaries of ordinary ego-
consciousness are called extraordinary. They include such phenomena as out-of–body experiences,
visions, possession states, near-death experiences, meditative, ecstatic, unique and mystical
experiences.

Social Phenomenology: This has become increasingly an influence on anthropological thinking of the
social dimensions of experience. The object of scrutiny is your relationship to another person. It is not
about the non-human objects of the world. What are the essential qualities of the social relationship?

Neuro-Phenomenology: This provides the most direct route to uncover the essential structures of
consciousness. You can do this by stepping in the cross-cultural evidence that pertains to human
experience and to explore the universal structures of experience. The neurosciences provide an
independent source of looking directly at the architecture of the organ of experience – the human brain.

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CRITICAL RESEARCH

This lays emphasis on the fact that knowledge is problematic and capable of systematic distortion. Its
concern is to understand the theory as well as the practices.

It is extremely varied the critical methodology based on a number of building blocks. These blocks
should not be considered as discrete units which can simply be placed next to one another. They are
elements which are drawn together in various ways in the process of deconstruction and reconstruction.

Elements of Critical Social Research

The elements are abstraction, totality, essence, praxis, ideology, history and structure.

Abstraction

This is often misunderstood in term of a distillation of sensory perception of the world of objects into
conceptual categories.

It starts from the literally objective world and selects out the recurrent or apparently the core or the
defining features until an abstract concept is formed, at least in our minds if not in a directly
communicable form. It works by moving from the abstract to the concrete. It starts with abstract
generalizations and then to their investigations.

Totality

This refers to the view that social phenomena are interrelated and form a total whole. It means that a
social phenomenon should be situated in a wider social context. Therefore social phenomena should not
be analyzed in isolation. A totalistic view indicates that all the components are interrelated into a
coherent structure which can only make meaning in terms of the structure, but then the structure relies
on the component parts.

Essence

This refers to the fundamental elements of analytic process. Critical social researchers see essence as a
fundamental concept that can be used as the key to unlock the process of deconstruction.

Praxis

This refers to the practical reflective activity. It involves what you do most of the time as a human being.
It excludes such instinctive or mindless activities like sleeping, breathing etc or activities that involve
repetitive work tasks. It is what changes the world. The critical social researcher believes that knowledge
not just about finding out things about the world. It is about changing it. You need therefore to engage
in praxis.

Ideology

This is a concept which has a long history. Its current usage is developed as an analytic and critical tool in
the work of Marx. It has been an important feature of Marxism. There are two approaches to a critical
analysis of ideology. These are the positive and the negative views of ideology.

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Structure

In critical social research, structure is viewed holistically as complex set of interrelated elements which
are interdependent and which can only be adequately conceived in terms of the complete structure.

History

This refers to both the reconstructed account of past events and the process by which this
reconstruction is made. That is the process of doing history. It involves both a view about the nature of
history and the assembling of historical materials.

Critical Research Process

The process here involves deconstruction and reconstruction. Note that this does no means taking a
house apart brick by brick and may be building another house using that same bricks. Reconstruction is
not only rebuilding, it involves reconceptualization. Critical research starts with observation, concern,
frustration or doubt which provoked the enquiry.

You can start by asking series of questions like why are things appear like this? Why do they persist?
Why has nothing been done about them? Does it mean they have not been noticed? Why it that people
accept what is is not in their interest? These and more questions will lead you into getting a clearer
picture of what you are looking for. These questions will lead you to three related lines of enquiry. What
is essentially going on? Why has this historically been the case? Why structures reproduce this state of
affairs?

Start to broaden the enquiry. Do not assume relationships as the enquiry develops but undertake
further empirical enquiry. After the investigation is completed, you write the report as your chance to
share the understanding wit others. Note the critical social research is primarily concerned with analysis
and reporting of substantive issues rather than the artificial logic of the research process.

Approaches in Critical Social Research

There are four approaches in critical social research

Critical case study: Here you select for detailed empirical which provides a specific focus on analysis of a
myth or contradiction. A variety of different data collection techniques can be used within a critical case
study approach.

You will rely principally on structured interviews augmented by observation in ascertaining the interests,
attitudes, social network and life-styles of the case-study groups.

Radical Historicism: This presupposes that constructing histories is an interpretative process rather than
the recording of facts it attempts to dig beneath the surface of the historical development of structural
forms. Radical historicism is concerned with the uncovering of historical evidence.

The meaning of the evidence depends on a conceptualization of dominant social structures. The
reconstruction of history takes place alongside structural analysis. It informs and is also informed by it.

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Critical Ethnography: This is widely used and it involves a close attention to details which characterize
ethnography. It is very useful in rendering all the invisible to be visible and for revealing anomalies and
common sense notions. It transforms all the anomalies and all details taken for granted into
contradictions and myths by situating them in broader social and historical analysis. It focuses on the
way contradictions are negotiated and myths re-presented.

Structuralist techniques: The two types of structuralist techniques used in critical social research are:

Semiological Analysis: This attempt to undercover the connoted level of denoted messages though
widely used in the mass media. It is applicable to and derives from a general approach to the analysis of
any system; it sees a sign as any cultural symbol which conveys a meaning. The sign is made up of two
elements – signifier and signified.

Identification of binary oppositions and narrative sequences: which draws on linguistics and
presupposes that the structure of language is inherently dichotomous and consequently, the symbolic
meaning of an image is determined only by differences.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What are the phenomenological approaches in social research?

What are the four approaches in critical social research?

CONCLUSION

Researchers study the socio-cultural implications involved in their different areas of study. To this effect
different scientific disciplines have influenced such areas in terms of theorization as well as methods
adopted in the pursuit of knowledge.

Doing a research is not just about selecting and constructing data collection technique on the contrary;
it involves conceptualization of the problem theoretical debate, specification of research practices,
analytic frameworks and epistemological presuppositions. In this unit you have studied some research
methods which you can use in your qualitative researches.

SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that empiricism is a system which does not agree with all past knowledge
which rests solely on experience. Anybody who practices empiricism is called empiricist. An empirical
research method proceeds in a systematic and orderly manner in order to pursue the truth as
determined by facts and logical considerations. The steps involved are

Data collection

Measurement

Classification, organization and tabulation of data

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Data analysis

Formulation of hypothesis and

Formulation of theory or law.

The main features of empirical research are:

Observation

Concepts

Objectivity

Verifiability

Predictability

Systematic nature.

You also learnt that phenomenology is philosophies of knowledge are

Hermeneutical Phenomenology

Transpersonal Phenomenology

Social Phenomenology

Neuro-Phenomenology.

Critical research lays emphasis on the fact that knowledge is problematic and capable of systematic
distortion. The elements of critical social research include abstraction, totality, essence, praxis, ideology,
history and structure.

The approaches in critical social research are

Critical case study

Radical historicism

Critical ethnography

Structuralist techniques.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List the empirical research process

Explain the major features of empirical scientific research

Describe the phenomenological approaches

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What are the elements of a critical social research?

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

The Steps are:

Data collection

Measurement

Classification, Organization and Tabulation of data

Data analysis and Reduction

Formulation of hypotheses

Formulation of theory and Law

The main features are:

Observation

Concepts iii. Objectivity

Verifiability

Predictability

Systematic Nature

EXERCISE 2:-

The approaches are:

Hermeneutical Phenomenology

Transpersonal Phenomenology

Social Phenomenology

Neuro-Phenomenology

The approaches are

Critical case study

Radical Historicism

Critical Ethnography

Structuralist techniques

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UNIT 8.0 PHILOSOPHICAL AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH

PHILOSOPHICAL RESEARCH

Philosophical studies aim at the assessment of the status of knowledge through analysis of meaning and
relationships of different concepts and exposition of underlying assumptions. They also aim at a fruitful
synthesis of ideas from different fields concerning the theories and practices. It means that if you are a
researcher in this area, you will be aiming at the analyses of meaning and nature of different concepts
and the reluctance of different kinds of practices. You will have to identify appropriate norms and
standard for practices through cross examination of ideas reflected by the different thinkers in your field
of specialization. The main thrust of philosophical research can be summarized as follows:

Study of the contributions made by a philosophers or groups of philosophers: These are philosophers or
groups of philosophers who follow similar lines of thought expressing their ideas about the aspects of
occasions in different forms – speeches, discourses, writing and institutional practices.

Study of the philosophical ideas propounded by a particular school of thought: You already know that
philosophy is classified under different schools of thought, such as Idealism, naturalism, realism,
existentialism, pragmatism, socialism or communism i.e. dialectical materialism.

Study of the philosophical bases of the curriculum: So many questions are raised in the context of
curriculum development. These include the desirability of the state of mind to learn, the criteria for
identifying the desirability of the state of the mind. These are some of the issues related to theoretical
and practical aspects which are the concerns of the philosopher.

Study of the philosophical bases of instructional process: Philosophical research probes in to the
alternative to instructional designs and system, their worth and social desirability in the overall frame
work and understanding to human development.

Study and philosophical analysis of contributions made by theories in psychology: Philosophical studies
probe into the contributions of need theories and concept formation from the psychological process.

Study and philosophical analysis of social theories: Issues like freedom, autonomy, democratic values,
equality of opportunities, policies and practices, require philosophical analysis from time to time in
order to accommodate the changes which improve or develop the societies.

Main Steps in Philosophical Inquiry

There are well defined steps that need to be considered and followed in order to make a successful
philosophical inquiry.

Identification of appropriate topic: As it is in every other research method, philosophical studies start
with the selection of appropriate topic. You have to ensure that the topic chosen is capable of yielding a
system, of thought with sound justification. Of course, you have to consult available literature before
you finalize the topic. Look at these two topics.

“A critical study of the educational implications of existentialism”. “A philosophical study of Equality of

Educational opportunity”.

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Collection of data: After the identification of the topic and raising some preliminary questions about this
topic, you then go to collect all possible data relevant to the topic. Data can be collected from different
sources including available literature. The type and sources of data may be of literary nature like to rite
ups or opinions of the philosophers concerned, commentaries on relevant philosophical works which
appear in the form of books, journals, transcriptions, recording, research reports etc. collection of these
types of data is mostly done through library work. You have t note that this is a very crucial stage in this
type of research process. You will have to decide the relevance and authenticity of the data and the
nature of the sources.

Classification of data and the interpretation: Logical classification of the data under different heads that
focus on the topic of investigation is required here. After the classification comes the interpretation.
This follows different processes such as description, comparison, appraisal, cross examination, etc. of
the different ideas or concepts in the context of the major question under consideration, interpretation.
Here is a scholarly exercise it rests on our analytical insight and your synthesizing ability.

According to varma (1965) the task of interpretation is chiefly that of ascribing a significance, meaning,
purpose and relatedness to a common end and to an apparently heterogeneous mass of data. Personal
biases and subjectivity must be as much as possible avoided.

Reporting the study: This is the final stage of the research. You have to maintain logical sequences
among the different heads of classification appropriate conclusion are drawn towards the end of the
presentation.

You have to be careful to ensure clarity and precision in your presentation. Cite appropriate references
with quotations as well as all necessary points and emphasis on the presentations very carefully in the
report.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Explain the main steps in Philosophical Research.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Right from your primary school, you have known that history is the study of the past. Therefore a
historical research consists of the studies of the past happenings. In this process of searching for the
amount of what happened in the past, the historian may reveal several interacting factors that
contributed to a particular event within a specific context of time and space occurring. Historical studies
highlight some causal relationships of past events and unearth the background for the purpose of
understanding the social phenomena both past and the present. It means that the understanding of our
past will help us to develop better perceptions of the dynamics of the present times. History is a study of
the road for the march of progress indicating the nature of advance in socio-economic and political
contexts. According to Borg (1963) historical research can be seen as the systematic and objective
location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about
past events.

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Main Features of Historical Research

Historical method of research otherwise called „historiography‟ has some unique features that make it
count as a method of scientific inquiry.

These features are:

It aims at developing knowledge of past events within a particular framework of time and social –
political, economic and cultural context. As a historical researcher, you attach importance to the
meaning of specific events which have already occurred and explain their casual relationships on the
basis of the analysis of the existing data.

You dig into the significant data that tell us about the past events. You do not have any control over data
because you are studying situations that do not exist in the present. You have to consider every piece of
information of the past which are relevant to your problem of investigation for analysis.

Historical research is conducted based on the analysis of all the known information related to the
research problem.

Data concerning the past events are available through different sources. These sources are classified
into primary and secondary sources. Before we go on let look at these.

(A) Primary sources of Historical data.

These provide first-hand information about the past events. They include direct observation and
reporting a recording of experiences. Other primary sources include:

Personal primary sources such as personal direct observation of events which the participated in the
past.

Physical artifacts like collections in museum or evidence of historical spots, relics, remains etc.

Mechanical artifacts like films, video, audio and photographs

Records written by actual participants or observers in the form autobiographies, charters, court
decisions, official minute or record deeds, wills, permits, licenses, certificates, bills, receipts, maps,

(B) Secondary Sources of data:

These involve second-hand information about past events. The person giving the information is neither
a participant nor an eye witness of events. The information can be in the form of written materials such
as newspaper articles, magazine, books, research reports etc. You have to note that secondary sources
of data are usually of limited worth because of the errors which result when information is passed on
from one person to another.

Another major feature of historical research is the evaluation of data. Doubts can be raised about the
validity, reliability and relevance of the data. The process of evaluation is called historical criticism. This

60
can be external or internal criticism. External criticism is concerned with testing the authenticity of the
sources of data, while the internal criticism is concerned with the verification of the content of the data.

Main steps in Historical Research

Identification of the problem: As usual this is the first step. It involves selecting a problem which falls in
the area of history or which has issues of historical significance.

Specification of the population of data: There may be a lot of information about the past available in
most cases. You need to point out the types that are relevant to your study.

Data Collection: The description of the required population of data will help you to develop an overview
about the data and to assess whether all relevant information is available or not. You need to study the
relevant literature and make efforts to discover new data in addition to what is available. To collect
data:-

You should be aware of all the data known to exist.

You should know sources of data and be ready to explore new data from the existing sources.

You should be ready to exercise great care in exploring the sources and previously known data in the
context of the problem under investigation.

Organization of Data: Here you arrange the data under different headings in order to show a holistic
picture of the problem. This will enable you to scrutinize the data in hand to see if they are enough for
the study or if there is need for more.

Interpretation of data: At this stage you have to show the events which give details of what happened
to whom, in that place and at what time. This will lead you into being curious to know why something
happened. It poses a great challenge because interpretation is based on forces which shaped event and
determined policies. A sound knowledge of related fields like sociology, political science, economics,
philosophy, geography, educational management and educational technology, will enable you to
develop a holistic view about the situation and to deduce the implication for the present.

Report writing: This starts once the first round of data collection is over. There is the interaction
between writing interpretations, selections of additional data and subsequent reached. The final touch
will be given to the study by way of preparing a systematic and comprehensive report.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Identify a study topic about the history of your Alma matter?

State the main steps you will take in conducting this historical research?

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CONCLUSION:-

You have added two more research methods which are qualitative researches in your repartuor of
knowledge. These are research options for your study when you need to do any investigation. In the
next unit you will also add more so hat you have varieties of choices when you are ready for your
research project.

SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that philosophical research aims at the assessment of the status of
knowledge through analysis of meaning and relationships of different concepts and expositions of
underlying assumptions. The main steps expositions of underlying assumptions. The main steps are

Identification of appropriate topic

Collection of data

Classification of data and the interpretation

Reporting the study

You also learnt that a historical research consists of the studies of what happened in the past in order to
reveal several interacting factors that contributed to a particular event within a specific content of time
and space. The main features of Historical Research highlighted in this unit. You saw the two sources of
historical data which are the primary sources and secondary sources. In evaluation of historical data
which is called historical criticism, two types involve. These are external and internal criticism. The main
steps in historical research are:

Identification of the problem

Specification of the population of data

Data Collection

Organization of Data

Interpretation of data

Report writing

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the main steps in Philosophical Research?

Explain the sources of Historical Research?

What are the two ways of evaluating Historical Research?

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ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

The main steps in Philosophical Research are:-

Identification of appropriate topic

Collection of data

Classification of data and the interpretation

Reporting the study

EXERCISE 2:-

The students are required to identify a topic.

The main steps are:

Identification of the problem

Specification of the population of data

Data Collection

Organization of Data

Interpretation of data

Report writing

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UNIT 9.0 NATURALISTIC INQUIRY AND CASE STUDY

NATURALISTIC INQUIRY

As the name implies, this can be said to mean all investigations about social and educational
phenomena conducted in natural settings. It is identified with the concept of field studies in the areas of
Anthropology and Sociology. It has a unique position in the conduct of social sciences researches. For
instance, if you are interested in studying the problems of hotel management in Nigeria, you may decide
to use the naturalistic inquiry method. In this case, it means that you have to go down to the natural
settings of the hotels and their management in order to study the problems.

In an ordinary scientific inquiry, you start with the statement of the hypotheses, which you formulated
through a deductive process. You can then start collecting data in order to test the hypotheses or
theoretical questions. You may use a physically controlled situation or statistically controlled techniques.
In whatever you are doing, objectivity must be ensured through the use of representative samples,
standardized instruments and different sophisticated statistical designs for treatment of data and
generalization of finds. Naturalistic inquiry does not follow these steps. It follows an altogether different
conceptual framework this takes into account such factors as:-

Multiple Realities: Naturalists believe that multiple realities exist in social situations. These exist in
concrete forms. Realities can be regarded as what people perceive at a particular point in time. You
know that social situations keep changing from time to time. Therefore, realities will also be changing.

Meanings and Interpretations: Naturalists lay emphasis on the meaning and interpretations given to
objects, events and processes concerning social and educational situations. You need to understand
human behavioural or social phenomenon in order to see the changes, the way people see them, what
they are doing or how they participate in an activity.

Generation of Knowledge: Naturalists insist on the generation of knowledge as a result of the

interaction between the researcher and the respondents. The respondents answer questions from the
investigator in order to show their perceptions or the meanings attached to their actions. This makes
the respondents to achieve maximum levels of responsiveness and insight into the problem under
investigation.

Generalization: Naturalists do not believe in generalization as is done by the scientists. They believe that
the process of knowledge generalization must take into account the differences or the real evidence
existing in specific situations.

Human Relations: There are several intrinsic factors, events and processes that keep influencing each
other. If is not possible to identify one to one cause and effect relationship in the case of naturalistic
studies. Causality in social studies is not demonstrated in the hard sense, but only patterns of plausible
influences can be inferred from social and behavioural studies.

Value Systems: There is no value – free inquiry. Naturalists assume the influence of value systems in the
identification of problems, selection of samples, use of tools for data collection, the conditions in which
data are gathered, and the possible interaction that takes place between the investigator and the
respondents. Naturalist‟s points out that the researcher‟s bias is always there and should be mentioned
in the research reports and to be ignored.

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The Uniqueness of Naturalistic Inquiry

In terms of procedures, naturalistic research is quite unique. Let us highlight the uniqueness as follows:

Holistic Approach: The intention of naturalists of the development of deeper understanding of a given
situations in a holistic manner. All possible information in regards to all the significant dimensions of the
situation under study is collected with a view to show the situation in the totality.

Insightful Inquiry: This is emphasized by the naturalists where human beings are treated as the sole
means of data collection.

Naturalistic research makes use of qualitative methods such as participant observation informal
interviews and discussions, review of relevant literature, daily observation notes and dairy writing, very
often for field work. It can also make use of quantitative method like use of tests, questionnaires etc
sometimes for data collection.

No a Prior Theory: A naturalistic research is such that you go to the field collect data without having any
pre-specified theory in mind. Your belief as a naturalist is that and a prior limits the inquiry to those
elements which may have been significant before developing an understanding of the situation. The
process of holistic inquiry is blocked. Theoretical propositions are insistence on the development of
theories afresh in every enquiry conducted.

No Pre-specified design of study: There is no explicit statement on the hypotheses and the conditions
for data collection, analyses and interpretation. You can only develop; decisions are taken about the
samples during the field work. Experiences got through personal insights, intuition, personal images and
apprehensions are recast into appropriate propositions during the period of data collection. The data
collected are used to analyze and adopt the study to the pattern of relationship.

Naturalistic setting: in the description of naturalistic research above, you learnt that it takes place in the
natural setting. So naturalistic believe in conducting their studies in realistic settings since reality cannot
be studied in fragmented and controlled situations. They try to bring out what happens in the realistic
situation i.e. a hotel room, restaurant, bar, recreation, club etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I

Explain how the naturalistic researches are unique.

MAIN STEPS IN NATURALISTIC RESEARCH.

There are two groups of naturalists. One believes in the procedural details of the study, while the radical
naturalists believe in non-specification of the processes of conducting the study.

However, these are the main steps:

Identifications of broader questions of Inquiry: You have to first specify the pertinent issues or
questions related to the settings and which can be resolved or answered through field study. Your main

65
focus should be on the specific structure of occurrences rather than general character of the
Phenomenon.

Your emphasis should be on identifying individual perceptions as regards his own decisions or
contributions to the occurrence of the events or processes. You should focus on the understanding of
the realities by identifying satisfactory patterns in the action of the individuals participating in the
activities.

Collection of the initial level data: The next step is to make deliberate attempts to identify a full range
of variations in the social and organisational arrangement related to the problem under study. You may
start the investigation from a broader context of the problem before you proceed to the specific
occurrences of the events.

Procedures for data collection: You can collect data in different phases through participant observation.
Data collection can be done through all the relevant and available sources and means like:

Review of available literature, records and documents, dairies, pictures, photographs etc.

Interactions with the people concerned in the programme

Direct observation and experiences about the programme.

Note that you have to use flexible approaches in the field to identify:

The situation for participation to take place

The persons for intensive interaction that is required

The people with whom dialogue is needed

Devices of data collection: Different types of devices can be employed for the purpose of data
collection. These include: writing notes about an observed situation; using electronic appliances such as
tape recorders and video camera; taking photographs; and collecting relevant documents and literature
on the problem. You can also make arrangements for informal interviews or dialogues with different
groups of respondents. In this case you have to record their opinions and perceptions.

You have to be taking daily diaries about your experiences in the field. We have already told you that
field work can be conducted in phases. So after the first phase, you can analyze the data qualitatively,
refine the previous questions and arrive at new specific questions for further verification.

Data Analysis: Data are analyzed by describing them. The frequency data are presented in two or three
way contingency tables to show the patterns of behaviour. You can some of the times use descriptive or
nonparametric tests like chi-square, Man Whitney, rank order correlation etc to identify certain patterns
of relationships in the context of the specific situation under study.

A sound naturalistic research follows a cyclical process. This involves, data collection, generation of
hypothesis, data examination, further generation and or modification of hypotheses, further data
collection and verification until specific research questions are identified and the patterns of refined
relations are arrived at.

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Trustworthiness and objectivity in Naturalistic Research

Trustworthiness: The naturalistic process of inquiry has been criticized based on the issue of
trustworthiness. It is noted that qualitative approaches bring about subjectivity of inquiry. Again the
investigation biases may not allow him to produce authentic information. As a result of subjectivity valid
knowledge may not be generated. The naturalists have objected these attacks. They have made efforts
to fix certain standards to check the trustworthiness of the investigation.

Credibility: This is the level of agreement between the researcher’s data and the interpretation and the
multiple realities that exist in the minds of the respondents.

Transferability: This is the quality that makes it possible to derive accruable meaning of information on
interpretation available in specific contexts.

Dependability: This is the stability of information sought and interpretation derived in different
situations on specific issues.

Confirmability: This is the possibility of studying the collected objective / systematic information and
getting the same or similar conclusions by different researchers.

The following principles guide naturalistic research in achieving the four criteria above.

The use of prolonged field work to overcome biases and wrong perceptions that may appear in one
short trip.

Persistent observation of certain typical meaningful features can help to increase the credibility of the
study.

Interaction with colleagues helps to evolve suitable designs, share anxieties, apprehension and feelings
about field work

Variety of data sources using different investigators with different perspectives help to project a
consolidated picture of the field and enhance dependability and confirmability of data.

Varieties of related references materials like documents, pictures, films, video and audio tapes helps to
increase trustworthiness

Using varieties of data collection techniques can help to increase confirmability and dependability of
data.

Cross checking of data and interpretations by some of the respondents can enhance internal validity of
the study.

Increasing purposive sampling to collect different instances across a wide range of events can be useful
in maximizing the range of information an increase external validity of data.

Substantive description of events in specific contexts can be useful in establishing the reliability and
dependability of information and conclusion.

Note that these cannot guarantee trustworthiness, but can generate a convincing situation about the
meaningfulness of study.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Explain the criteria outlined to ensure trustworthiness of a naturalistic inquiry?

CASE STUDY RESEARCH

This can be defined as our intensive investigation about pertinent aspects of a particular unit in a given
situation. This unit of investigation can be an individual, a family, a group of individuals or families,
educational or social institutions, a community or a culture, a village, a tribe, a slum area, or even a hotel
unit, a bank or group of banks or hotel etc. Whatever the unit is, it is treated as a whole in the context of
specific situations. This wholeness is determined through an abstraction of ideas. A case study
conducted on individuals may be linked with the processes of growth and development of a child, the
behaviour of gifted children, psycho-analysis of a problem child, role of a leader in a specific social
movement, the role of a manager in a company, etc.

Case studies are conducted for developing deeper understanding of intricate relationships existing in the
process – aspects of a specific unit or unit through qualitative investigation. It is not very different from
naturalistic methods. This is why most of the times; it is treated as kind of naturalistic research.

Characteristics of Case Study Method

Certain specific characteristics shown by the procedural aspect of a full-pledged case study include:

Continuity in investigation: A continuous and prolonged enquiry about the situations is very necessary
till the underlying factors are explored and plausible patterns of their interaction or relationship are
identified. For example, if you want to study the problems militating against learners support services in
the Open University, NOUN for instance, you will see that is not something you can study in one ego.
You have to take prolonged inquires.

Completeness: A sound case study must involve extensive collection of data from internal and external
environment of the unit under study. Data collection will continue till the completeness of data is
ensured and a complete picture emerges.

Authenticity of Data: A case study report must be based on meaningful, reliable and valid information
about the case. Appropriate applications of both qualitative and quantitative methods like interviews,
observations, records, surveys and the administration of tests and questionnaires can be made. The use
of multi-techniques approaches to data collection and cross examination of data through different
methods can take care of the authenticity of data.

Confidential recording: All data involving personal and ethnical issues like relationships of teachers and
pupils with the management, discipline, confidential records, documents about the institutions etc,
must be handled tactfully and care must be taken to maintain their secrecy.

Intellectual synthesis: You know that case study involves multi-method of inquiry and deals with all
significant situations concerning the unit, appropriate synthesis of the data is very necessary in order to
show the uniqueness of the unit and to explore significant relationships. If you are skilled in the

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investigation with theoretical sophistication, insightfulness and writing skills, then you can do justice and
prepare a sound case study.

Main Steps in Case Study

Case study method is sometimes treated as a naturalistic inquiry in that, the same steps followed by the
naturalists are also followed in case study. But the following steps are very significant.

Selection of a case for investigation: In selecting your case for investigation, there are some basic
questions:

Are you interested in the study of a normal situation with a view to developing deeper in the
phenomenon?

Are you determined to solve the problems of a typical institution?

Are you assigned the job of evaluating the functioning of an institution?

Are you interested in identifying the underlying factors contributing to the excellent performance of an
institution?

Once you have identified the case, then you need to determine the status of the case based on
preliminary information collected about the background of the case.

Data Collection: The process of data collection can be through both qualitative and quantitative
techniques like observations, interviews, check lists, Performa, open ended questionnaires, surveys,
records, psychological tests etc. Personal interaction should come first. Then care must be taken to
make sure that only tools relevant to the case are used.

Analysis of first round data: This is done systematically in order to identify the more complicated
situations or problems and therefore raise important questions about the influential factors.

Second Round Investigation: This is conducted for these specific questions or factors which are
identified during the first round data analysis. This second round involves intensive investigation
through prolonged observations. Formal and informal interviews, questionnaires, cross-examination of
different documents and record, administration of specific test etc. After this round analysis and
interpretations of data begin.

Introduction of alternative measures: This is mostly done in clinical studies where most of the suitable
alternatives as hypothesized through investigations are introduced.

Follow-up activities: The effectiveness of the alternative measures introduced should be investigated.
This will give a feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of the corrective measures.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Explain the main steps in case study?

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Case Study Scientific in Nature?

There are criticisms against case study research for lack of scientific approach. A criticism is that case
study is useful in the exploration of knowledge related to a single unit but has no scope to test
hypothesis or confirm any evidence. This limitation of the case study cannot undermine its
meaningfulness in the process of generating knowledge. Moreover, it accommodates the process of
hypothesizing in a manner different from that o survey and experimental studies.

Generating hypothesis in case studies: Hypotheses are stated in the form of questions or statements
related to the various aspects of the process. These hypotheses are tested or confirmed using
qualitative method in the given context of the investigation.

Testing hypotheses in the case study method: This follows a qualitative approach. This involves your
insight into an impressionistic view about the process under investigation. But data processed in
quantitative terms can be integrated with qualitative treatment for developing a holistic perspective
regarding the case.

Generalization of case study findings: The process of evidence-generalization here depends on several
considerations. These include the nature of the case study, the theoretical framework generated, and
the extent of objectivity possible. There also possibilities of considering the findings of a case which are
significantly similar to another case that will be studied at a later stage. There are also situations where
studies of different cases can be useful in developing a new trend.

CONCLUSION

From this unit, you have added two more research methods to your collection. This means that you
have many of the qualitative research methods to choose from any time you feel. But if you are in love
with the quantitative methods, you wait for the next unit where you are going to be exposed to the
major ones.

SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt about two major types of research studies which are qualitative in approach.
Naturalistic studies refer to investigations about social and educational phenomena which are
conducted in natural settings. It takes into account such factors as multiple realties, meanings and
interpretations, generation of knowledge, generalization of knowledge, generalization, human relations
and value systems. It is also unique in procedures in such ways as

Holistic Approach

Insightful Inquiry

No a Prior Theory

No Pre-specified design of study

Naturalistic setting

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The main steps are

Identifications of broader questions of Inquiry

Collection of the initial level data

Procedures for data collection

Devices of data collection

Data Analysis

You also learnt that the naturalistic research has some standards for checking objectivity and
trustworthiness these are

Credibility

Transferability

Dependability

Confirmability

You also learnt about the principles of achieving these criteria

A case study is an intensive study about pertinent aspects of a particular unit in a given situation. Its
characteristics are

Continuity in investigation

Completeness

Authenticity of Data

Confidential recording

Intellectual synthesis

The main steps are

Selection of a case for investigation

Data Collection

Analysis of first round data

Second Round Investigation

Introduction of alternative measures

Follow-up activities

You have seen the attempt to prove that case study is scientific.

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TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the different conceptual frame works in Naturalistic Studies?

What are the characteristics of case study research?

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

Naturalistic Researches are unique in these areas:-

Holistic Approach

Insightful Inquiry

No a Prior Theory

No Pre-specified design of study

Naturalistic setting

EXERCISE 2:-

The criteria outlined to ensure trustworthiness.

Credibility

Transferability

Dependability

Confirmability

EXERCISE 3:-

The main steps are:

Selection of a case for investigation

Data Collection

Analysis of first round data

Second Round Investigation

Introduction of alternative measures

Follow-up activities

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UNIT 10.0 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

The main aim of descriptive research is to describe “What exists” with respect to variables or conditions
in a situation. They are designed to obtain information about the current status of a given phenomenon.
You can say that they are concerned with the existing conditions or relationships, prevailing practices,
current beliefs, points of view or attitudes processes that are on-going and their effects, developing
trends etc. They determine the nature of situations as they exist at the time of the study. It is very
appropriate in behavioural sciences. You can see that there are behaviours which may be of interest to
you as a researcher and which cannot be arranged in a realistic setting. Think of one example of this. For
instance, you know it is not possible for you as a researcher to arrange for a motorcycle accident to
happen so that you can assess the effectiveness of the use of crash helmets in preventing serious
injuries by „Okada‟ riders. Again, you know that it is not possible for you to bring some people and give
them cigarettes to b smoking so that you can study the effects and relationship with lung cancer.

You know that some experimental studies of human behaviour can be appropriately carried out both in
the laboratory and in the field. But the prevailing method which is mostly used in social sciences is
descriptive. Human behaviour can be systematically examined and analyzed under the conditions that
naturally exist at home, inside the classroom, on the play ground or within the community, family, social
circle etc. The analysis can lead to the modification of factors or influences that determine the nature of
human interaction.

MAIN STEPS IN DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH.

Descriptive studies do not present private convictions or data based on casual or cursory observations
rather you:

Examine the Problematic situations

Define the problems and state your hypotheses.

List the assumptions upon which your hypotheses and procedures are based.

Select appropriate subjects and source materials.

Select or construct techniques for collecting data.

Validate the data gathering techniques.

Make objective an discrimination observations

Describe analyses and interpret your data in clear, precise terms.

The summary of it all is that as a research, what you do is to collect evidence on the basis of some
hypotheses, tabulate and summarize the data carefully, and then analyze the results thoroughly in order
to draw meaningful generalizations that will advance knowledge.

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Collection of data

When you write you descriptive research report, you must identify the kind of data obtained as well as
the exact nature of all population. What are the units that constitute your population? Are they people,
items, events or objects? After you have identified the population, you must decide whether to collect
data from the total population or a representative sample of the population.

Total Population

If you want to obtain information from every unit of a small population, it may not be very difficult in
some cases, but the findings cannot be applicable to any population outside the group studied. For
instance when you collect information, from every student of school of Business and Human Resources
Management from Lagos study centre, you may draw your generalizations based on the information.
But you cannot claim these generalizations will hold true for students from the same school of BHRM
outside Lagos Centre.

Sample Population:

When you try to obtain information from a large population for instance all the teachers in Imo state,
you will see that it is often not practicable, impossible or exorbitantly costly. If you try to contact,
observe, measure or interview every unit in the group, you will realize that it may take so much time
that the information may become still or absolute before you complete the study. To this effect what
you do is to collect information from a few carefully selected units drawn from the population. This few
units are called samples.

For instance assuming you want to study the study habits of PACEPS students and there are about
75,000 students in all study centres of PACEPS. You can see that you cannot collect data from all these
students. What will you do? You will have to select a representative sample of this population.

It means you have to select your sample from different categories of the student population. Hence,
male/female, employed/unemployed, graduates/undergraduates etc. If you sample represents
accurately the characteristics of the population, the any generalizations based on the data obtained
from them may be applied to the entire group. But it is not easy to select a representative sample. We
shall discuss this in other parts.

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

There are different types of descriptive research. Note that this categorization is not sacrosanct. It is just
to help you understand the research more clearly.

Survey Studies

Most of the times, descriptive research is called survey research. But it is better to call survey a category
under descriptive research survey itself is the most widely used method for obtaining descriptive and
evaluative information. This can be used when trying to solve problems in education, government,
industry, politics, organization etc. When detailed descriptions of existing phenomena are collected,
they can be used with the aim of employing the data to justify current conditions or practices or to make

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more intelligent plans for improving them. In a survey studies, we may need to collect three types of
data

Data concerning existing status: e.g. find out the study habits of students of NOUN

Comparison of status and standards: e.g. to compare the study habits of distance education students
and those in face to face

Means of improving status: e.g. to find way of helping distance education students improve on their
study habits.

Survey can be broad or narrow in scope. They may be confined to a small geographical area like
community, a local government a state or even the whole country or more.

Data may be gathered from every member of a specified population or from a carefully selected sample.
The steps involved in survey research are in general, similar to what obtains for descriptive research:

Planning: This involves determining what topic to be studied, the type of population to be investigated
and the methods and procedures to be used for data collection.

Sampling: This involves a decision about which people from the population to be included in the survey.
Note that if you are going to generalize from the sample to the population. Then your selected sample
must be representative of the population.

Development of data collection instrument: This involves listing the questions and planning for the
format of the instrument to be used. Is it personal interview, questionnaires, rating scales etc?

Carrying out the survey: This includes pre-testing the instruments to see if it will yield the desired data,
interviewing the subjects or administering the questionnaires and verifying the accuracy of the data
collected.

Processing the data: This includes tabulating the data, analyzing the data (you can use computers if you
like) interpreting the results and reporting the findings.

Analysis of documents:

Documents and records can be used to bring out pertinent data. Documentary analysis otherwise
referred to as context activity or informational analysis is very much like the historical research. But
while historical research is primarily concerned with the more distant past, descriptive research is
concerned chiefly with the present. There are wide varieties of documentary surveys made; some
researchers can analyze judicial decisions, state laws or court rulings. Some others may collect and
analyze data describing existing practices, processes and conditions from administrative records, forms
and reports, committee reports and minutes of meetings, budgets and financial records etc. university
catalogues, bulletins, syllabi, courses of study, reading lists, text book and others may be useful in the
investigation.

Also newspaper, periodicals, motion pictures, cartoons and other sources can also help. Some of the
advantages include:

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To describe the prevailing practices or conditions in the field

To discover the relative importance of, or interest in certain problems or topics i.e. to spot trends.

To discover the level of difficulty of presentations available in text books or in other publications.

To evaluate bias, prejudices or propaganda in text book presentations.

To analyze the types of errors and weakness in performance.

To evaluate the relationships of stated objectives and what is being done practically.

To identify the literary style, concepts or beliefs of a writer. Documentary research produces valuable
information, but the method can have its own limitations. A faulty conclusion from the data may be
drawn by the investigator. There is no representativeness in the samples of sources of materials used.

Correlational Studies

In order to have a fuller understanding of human behaviour is to begin by testing out simple relationship
between factors and elements which are supposed to have some bearings on the phenomenon in
question. The value of Correlational research is that it is able to achieve this end. You know that one of
the primary purposes of science is to discover relationships among phenomena with a view ultimately to
predicting and, in some situations, controlling their occurrences. Most of the researches in social
sciences and education are concerned with the establishment of interrelationships among variables.
Therefore we can simply say that Correlational studies are concerned with determining the extent of
relationship existing between variables they enable us to measure the extent to which variations in one
variable are associated with variations in another. For instance, what is the relationship between the
income level of individuals and their expenditure patterns? What is the link between personality and
academic achievement?

Correlational studies are intended to answer such questions as:

Is there a relationship between two variables or two sets of data? If the answer is yes then look at the
questions below

What is the direction of the relationship?

What is the magnitude of the relationship? This is determined by a correlation coefficient. Correlational
studies can be broadly classified into two methods.

Relational Studies: Which is particularly useful in exploratory studies in the fields where title or no
previous research has been conducted. It is a shot in the dark in order to verify haunches which you
have about presumed relationships between some characteristics of variables.

Prediction Studies: Which are usually conducted in an area having a firm and secure knowledge base? It
is based on the assumption that at least some of the factors that will lead to the behaviour to be
predicted are present and measurable at the time the prediction is made.

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Causal-Comparative studies

Some of the times, it is very necessary to discover how and why a particular event occurs, instead to
confirming ourselves to investigations about what the event is like. So you try to compare the
similarities and differences among phenomena to find what factors or circumstances seem to
accompany or contribute to the occurrence of certain events, conditions, activities, practices etc. In the
behavioural sciences you cannot select, control or manipulate factors that necessary to study cause
effect relationships. You see that you cannot manipulate things like domestic background, social lass,
intelligence, etc. so if you cannot manipulate the independent variable and establish the controls that
are required in true experiment, you can conduct a causal comparative study. Here, you study a real life
situation in which subjects have experienced what you want to investigate.

Causal comparative studies provide the means for tackling problems that cannot be probed in
laboratory situations.

Again they yield valuable information and elites about the nature of phenomena and are well suited to
many types of field studies seeking to establish causal relationships. Their limitations are:

Lack of control is a serious limitations and weakness

It is usually difficult to identify the relevant factors causing the particular conditions or phenomena

When a relationship between variable is established, it is difficult to distinguish between the cause and
the effect.

The classification of subjects into dichotomous groups for the purpose of comparison also presents
problems

In comparative studies of natural situations, you do not have the same control over the selection of
subjects as you have in experimental studies.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the particular steps of survey research?

Explain the types of descriptive research?

CONCLUSION

In this unit you have added yet another research method to your collection. The descriptive research
method which is a quantitative approach has been discussed in details here. You can use this method
when you have to investigate a very large population of respondents. In the next unit, we shall continue
with other quantitative research methods.

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SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that the descriptive research methods are designed to obtain information about
the current status of a given phenomenon. The summary of the main steps in this research methods
include identification of the problem situation, collecting evidence on the basis of some hypotheses,
tabulate and summarize the data and analyze the results in other to draw meaningful generalizations
that will advance knowledge.

You also studied the types of descriptive research to include

Survey Studies

Analysis of documents

Correlational studies

Causal comparative studies

These types have been treated in details for you to make your choice when the need arises.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the main steps in a Descriptive Research?

Explain the types of Descriptive Research?

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

The particular steps in survey research are:

Planning

Sampling

Development of data, Collection instrument

Carrying out the survey

Processing the data

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UNIT 11.0 EXPERIMENTAL AND ACTION RESEARCHES

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The studies here are designed for establishing causal relationships. The method begins with a question
concerning the relationship between two or more variables. In order to do this, you propose one or
more hypotheses stating the nature of the expected relationship. Thus an experiment is the events
planned and carried out so as to enable you collect evidence relevant to the hypotheses. Kerlinger
(1974) considers experimental research the idea of science because answers to research questions
obtained in experiments are on the whole clearer and less ambiguous than answers obtained in non-
experimental research types. An experimental research may be described as a research study in which
one or more independent variables are manipulated and in which all or nearly all possible influential
variables not pertinent to the problem of investigation kept to a minimum. You may conduct a field
experiment or a laboratory experiment from which you collect data for analysis and then subsequent
making of generalizations.

An experimental research in its simplest form has three characteristics. These are

The manipulation of the independent variable.

All other variables except the independent variable are hold constant

The effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed.

You have to note that both the independent and the dependent change variables are very important in
an experiment. You manipulate the independent variable and then observe the effects of the changes or
manipulation on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is so called because its value is
hypothesized to depend upon and vary with the value of the independent variable. For instance, you can
investigate the effect of warm reception on the attitude of customers. Here, you will continue to change
the type of reception given to your customers and observe their attitudes. The independent variable is
type of reception while the dependent variable is the attitudes of the customers.

Characteristics of Experimental Research

In the conduct of an experiment, there are three major ingredients. These are Control, Manipulation and
Observation

Control:

This is very important in experimental studies because without it, it is impossible to evaluate
unambiguously the effect of an independent variable. The major purpose of control is to arrange a
situation I which the effects of variables only can be measured. We can simply say that control is the
term used to indicate your procedures or methods fro eliminating the differential effects of all variables
extraneous to the purpose of the study. Note that an extraneous variable is one which is not related to
the purpose of the study but which may affect or have influence on the dependent variable.

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Manipulation

This refers to a deliberate operation performed by the researcher. In the behavioural sciences and
education, the manipulation of a variable takes a characteristic form in which the experimenter imposes
a predetermined set of varied conditions on the subjects. This set of varied conditions is referred to as
the independent variable, the experimental variable or the treatment variable.

Observation:

In an experimental study, we are interested to know the effect of the manipulation of the independent
variable on a dependent variable. Therefore you make observations with respect to some characteristics
of the behaviour of the subjects used in the research. These observations, which are most of the times
quantitative in nature, may constitute the dependent variable. For instance in an educational situation,
we are interested to know the performance of students after going through some learning.

These performances can only be estimated through measures like scores in a test. If we want to explain
or predict student’s performance we use their test scores. It means that these test scores are the
dependent variables or observations rather than performance.

Steps in Experimental Research

There are number of steps involved in experimental studies. The steps that will lead you to the actual
experiment are:

Making a survey of the literature related to the problem.

Identification and definition of the problem.

Formulating the hypotheses and defining basic terms and variables. Hypotheses must be formulated in
an experimental research. This is because they suggest how an antecedent condition or phenomenon or
the independent variable is related to the occurrence of another condition, phenomenon, event or
effect otherwise called the dependent variable. For you to test the hypothesis, you have to attempt to
control all the conditions except the independent variable which you manipulate. You now observe if
the effect on the dependent variable is as a result of the exposure to the independent variable.

Construction of the experimental plan. This refers to the conceptual frame work in which the
experiment is conducted. The plan involves:

Identification of all the non-experimental variables that might contaminate the experiment and
determine how to control them.

Selection of a research design

Selection of the sample of subjects to represent a given population and the assignment of the subjects
to groups and experimental treatments to the groups.

Construction or selection and validation of the instruments for measuring the outcomes of the
experiment.

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Outlining the procedures for collecting the data and possibly conducting a plot or trial test to perfect the
instrument or design.

State the statistical or null hypothesis.

These steps above will bring you the actual experiment. After the experiment, you apply statistical
measures to the data obtained and then test the significance of the results.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What is experimental research?

What are the characteristics of experimental research?

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

You have to note that a well developed design will provide the structure and strategy for you to control
the investigation and get dependable answers to the questions raised in the problem or hypothesis.
Again you have to note also that the nature of the problem determines the appropriateness of the
design. Let us look at the various types of designs.

Pre-experimental Designs

These are so classified because they offer minimal control of extraneous variables. Let us see examples.

One group Pre-test, Post-test design.

This involves three steps:

Administering a pre-test measuring the dependent variable.

Applying the experimental treatment X to the subjects

Administering a post-test measuring the dependent variable. This can be presented as shown below.

O1 X O2

Pretest treatment posttest

When the pretest and post tests are compared, any difference can be attributed to the application of
the experimental treatment. Let us use one example. Assuming you want to assess the effectiveness of a
particular self-instructional materials (SIM) in a business management course. At the start of the
semester you give all the students taking this course a standardized test that measures the objectives of
the course. After the test, you give the student the SIM on the course. At the end of the semester, you
give the students the same standardized test. You compare the scores of two tests. Any difference will
be attributed to the use of the SIM. This design has some faults. With the passage of time some students
would have grown mentally or physically, or may have acquired additional learning experiences, like

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extra lesson or electronic devices etc. this may have affected the dependent variable. This is an
extraneous variable called maturation. Other factors are history, practice effects, instrument reaction
etc.

Static Group Comparison:

This design uses two or more groups. Only one of them is exposed to experimental treatment X.
However the groups are assumed to be equivalent in all relevant aspects except in treatment. This can
be shown as follows.

E = Experimental Group while

C = Control Group.

E X O2

C - O2

Group treatment posttest.

You can see that this design has two groups experimental E and control C. These are compared. If the E
group is superior the difference is attributed to the treatment. But there is no randomization or
matching of the groups to ensure equivalence. Therefore, we cannot be sure that the groups are
equivalent before the experimental treatment.

True Experimental Design

This is so called because it provides:

Random assignment of subject to the groups

Random assignment of treatment to the groups

Post testing of all groups.

(A) Randomized Groups Post – test only control group design

There are two groups to which subjects are randomly assigned. Each group is assigned to a different
condition. There is no pre-test given. Randomization is used to control all the possible extraneous
variables. Only the experimental group is exposed to the experimental treatment. Both groups are given
the post test and their performances are compared. This can be represented as follows:

RE X O2 R=randomized

RC - O2

Randomized matched subject pre-test, control group. This is very similar to design above. The
differences are that

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 Subjects are matched on one or more variables than can be measured conveniently, like IQ,
reading scores or mathematical ability. The matching variables used are generally those that have
significant correlation with the dependent variable

Pre-test is given to the groups before treatment to the experimental group. At the end of
treatment, the two groups are given the post test. The two tests are compared. It should be assumed
that the post test scores of the experimental group should be better than the pre-test scores, if the
experimental treatment is effective. This can be represented thus:

MR.E O1 X O2 M= Matched

MR.C O1 - 02

Quasi-Experimental Design

The difference between this type of design and the true experimental design is that the groups are not
randomized nor matched. Therefore, they are likely not to be comparable. Because of this reason of
non-randomization, the design is called quasi-experimental design and not true experimental design.
Otherwise all the designs in the true experiment, and we have given only two examples, are applicable
to the quasi-experimental designs. See this example: non-randomized control group pre-test post-test
design shown below.

E O1 X O2

C O1 - O2

Time Series Design

This is also not a true experimental design. It can also use one group or two groups as above. But instead
of a one –tone pre-test, the pre-test is repeated three or four or more times before treatment is
administered. This can be used to generate data on the trend of behaviour. Again, after the treatment,
instead of one time post – test, there are also several times of post test given. This provides data to
derive the trend in the change of behaviour. Because the pre-test and post-tests are used over a time. It
is called time series design. Look at these two examples.

i. O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

ii. E O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

C O1 O2 O3 O4 - O5 O6 O7 O8

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain the main difference between experimental and non-experimental design?

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ACTION RESEARCH

Let us start this section by looking at the two words – action and research. Action indicates a here and
now activity, whereas research is a planned, carefully applied sophisticated methodology for generating
knowledge that can be generalized. Therefore the meaning of action research can be implied in the two
words. We can then say that if you super-impose relevant research methods and processes over action,
then you have the main intention of action research as a means of solving problems. Put specifically,
action research is a research intended to solve practical problems of an individual or a group or an
institution through planned intervention in the day-to day working. You can see that the emphasis lies
on solving problems through adoption of alternative practices. According to Cohen and Marion (1989)
action research is a small – scale intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close
examination of the effects of such intervention. It is characterized by:

Situational: It is derived out of situational needs and a solution is also designed with regards to the
situation.

Collaborative and Participation: It can be carried out on individual basis. But it is increasingly becoming
a team work where practitioners and colleagues in an organization collaborate and participate with the
researchers.

Self evaluation: This is necessary where the research team evaluates the outcome of the exercise.
Remember that the study is self-initiated and evolves out of the perception of the problems by the
practicing individual or group.

STAGES OF ACTION RESEARCH

There are four main stages in the conduct of action research

Stage One: Diagnosis

The actual diagnosis of the problem involves going beyond the symptomatic perception and deep into
the problem to diagnose it clearly.

At this stage we have the following:

Identification, evaluation and formulation of problems i.e. diagnosing the problem on the basis of the
symptoms.

Preliminary discussions and negotiations among interested parties

Review of literature – although not in all cases, but some types of problems may call for this before
articulating the problem.

Modification and redefinition of initial statement of problem.

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Stage Two: Planning and Intervention

This involves the selection of the research procedure-designing the intervention, sampling,
administration, choice of material and methods of evaluation.

Stage Three: Intervention and impact assessment

This is the actual implementation, collection and analysis of data to assess the change in the magnitude
of the problem. It involves:

Implementation of the project: That is actually carrying out the treatment designed on the sample. It
will include collection of relevant data.

Interpretation of data: Using minimal statistical or qualitative analysis, the data collected can be
interpreted so that the impact of the treatment on the alleviation of the problem can be assessed.

Stage Four: Reflection

At this stage you look beyond the factual data based result, with the main purpose of interpreting the
results. Reflect on the why‟s and how‟s of the finding and the onward destination.

CONCLUSION:-

This unit brings us to the end of our discussions on the research typologies. Although our presentations
are not exclusive enough, but you have got enough to enable you select the one you will use for your
research projects. In the next unit we shall look at the population of the study and how to select your
samples.

SUMMARY:-

In this unit, you learnt that experimental researches are designed to establish causal relationships. It
involves the manipulation of independent variables and holding all other variables constant, and
observing the effect of the independent variable. The characteristics are control, manipulation and
observation. You studied the steps in experimental research and the different types of designs. You also
studied the action research where you were told that it is a research intended to solve practical
problems of an individual, group or institution through planned intervention in the day to day working.
The stages are

Diagnosis

Planning and intervention.

Intervention and impact assessment

Reflection

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TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain the characteristics of Experimental Research?

What is Action Research?

What are the characteristics of Action Research?

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES EXERCISE 1

An experimental research is a research study in which on or more independent variables are

manipulated and in which all or nearly all possible influential variables not pertinent to the problem of
investigation are kept to a minimum.

The three characteristics of experimental research are

Control

Manipulation

Observation

EXERCISE 1

The main difference between experimental and non-experimental designs is randomization. The groups
are randomly selected and matched to ensure equivalence before treatment

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UNIT 12.0 POPULATION AND SAMPLING

POPULATION AND SAMPLES

In your research studies, you need to administer questionnaires or conduct interviews or use other
methods to collect information about some persons, objects, events or ideas from some particular
group of people like all accountants in the banks, all bank managers in Lagos State, all hotel owners in
Lagos etc. Each of these groups of persons constitutes target groups called the population of study. You
can see that each group is a collection of persons with the same characteristics or qualities required in
the research situation. According to Best and Khan (1995) a population is any group of individuals that
have one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher. You know that the
primary purpose of research is to discover principles that have universal application. To study the
population in order to arrive at generalizations would be impracticable, if not impossible. Some
populations are so large that their characteristics cannot be measured. Before the measurement may be
completed, the population itself would have changed. Take for instance, a study of all hotel managers in
Nigeria. You can be sure that you will need the services of thousands or researchers, millions of naira,
hundreds of thousands of working hours to study this population. The process of sampling makes it
possible to draw valid inference or generalizations on the basis of careful observation of variables within
a relatively small proportion of the population. A sample is a small proportion of a population selected
for observation and analysis. Using the characteristics of the sample, you can make certain inferences
about the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. Samples are not selected
haphazardly. They are selected in a systematically random way, so that chance or probability operations
can be used. Remember, a sample consists of elements selected from a population.

Population is not always made up of people, it could be objects, things etc. it could be all matches
played in the premier league in 2009/2010 league year, all banks in the South East Zone etc. To select a
good sample, you need to define clearly the population from which the sample is to be drawn. Failure to
define the population clearly can make generalization from the sample observation highly ambiguous
and result in drawing in accurate conclusions. The sample should be a representative number of
respondents from the defined population. If the samples are truely representative of the target
population in all its parameters or characteristics, then the information from the sample can be
generalized to the population.

THE PURPOSE OF SAMPLING

The major purpose of studying samples instead of the entire population is that the population is
sometimes too large that it is not feasible to study it. Take for instance a population consisting of all
banking and finance students in Nigerian Universities.

You can see that it is not possible to study each student across Nigeria. The lost of time and the weight
of volume of the report would be very prohibitive. So sampling allows you to study a workable number
of cases from a large group to get findings that are relevant to all members of the group.

Again, information based on carefully drawn samples can be better than information drawn from an
entire group. This is because, if the population is large and a large number of assistants are used, many

87
of them may not be proper in doing the work. It becomes better to use few qualified and committed
assistants likely to do the work effectively and also use samples. It offers opportunity for better control.

Of course you know that an improperly drawn sample will render the data collected useless. Therefore
you have to consider the representativeness of the samples to the population from which they are
drawn. A representative sample is one that accurately reflects the distribution of relevant variables in
the target population. You have to assess the representations of your samples in order to make accurate
conclusions.

TYPES AND PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING

You have to note that not all studies lend themselves to sampling. Sampling is only appropriate
whenever large populations that have outward semblance of homogeneity are to be studied. Sampling
techniques are simply defined as methods of drawing samples from total populations. They are
classified into two: Probability and Non-probability sampling techniques

Probability Sampling

In this technique, the components of the samples are chosen from the larger population by a process
known as randomization. The principle of randomization ensures that all the individual subjects of the
larger population have equal chances of being selected and included to be members of the drawn
samples. This generates valid samples that are truly representative of the larger populations. This will
also permit you to estimate precisely the likelihood of a sample differing from the true population by a
given amount. It can be calculated as sampling error. This is an estimate of the extent to which the
values of the sample differ from those of the population from which it is drawn.

Non-Probability Sampling

This is a type of sampling where you do not know the probability of each population element being
included in the sample. They are known to generate biased samples that are not truly representative of
the target population from which they are drawn. Any sample that is non-valid can encourage errors in
findings that cannot be generalized to the total population.

The greatest limitations of the non-probability samples are:

Because there is no probability in the selection of the elements for the samples no real claim of
representativeness can be made. This greatly limits the ability to generalize findings beyond the level of
the sample cases.

The degree of sampling errors remains unknown and unknowable. The method of estimating samples
errors are not applicable to non-probability samples because there is no clear population represented by
the samples.

All the statistical test of significance is based on laws of probability and assume that a random process is
used in selecting the samples. So non-probability samples do not qualify for test of significance.

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However, they are very useful in research especially where there is no intention to generalize the results
from the sample to larger population.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What do you understand by population and samples?

Differentiate between the two types of sampling?

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

In the section above, you learnt that the two broad sampling techniques are probability and non-
probability sampling. Each of these sampling techniques has a number of sampling approaches or
methods under it. For instance the probability sampling has under it, simple random, systematic,
stratified and cluster sampling. Let us look at them.

Simple random sampling

This is based on the principle that individuals are chosen from a target population such that each has an
equal chance of being selected, and each choice is independent of the other. Assuming you have a need
to select one hundred customers of a hotel or bank from a list of five thousand customers of the bank or
hotel. What you will do is to assign numbers from one to five thousand to all the customers. Fold these
numbers and put them in a container like basket. Shuffle them well and start picking and shuffling from
the basket, until you get the 100 customers. You will notice that all the customers have equal chance of
being selected.

Another and more convenient method of doing the same thing is to use a table of random numbers.
This is mostly used these days in lotteries and try your luck games. You can get it in texts.

Systematic Sampling

If your target population can be accurately listed, then this method can be used to get what
approximates a random sample. It consists of the selection of a Kth number from the list. For instance, if
you have 100 customers and you want select 10 out of the 100 as your sample. You will divide 100 by 10
to get 10. From a list containing 1-10 select any number at random. Let us say 8. In this method all the
numbers connected to 8 are automatically selected. So you will have 8, 18, 28, 38, 48, 58, 68, 78, 88, and
98, as your samples.

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Stratified Random Sampling

In the case the population is sub-divided into smaller subgroups called strata, e.g. male, female, urban,
rural, Christians, Muslim, traditionalist etc. Then simple random sampling is employed to draw required
samples from each of the strata.

Cluster sampling

When the population is spread across a large area, it becomes difficult to make a list to select samples
for study through the normal simple random process. The large area has to be sub-divided into sub-units
for effective handling. For instance a state could be sub divided into zones, local governments or wards
and a series of cluster sampling is done from each of these sub units to get the sample which will be
truly representative of the target population.

Non – Probability Sampling

This type of method uses whatever subjects are available rather than following a specific subject
selection process. This method produces samples which do not accurately reflect the characteristics of
the population of interest. Such samples may lead to unwarranted generalizations and should not be
used if randomization is possible. Under this we may have

Accident or Continuance Sampling: This takes the subjects as they come to the scene or as they are
presented to you by mere happenstance. There is no attempt to control biases.

Quota Sampling: This selects the respondents in the same ratio as they appear or are found in the target
population. It is also an unregulated type of sampling. This is because you have no probability of how
the subjects will be selected. Others in this category are

Availability Sampling, Purposive Sampling, and Dimensional Sampling etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Explain the types of probability sampling?

Give two types of non-probability sampling

SAMPLING SIZE

Most of the times, such questions like what samples size is adequate enough for a study, may arise.
According to Best and Khan (1995) the ideal sample is large enough to serve as an adequate
representative of the population about which the researcher wishes to generalize and small enough to
be selected economically in terms of subject availability, expenses in both time and money, the
complexity of data analysis etc.

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In other-words there is no fixed number or percentage of subjects that determines the size of an
adequate sample. The size may depend on the nature of the population of interest or the data to be
collected and analyzed. Samples of 30 and above are considered large samples and less than 30 are
considered small samples. However, it is important that care must be taken in the selection of the
samples. Emphasis should be on representativeness rather than sample size.

Random sampling or letting chance or law of probability determine which members of the target
population are to be selected is the ideal thing to do.

CONCLUSION

You conduct research in order to establish knowledge and to generate new knowledge. These have to
be done scientifically for universal acceptance. This is why you have to use probability sampling
techniques whenever you are conducting empirical research. This seems to be the tradition.

It is probably borne out of the overriding scientific reasons and advantages associated with the use of
randomization which entails the use of mathematical models, laws and theories to test research
hypotheses in order to generate findings in objective and validily acceptable ways, that are tailored after
the traditions and values of scientific thinking.

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have studied population and samples. You learnt that population is any group of
individual, things, objects events etc that have one or more characteristics in common that are of
interest to the researcher. A sample I a small proportion of a population selected for observation and
analysis. There are two major approaches to sampling. These are probability and non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling involves the principle of randomization which ensures that every
member of the population has equal chance of being selected and included in the samples. Under the
probability sampling we have the simple random sampling, systematic sampling stratified sampling and
cluster sampling. You also learnt that the non-probability sampling involves a method where you do not
know the probability of each population element being included in the samples. Under this we have
accidental, quota, availability, purposive etc sampling. You learnt also that a sample of 30 is large
enough but what matters most is the representativeness of the samples to the target population.

With these you can now identify your population and do your sampling in order to collect your data.
Therefore the next unit will focus on the statistical tools for the analysis of data.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Describe Population and sample

Explain the types of probability sample?

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ASSESSMENT EXERCISES EXERCISE 1

Population is any group of individuals, things, objects, and events etc that have one or more
characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher.

A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis.

EXERCISE 2

The types of probability sampling are simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling
and cluster sampling.

Examples of non-probability sampling include accidental quota, availability, purposive etc.

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UNIT 13.0 STATISTICAL TOOLS OF ANALYSIS

DATA ANALYSIS: DEFINITION AND MEANING.

Nwana (1981) has described data analysis as referring to those techniques whereby the investigator
extracts from data, information that was not apparently there before and which would enable a
summary description of the subject being studied, whether human or material, to be made. To Kerlinger
(1971) data analysis is the categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarizing of data, adding that its
purpose is to reduce large quantities of raw data to manageable and interpretable form so that
characteristics of situations, events and people can be succulently described and the relations among
variable studied and interpreted. A look at these definitions indicate that the process of data analysis in
research involves a series of activities that are all practical applications of theories, models, principles
and laws of the science of descriptive, sampling and inferential statistics. You will notice that the
activities of data analysis in research cannot be separated from statistics; scoring, categorizing, ordering,
manipulating, summarizing, interpreting data etc are all activities involving the use of statistics in data
analysis. The goal of data analysis in research is essentially the production of valid results or empirical
information which will be used to test formulated hypotheses in order to generate dependable findings
that will provide solutions to research problems. Data analysis cannot generate valid results, test
hypotheses effectively and convincingly without the services of the principles of statistics. The culture of
data analysis is the culture of scientificism and empiricism having the value pillars of measurement,
qualification, validity, reliability, reality verification, comparism, representation and presentation. The
science of statistics guarantees all and more of these values. Now, let use look at the concept of
statistics.

WHAT IS STATISTICS?

Let us start this section by describing statistics as a body of mathematical technique or processes for
gathering, organizing analyzing and interpreting numerical data. You know that most research yields
such quantitative data. Therefore statistics is a basic tool of measurement, evaluation and research. The
concept statistics is sometimes used to describe the numerical data that are collected. Statistical data
describe group behaviour or group characteristics abstracted from a number of individual observations
that are combined to make generalizations possible.

According to Kerlinger (1971) statistics is considered the theory and method of analyzing data obtained
from samples of observations in order to describe population, to study and compare sources of
variances, to help make decisions to accept or reject relations among phenomena, and to aid the
process of making reliable relations among empirical observations. The point is that unless abstract and
concrete phenomena are quantified and represented by figures are numerals, their nature relations and
dynamics will not be understood.

So we can say that the analysis of data depends a lot on the techniques and approaches of statistics.
Most of the time, you talk about the number of students, length of the room, number of rooms, ages of
customers, size of the dining hall and other facts that can be described quantitatively. Again, you have
being hearing about the average score, height, size, age, number etc. These are the generalizations of a

93
group or set of distributions not about a particular individual. So you can see that the statistical
measurement is an abstraction that may be used in place of a great mass of individual measures.

You see, when you use statistics, you are concerned with more than the manipulation analysis of data in
research. You have been told that research consists of systematic observation and description of the
characteristics or properties of objects or events for the purpose of discovering relationship between
variables. The ultimate purpose is to come up with generalizations that may be used to explain
phenomena and to predict future occurrences. In conducting a research, you must establish principles
so that the observation and description have a commonly understood meaning. Measurement is the
most precise and universally accepted process of description, assigning quantitative values to the
properties of objects and events.

PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS

In general statistics can be divided into two broad categories. These are parametric and nonparametric
statistics. For parametric statistics, we assume that most populations have at least one parameter. A
parameter is a characteristic or quality of a population that, in concept is a constant but whose value is a
variable. In statistics parameters refers to characteristics of a population. But when you have similar
characteristics of a sample, these sample characteristics can be called statistic. Before we move to the
next stage let us look at some of the concepts you my meet as you go on in this discussion.

Non Parametric Data: These are data which are either counted or ranked. They are sometimes known
as distribution free tests. They do not depend on the assumption of normally distributed populations.

Descriptive Analysis: In this type of statistical analysis, generalizations are limited to the particular
group of individuals observed. The conclusions are not extended beyond the group. Similarity to those
outside the group cannot be assumed. So the data can only describe one group and that group only.
Most of the simple action researches you conduct involve descriptive analysis and provide valuable
information about the nature of a particular group of individuals.

Inferential Analysis: This type of statistical analysis involves the process of sampling and the selection of
a small group that is assumed to be representative of the population from which it is drawn. So drawing
conclusions about population based on observation of the samples is the purpose of inferential analysis.
We shall briefly touch on both descriptive and inferential statistics which you will be using in your
research projects.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY OR LOCATION

These are used to indicate the central point around which data revolve. They are of several forms. The
most common is statistical analysis of data are the mean, median and mode. They help you to find out
from your data of numerical values what values can be representative of the sample of people or
objects which you are studying.

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Mean

This is the arithmetic average of the values in a distribution. It is obtained by adding up all the values in
the distribution or group of scores and dividing by the total number o values. It is the most useful of all
statistical measures, because, in addition to the information that it provides, it is the base from which
many other important measures are computed. For instance if

X = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

Then ΣX = 2+3+4+5+6+7+8 = 35

N=7

X = 35/7 = 5

Depending on the type of data distribution of scores, the mean can be computed in different ways.
There is a method for calculating the mean for grouped frequency distributions and a method for
calculating the mean using the assumed mean method.

The Median

This is a point or value that divides the distribution of values into two equal groups with as many cases
above it as below it. It is a measure of position rather than of magnitude.

It can be found by both inspection and calculation. When we have single values we use inspection. But if
the values are grouped we use calculation. For instance if

X = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. You can see that the middle number is 5. It is the median. But if we have see 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The middle number is added and divided by 2. In this distribution 5 + 6 = 11 ÷ 2 = 5.5. The
median is 5.5

Mode

This is the value which is characterized as the highest number of frequencies in a frequency distribution
of values. It is the value that occurs most frequently in a distribution.

It can be located by inspection when values are listed or by calculation when values are grouped.

For instance:

2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9. You can see that the highest occurring number in this set of number is 4. It
is the mode.

ACTIVITY 1:

A group of 9 students had a test in Mathematics. They have the following scores: Ade = 70, Femi = 65,
Hassan = 60, Musa = 55, Effiong = 75, Obi = 80, Uche = 85, Wale = 90, Emeka = 95. Find the mean and
median.

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Solution 1:

Find the total by adding all the values = ΣX = 675

Divide the total by the number which is 9 =ΣX † N

675/9 = 75

For the median, arrange the scores in ascending or descending order of magnitude. The middle number
is 75.

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY OR DISPERSION

These tell us how the values spread in a scale of distribution. According to Nwana (1981) the variability
of a set of values can contribute immensely to the need for researchers to determine objectivity, the
extent to which marks, weights, heights, views, opinions and infact all values of a variable obtained in a
research do differ from one another. Let us look at some of these measures.

The range

This is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value in a set of data. It is the difference
between the two extreme values in a distribution of figures. It is an unreliable measure, because it does
not guarantee the researcher a fair and dependable index of variability.

This is because of the use of the two extreme values. If you look at the mathematics test in activity 1,
you will see the highest number is 95 and the lowest number is 55. Therefore the range is

95 – 55 = 40. There are two types of range but we cannot go to that now.

Mean Deviation

This is the average distance away from the mean in which the measure lies. It is used by the researcher
to determine the power of representativeness of the mean as a measure standing in for other measures
in the same distribution. A value expressed as its distance from the mean is called a deviation value. It is
given by the formula X = (X – X). For the mean deviation it will be X. (X– X)2/N. This can be done
regardless of the signs.

Variance (δ2)

You will note that the value of the sum of the deviations from the mean is always zero. So when you
square the deviations around the mean and sum up the value and divide by N what you get is the
variance. It will give you a positive value.

It is given by δ2 = Σ(X –X) 2. The variance is a value that describe how all the values in a distribution are
dispersed to spread about the mean. It is very useful in describing the characteristics of a distribution
and will be employed in a number of very important statistical tests.

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 Σ(X – X) 2 = 1500

Standard Deviation

This is the square root of the variance. It is the most frequently used measure of variability or spread in
a distribution.

According to Cohen (1976) it is the most reliable of all the available measures of dispersion. It is given by

In the above example where variance δ2 = 1666. 67 The standard deviation will be 166.67 = 12.91

Both the variance and standard deviation can be calculated using the raw score method. It is given by

The Normal Curve:

The law of probability and the normal curve that illustrate if it is based on the law of chance or the
probability occurrence of certain events. If a set of observations conforms to the mathematical form it is
represented by a bell-shaped curve which has definite characteristics.

Features of a normal Curve

The curve is symmetrical around its vertical curve axis.

The terms cluster the centre or median

The mean, median and the mode have the same value

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The curve has no boundaries in either direction for the curve

The cover touches the base line no matter how far it is extended.

The curve is a curve of probability not certainty.

Characteristics of the Normal Curve.

It is symmetrical – the percentage of frequencies is the same for equal intervals below or above the
mean.

The terms of values cluster or crowd around the mean

The terms curve is highest at the mean.

The curve has no boundaries.

Applications of the normal curve.

To calculate the percentile rank in a normal distribution

To normalize a frequency distribution an important process in standardizing a psychological test or

inventory.

To test the significance of observed measures in an experiment.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What are the measures of central tendency?

What is statistics?

What are the two types of statistics?

MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION OR RELATIONSHIP

These measures called correlation coefficients are concerned with the determination of the
relationships between variables and variables. They are mostly used in determining whether or not
there is a relationship is always expressed in some degree of coefficient the degree of relationship,
direction, and amount are always represented by the index of positive or negative called correlation is a
method in which an index of coefficient. Technically, in quantitative research, correlation is a method in
which an index of coefficient is calculated to describe the degree of relationship or association between
two sets of paired values and then tested to determine the probability or the chances of occurrence of
the relationship. Correlation is indicated by +1.00 No correlation or association is indicated by 0.00.
While perfect negative relationship is indicated by -1.00. There are different types of techniques are

98
spearman‟s rank correlation coefficient. For details of the copulation consult your course material on
statistics

PARAMETRIC TESTS

These are the powerful tests in statistics and should be prefentially used if their base assumptions are
not. The assumptions are related to the nature of the population distribution and on the way the type of
scale is used to quantify the data observations.

However some parametric tests are so robust that they can be appropriately applied even when some of
the assumptions are violated.

These assumptions according to the Best and Khan (1995) are as follows.

The observation are independent selection of case is not dependent on the selection of another case.

The sample have equal or nearby equal variances

The variance described are expressed in interval or ratio scales

The Null Hypothesis (Ho)

Elsewhere, you have been told that a hypothesis is an academic or speculation as regard the result,
outcome or solution of a research problem. We have also told you that there are two types of
hypotheses. These are the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (H1). The null hypothesis
says that there is no significant difference to relationship between two or more parameters. It is
concerned with the judgment as to whether apparent differences or relationships are true or whether
they merely result from sampling error. When you propose for statistical purpose, a null hypothesis we
have the alternative hypothesis. These propose that differences will exist.

The Level of Significance

When you propose a hypothesis for your problem, you have a direction as to how to collect your data.
You analyze the data collected in order to test the hypothesis. Based on stronger test of logic and
evidence before you, you can accept or reject the null hypothesis. Of course, when you reject a null
hypothesis, you accept the alternative and vise versa. The acceptance or rejection of a null hypothesis is
based on some level of significance otherwise called alpha (α) level of significance.

When you choose the 5% or 0.05 alpha levels, it shows that out of 100 replications of your experiment
sampling error will account for 5% of the results. In other words 95% probability that any difference
between the experimental treatment. This is to say that if you conduct the experiment 100 times 95 of
them will be correct while 5% will have error due to chance or sampling error. A more rigorous test of
significance is the 1% (0.01) alpha level.

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Decision Making

In the above section, you were told that based on the evidence before you, you make a decision as to
whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis such statistical decisions about parameters based on
evidence observed in samples may have the possibility of error. Statisticians do not deal with decisions
based on certainty. They estimate the probability or otherwise of occurrence of events when you reject
a null hypothesis when it really true and should of have been rejected, there is an error. This called type
I error when you accept a null hypothesis when it is really false and should have been rejected, there is
also an error, and this called type II errors. So you set the level of significance you will consider the
relative seriousness of making type I or type II error.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Explain type I and type II error?

The different types of parametric tests or influential statistics that you can use are z-test, t- test, one
way analysis of variance ANOVA, two ways ANOVA, Analysis of Covariance ANCOVA etc. You will get
them in your statistics texts or course materials

Non Parametric tests

The major difference between parametric and non-parametric test lies in the sophistication of the
measures used for calculating the variability of the values. Non-parametric tests are much simple to
calculate. A major criterion for selecting an appropriate non parametric test is based on whether you
have used same subject for all experimental conditions or different groups of subjects for each
conditions. Let us look at some of the test under this.

The Chi-square (λ2): This is employed in comparism between observed and theoretical or expected
frequencies or in testing the mathematical fit or frequency of an observed frequency distribution. So for
frequency evaluation in certain research instances this is the most appropriate statistical method.

The Mann Whitney U Test: This is the counterpart of the t-test in parametric measurements. It is used
for a two-condition unrelated design when different subjects are used for each of the conditions.

Wilcoxon signed ranked tests: This is used for a two-condition related design when the same subjects
perform under both conditions i.e. matched subjects.

Friedman tests: This extension of the Wilcoxon tests. It is used for a related design if the same subjects
or matched subjects are performing under three or more conditions. Others are Paye‟s L. Trend test. For
trends between three or more conditions. Kris Kal – Walhi test which is an extension of the Mann
Whitney test using three or more conditions unrelated design when different subjects are used.
Jonckheere Trend Test which is an extension of the Kruskal Wallis test etc.

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CONCLUSION

You have been given a faint idea about the type of test to use in your research analysis of data and when
to use them. You can consult any of your statistics test or course material to get the details of their
computation. In the next unit we shall look at how to write the reports of your research.

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have read the meaning of data analysis and that of statistics. You also read the two
types of statistics which are parametric and non-parametric statistics. The measures of central tendency,
variability and association were discussed. The normal curves, the types of parametric and non-
parametric tests were also discussed.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the two types of statistics?

List the main types of measures of central tendency.

What are the characteristics of normal curve?

List 3 types of parametric tests.

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UNIT 14.0 WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS AND PROPOSALS

CHAPTER AND SECTIONS CONSTITUTING A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT

Speaking technically, the research process is a model of the scientific method of thinking or of analyzing
problems. As a model of science, the research process in its simplified form will be constituted by the
following stages of activities:

Problem identification and definition

Hypothesis or answer(s) formulation

Research design and data collection

Data analysis and discussion

Conclusion and generalization making

In all applied research studies, these basic stages of activities are mechanically followed in the process of
investigating problems peculiar to the various specific areas of life. In writing the research report, the
impersonal mode is preferred for communication. Instead of stating that “I did this” or “I did that”, you
can say “the study was carried out……, the samples are…….,” the research report will depend on the
research philosophy and the culture of the institution, organization or the department in control. NOUN
has different schools which have their own house styles. Before you start writing your research report,
find out the house style of your own school.

The arrangement of different parts of the report should make it possible for a reader to easily locate any
section of particular interest to him. To give you a guideline, a conventional format fro arranging
research reports in these/dissertations is given in this section. A particular thesis need not have all the
sections therefore; relevant sections would be used in the appropriate order. The format is as follows:

Preliminary pages:

Title page

Acceptance page or approval page

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Table of content

List of tables

List of figures

List of appendices

Chapter One- Introduction:

Background to the problem or Rationale for the problem

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 Statement of the problem

Significance of the study

Objectives of the study or purpose of the study

Scope of the study

Area of study / context of the study

Research questions and or hypothesis

Definition of terms (operational definitions)

Review of literature:

Theoretical and conceptual frame work

Review of related researches

Research Methodology

Research design

Population

Sampling technique and samples

Instrumentation – development and administration of instruments

Data collection

Data analysis techniques

Limitations

Results and discussion

Presentation and analysis of data

Interpretation of the findings

Summary and Conclusion

Summary of results.

General conclusion

Implications of the study and / or recommendations.

Suggestion for further study

Supplementary

Bibliography

Appendix

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 Index

Let us describe some of these sections

THE PRELIMINARY PAGES

The first page of the report is the title page, where the table of the project is clearly, briefly and to the
point stated. The title should contain such essential elements as the major variables and the target
population. It should be phrased in such a way that it describes what the study is all about. It should not
be phrased in an emotionally laden way in order to suggest that a particular point of view is being sold
or emphasized to the reader. Look at this title „Gender differences in Mathematics enrolment among
NECO candidate in 2008”. You will notice that the title clearly shows the variable is gender and
mathematics enrolment while the target population is NECO candidates in 2008. The title page will also
show the degree that will be awarded on the successful completion of the research, the awarding
institution sometimes the faculty/school, the date of the award, the students name and matriculation
number where applicable. In some cases previous qualifications of the student are stated after the
student’s name.

The acceptance page: This is laid out in a way specified by the institution to which the research project
report is submitted for a degree. This page may contain the following information: The names,
signatures of the departmental head, the dean, the supervisors, the dates, and the name of the students
and very importantly an attestation of the originality of the research report. Some institutions also
require the name and signature of the external examiner.

The dedication page: This permits emotionally laden words in which tribute is paid to individual or
group who are dear to the writer or those who would be interested in the research findings.

The Acknowledgment Page: This page expresses gratitude to all those who helped you in the research
process, that is in conducting the research and preparing the report.

Abstract: This succinctly summarizes the research process by stating the aim of the investigation, the
population, samples, and methods of investigation, the measuring instruments used and the findings.

The Table of Content: This lays out in a tabular form, the chapters, headings and sub-headings of the
report with the page numbers in which various sections of the report may be located. You have to
sequentially arrange and number the content from preliminary to supplementary pages.

The List of Tables: This is similar to the table of contents. It shows the page numbers in which the table
presented in the report are located. The number and title of each table should be serially listed.
Similarly, the list of figures tabulates all figures, their numbers, titles and the pages where they are
presented in the report or where they can be located. Again, the list of appendices should also be
serially arranged in numerical order.

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CHAPTER ONE – The Introduction

The background to the problem: This presents reasonable statements to indicate that it is valuably
worthwhile to spend time, energy, to dissipate resources to carry out this investigation in the problem
area. You have to present the reasoning to be clear and convincing to the readers.

The problem statement: Some of the times, this is stated in interrogative or question statements which
define and limit the scope and direction of interest of the researcher in his topic of study. It deals with
the nature of the topic or issue of study which needs clarification.

The significance of the study: This shows the utility value of the research. The findings of your research
are expected to profit some individuals or institutions, etc. These beneficiaries and the benefit expected
to accrue to them ought to be mentioned.

The objectives of the study: This should state the specific aspects of the problem investigated in the
research and the reasons for focusing on these aspects. This section should give a brief overview of all
the elements that would be investigated. Some of the times this section is interchanged with the
purpose of the study.

The scope of the study: This indicates the extent to which the researcher intended to cover the topic,
the geographical area, time period and variables to be covered. Some of the times, this section is
interchanged with delimitation of the study.

The research questions and / or hypotheses: These are stated in order to guide and direct the
researcher in the investigation especially in the area of literature review, collection an analysis of data,
discussion etc.

The definition of terms: This section is used to educate and inform the reader on the operational
meaning of any coined or technical words, phrases or expression which cannot otherwise be understood
because of their unconventional usage. You should not include any terms to which appropriate meaning
is attached by conventional usage. The essence of definition is to make sure your readers understand
the specific meanings you ascribe to the term in your study.

CHAPTER TWO – Literature Review.

In this chapter section, you are expected to show what other researchers and writers have done, said,
written, found out in the area of the research topic you are investigating. You are expected to make
reviews of theoretical, conceptual and empirical literature. Any literature review should provide
guidance on the research hypotheses/questions and problem, the methodology to use for the study and
on the anticipated findings of the study.

The theoretical and conceptual literature review will provide theoretical and conceptual information. In
other words it will provide the definitions and meanings of the key concepts and variables in the study
and also the theoretical bases for the study while the empirical literature review will provide if possible,
a comprehensive account of research findings of other studies related to your own study in order to
provide comparative empirical findings upon which to evaluate the new ones to be generated in the
study on your hand.

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CHAPTER THREE – Methodology

The research design: In this section, you should make a write up to show the extent to which extraneous
variables were controlled or eliminated. You should also report any lapses as limitations. The design may
or may not fall into the neat categories of research design described earlier. Infact, you can use a
combination of design if need be. Effective control of extraneous variables may dictate the use of
unlabelled designs. Therefore any plan that you use should be clearly described even if it cannot be
classified under a conventional label used in research.

The population: You should make a description of this in order to specify all the necessary parameters
to ensure that all he constituents and characteristics of the target population are not ambiguous. You
should not take the population as the area of study. For instance, an area of study could be hotel
management staff. To enhance the population description, you should tabulate the constituent‟s
elements and their characteristics. For instance, you can take hotel management staff in Lagos state to
be managers, accountants, supervisors, board members etc. The hotels could be classified as five stars,
four stars, three stars etc. These could also be classified according to gender. An example using
hypothetical tabulations can be given as follows:

Table 14.1 Population of Hotel management staff in Lagos.

The sampling technique: This should be described in such a way as not a leave your readers in doubt
about what you have actually done in selecting your sample. It is not enough to say „A simple random
sample of 100 respondents was drawn from the population.

You have to report the specific manner in which a simple random sample was drawn. For instance, you
can report that a table of random numbers was used to select 100 out of 1000 subjects or that pieces of
numbered papers were jumbled in a basket and members of the population were picked from it. This is
very important.

Instrumentation: In this section, you have to describe the tools used for data collection, such as
questionnaire, attitude scales, tests opinionnaire, etc. in order to show their essential characteristics.
You should also report the reliability indices and validation procedures. If you have used a standard
instrument, you have to report and give reasons why you considered it most appropriate. You also have
to show that all necessary conditions for its administration were fulfilled. But if you developed new
instrument, you have to outline the procedures followed in the development.

You should not present the detailed substantive content of the instrument in the body of the report.
Rather, it may be included in the appendix.

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Data Collection: In this section, you should indicate the method(s) through which you obtained the data.
Such details as whether research assistance were used, if yes, whether they were trained, whether you
were present at each location to collect the data or postal system were used, did you obtain permission
before collecting data etc, should all be reported. You should also report whether the instruments used
for recording went faulty during data collection and steps taken to correct them. These details, when
reported will help future researchers to be formed. These practical details and problems encountered
when reported will serve the additional purpose of confirming that you actually carried out the
investigation and experience the realities of research. So, you have to report all the steps you have
taken in order to ensure the collection of valid data.

Data Analysis techniques: This section describes the methods you have applied to the data and, if
applicable, the reasons for their choice. These reasons for choice should be related to the research
design, the nature of the sample and the types of data. If the mode of analysis is not widely known, you
have to report it in details. Note that it is better as far as possible to use the simplest, ell known
techniques. It is not very necessary to report the formula and details of computation of very popular
techniques like chi-square, t-test or ANOVA.

Limitations of the study: In this section, you are expected to state the desirable conditions which were
not met and which are expected to influence the external and /or internal validity of the research study.
It may be possible, for instance that an experimental study is inevitably limited in generalizability of the
findings to the target population because of restrictive conditions in which the research was conducted.
While a non-experimental research may fail to control for all the relevant extraneous variables
therefore, it will reduce the internal validity of the research study.

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

Usually in chapter four of the report, results of analysis of data collected is presented. It should clearly
and concisely set out the results using the most illuminative modes of presentation. You can exploit fully
the use of tables and figures. All tables and figures should be serially numbered. They must have titles or
headings. You should highlight the findings of interest displayed in these using brief verbal descriptions.
These should be directly related to the hypotheses and / or research questions. It is always better to
organize the data presentation and analysis around the hypotheses and research questions. You have to
treat each hypothesis or research questions. You have to treat each hypothesis or research questions in
turn. All the detailed calculations of the data may be included in the appendix.

Interpretation of the findings: In this section, you have to make the results more meaningful to your
readers by discussing possible explanations for the findings. In doing this, you have to cite relevant
literature to provide convincing evidence that the interpretation makes a contribution to existing theory
and knowledge in the area. You have to make available to the reader all the insights obtained while
analyzing the data.

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THE DISCUSSION

Because of the importance of this section, we want to bring it out again for further explanation. The
function of this section enable you to evaluate and interprete the implications or meaning especially
with respect to the original hypothesis stated in the study. You have to use the fact and figures
contained in the reviewed literature to effect accurate interpretations of the findings and the
implications. You are free to examine interprete and qualify the research results as well as draw or make
inferences, reasons, and guesses in order to justify or rationalize the results or findings. This is where
you have the opportunity to show your scholastic prowess in your area of study. You are expected to
give particular emphasis to any theoretical consequences of the results and the validity of your findings,
conclusions, and implications. For a good discussion section, the following advice may help you.

You should always open the discussion with a clear statement to support or not to support your original
hypothesis. You have to highlight the differences and similarities between our results and the work of
others as the literature reviewed would show or should clarify and confirm your conclusions. You may
need to briefly note and explain certain short comings of the study but you should not dwell on all flaws
as if it is out of necessity. Negative results, even if they are shocking should be accepted as such without
an undue attempt to explain their way. You should try to be clear, direct and truthful. Avoid polemics,
verbosity and flamboyant discussions. In general, you should be guided by the following questions in
order to know that the section should contain.

What have I contributed to this study?

How has my study helped to solve the original problem of the study?

What conclusions and theoretical implications can I draw from my study as contributions to theory and
practice development?

What are the noticeable short-comings of the study that may cause one to doubt the findings of my
study?

You should use this discussion section in the end to unravel produce and interprete findings and new
theories and any inconsistencies you noticed in existing theories as a result of your study. You should
also try to integrate or put together the various related findings and inconsistent findings in order to
achieve meaningful conclusions any generalizations in the face of the facts and reality. You are also
expected to use the discussion section to integrate and put together all past findings related to the
findings of you study, the research in progress as well as all the findings of already concluded studies,
existing theory. You should use them to formulate new and original theory. This is the ultimate goal of
research studies, implications and suggestions

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS, IMPLICATIONS

These are usually parts of the final chapter which constitutes chapter five of the research report.

The Summary: In this section you should clearly and concisely restate the problem, the hypotheses and
/ or research questions and findings.

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The Conclusion: These should be based solely on the findings generated by the research.
Recommendations: Based on the findings and conclusions of the study you may make some valuable
recommendation you think are appropriate for application in your area of practice in order to make
activities processes more effective. The overall goal of research is to provide answers to question
thereby producing new theories to increase knowledge or generate better theories to increase
knowledge for results and better ways of doing things to achieve better results to make life better. You
should therefore make clear, relevant and verifiable recommendations that will be of practical value.

Implications of the study: At this stage you may wish to include personal ideas on the relevance of the
findings to theory and practice. These ideas should be directly derived from the study. It is an error if
you use this section for speculative statements about which your research had no evidence. You will
gain nothing by making an unnecessarily lengthy implication section. Instead you loose some marks for
speculating outside the scope of the study.

Suggestion for further study: You should genuinely provide these as if they are matters arising from the
research study. You are also expected to produce some implications for further study, for further
refinement or for repetition to ensure continuous growth of knowledge in the chosen activities in all
areas of human life endeavors. Research is for control, improvement and control strategies in the
different areas of life.

SUPPLEMENTARY PAGES

The Bibliography or Reference: These include all references which you have cited in the repot. All the
related literature which shed light on the problem but were not cited are also included for more
exhaustive study by interested readers. The method with which you can arrange the bibliographical
entries depends on the referencing style. Whatever style you want to use, you have to make the format
uniform throughout the research report. Most institutions make use of the author/date system in which
the entries are arranged alphabetical order of the authors‟ names. If an author has more than one work
in a year, use the alphabetical suffices a, b, c, d, etc added to the year of publication to distinguish
between the different publications. They have to be serially arranged with in the year. Where an author
has publication in different years, you should arrange them serially with the earlier work entered first.

To avoid making mistakes in the entries, you should try to be meticulous in cross checking the details of
the entries. We may revisit references again in the next unit where more details will be provided for
your practical application.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

List the component of the preliminary pages of a research report

What are the components of the supplementary pages?

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CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have studied in details how to present your research report to the literate audience and
the international research community. If you follow the guidelines given in this unit, you make a
successful research report. This is because a bad research report renders the whole exercise and efforts
spent in conducting the research investigations useless.

SUMMARY

In this unit, you have studied every detail about writing the report of your research project. You learnt
that a research report is made up of three main areas. These are the preliminary pages, the main body
and the supplementary pages. You also studied the components of these areas. In the next unit, you will
be getting the differences between a research project report and a research proposal.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the components of the introduction chapter?

What are the components of the preliminary pages?

What are the components of the supplementary pages?

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

The components of the preliminary pages are:

Title page

Acceptance or approval page

Dedication page

Acknowledgment page

Abstract

Table of content

List of tables

List of figures

List of appendices

The component of supplementary pages are

Bibliography

Appendix

Index

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UNIT 15.0 RESEARCH REFERENCING, PROPOSAL CONTENTS AND ETHNICAL ISSUES

RESEARCH REFERENCING

In writing your research report, you have to make sure that you list all the references cited with full
details. You should ensure that the details of the author, date, place of publications, publisher and page
numbers are accurate. This will enable your reader to retrieve the source cited. Some of the times some
additional references not cited are included in the references. This is then called the bibliography. Such
additional references draw the reader’s attention to further literature in the area. There are different
types of methods used. Some of them are Turabian or numeric index, the American Psychological
Associational system. This is the most popular. Therefore we shall follow it in this unit. Let us see how to
use it in the reports.

Books

When you make a book reference, you should include the following details in the sequence in which we
have listed them.

Surname of the author(s) or editor(s) separated from the initials with comma(s)

Add the initials of the author(s) or editor(s).

Use the abbreviations Ed or Eds in parenthesis to specify the editor or editor(s).

Put the year of publication in parenthesis, separated from the title with a full stop. If it is a reprinted
book, the year of the first publication is used. If it is a revised edition, the date of the revision is used.

Where applicable, include sub titles to the titles delimited by a full stop

All editions other than the first should be specified using such abbreviations as 2nd ed., rev. ed., African
ed. In parenthesis. A full stop should be used to separate the edition from the volume number, serial
numb or town of publication as applicable.

Add the volume number and/ or series number and a full stop.

Add town of publication separated from the publisher with a colon. If the towns are more than one,
they should be delimited using commas.

The last is the publisher followed by full stop.

Johnston, J. W. C. and Rivera, R. C. (1965). Volunteers for Learning Chicago: Aldline Publishing Co.

Kanu, O. R. (1994). Teacher Education in Nigeria: A historical perspective. Umuahia, Owerri,

Enugu, Lagos: Ark Publishers

McKean, D. G. (1977). Introduction to Biology (West African Ed.) London: John Murray Ltd. Nkpa, N
(1992). A Practical Guide to Continuous Assessment in Science. Umuahia, Owerri,

Enugu, Lagos, Sokoto: Ark Publishers

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Articles or Chapters in Books

For this, essential features of references are as follows.

Author of articles or chapter is listed.

Year of publication is listed in parenthesis

The title of the article is added. This is not underlined. It is delimited with a full stop.

Use the term „in‟ to show that the article is contained in a more comprehensive work.

Editor(s) of the book is added with the initials before the surname.

Add Ed. or Eds in parenthesis, separated from the title by a full stop.

Add the title of the book underlined and delimited by a full stop.

Add town of publication separated from the publisher by a colon.

Put the publisher delimited with a comma.

Add the page numbers in which the article appeared. Examples:-

Dash, N. K. (1993). Research possibilities in Distance Education. In M. Co. Moore (Ed). Contemporary
issues in American Distance Education. New-York. Pergamon Press. PP 386-396

Ohuche, R. O. Nwachukwu, V. and Nzewi, U. (1990). Trends in unpublished higher degree research in
Nigeria (1965-1887). In R. O. Ohuche and M. Anyanwu (Eds) Perspective in Educational Research and
National Development. Volume I. Onitsha: Summer Educational Publishers Limited, 63 – 73

Government Document

Examples in this category are

Abia State of Nigeria (1995): Government White Paper on the Report of the Panel of Inquiry into

the Affairs of the Secondary Education Management Board. Umuahia: Government Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education (Rev. Ed.) Lagos: Federal Government
Press.

National Open University of Nigeria (2004). Educational Research methods. EDU 702. Lagos:

Noun.

Periodicals

These are published and issued at regular intervals. They may include Journals, magazines, bulletins,
News letters, News papers etc. Essentially, these are to be included:-

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Author’s name separated from the initials with a comma.

Year of publication enclosed in parenthesis.

Title of the article. Only the first letter of the title is written in capitals

Name of the periodical underlined

Volume number underlined, issue number in parenthesis or page numbers.

Example.

Nkpa, N. (1992). The Chinese checkers motion game. STAN Bulletin. 6(2), 13-15.

Osuji, U. S. A. (2007). Improving educational access through open and distance learning: The way
forward to globalization in Nigeria. International Journal of Development Studies. Vol. 2. No. 2. 100-104.

Others

Technical Reports and Monographs: References for these are entered in the same manner as books.
Some monographs or reports may be together without publishers. Examples.

ASUU (1995). The Destruction of the University of Abuja. Academic staff union of universities.
UNESCO/ICDE (1990). Developments in Distance Education in Asia: An Analysis of Five Case

Studies, Bangkok. UNESCO.

Published Conference and Workshop Proceedings: References to this are documented in the same way
as that for periodicals but the volume and issue numbers are not available.

Osuji, U. S. A. and Okonkwo, C. A. (2005). Open and Distance Learning: A liberalization of Educational
Opportunities through integration of ICTs in Teachings and Education. Conference proceedings of the e-
learning held at University of Ibadan. 1-10

Unpublished conference and Workshop, proceedings; manuscripts.

Balogun, T. A. (1975). Some current science curriculum development: Levels and global rationale.
Unpublished Mimeograph. University of Ibadan

Nzeako, U. (1980). Perspectives in education. Unpublished Manuscripts

Personal Communications: These include letters, memos and telephone conversations.

They can be cited only in the text by the authors name and dates e.g.

M. A. Obioha (Personal Communication, June 20, 2004)

Minutes of Meetings: These are cited by the details indicated on the minutes for example:

PTA, Federal Government College, Okigwe (2002). Minutes of the meetings of the Parent / Teacher
Association of the Federal Government College, Okigwe held on March 10, 2001.

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UTU (2008). Minerals of the meeting of the Umuihi Town Union Lagos Branch held on Sunday November
2 2008 at the Bolade Grammar school Oshodi Lagos.

Published Dissertations: These are documented by citing the Volume, issue and page numbers in which
their abstracts appear in the Dissertation Abstract International, and their order number e.g.

Nkpa, N. (1984). Clear biology teaching: Students and Observer Perspectives. Dissertations Abstracts
International. 45 (a) 2746 – A, N0. Da 84267:7

Unpublished Dissertations: These are listed mentioning the educational institution awarding the degree.
The number of pages may be included. For instance.

Osuji, U. S. A. (1992). The effects of group-self evaluation on learning outcomes. Unpublished M. Ed.
Dissertation. Abia State University Uturu.

Okpala, P. N. (1985). Teacher attitudinal variables in instructional and assessment practices as correlates
of learning outcomes in Physics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Ibadan. 261 pp.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Locate 3 Text books, 3 Journals and 3 News Papers of your choice. List these as references in a research
report.

PROPOSAL CONTENTS

In the last unit, you studied in details how to write the research project report. We think it is very
necessary for you to learn about research proposals. The research proposal is written before the actual
research work is carried out. It tells the reader the type of problem or issue you are intending to study,
why and how you intend o carry out the study. It is usually differentiated from the final research report
from the language used in writing the proposal. In other words, the language of the future is usually cast
in the proposing write up. That is to say that you use such expressions in the language of the future
tense.

For instance the problem of study will be, the researcher shall, the population will compromise, the
samples shall be, observation techniques will be used for data collection, the Chi-Square Statistics will be
used for the data analysis, etc. The research proposal is made up of the first three chapters of the
orthodox research report. The only difference is in language. So, while the language of the proposal will
be in the proposing language of intention cast in the future tense, the final research project report will
be in the language of finality or of accomplished actions cast in the past tense. Examples – The problem
of study was, the researcher delimited, delineated, defined, the population of study was, the samples
were selected using…….etc.

Apart from the three chapters, the research proposals for grants or contracts etc will also include Time
Schedule. This gives the time period allocated to each step of activities from the beginning to the end
including the submission of the final research project report. For instance: Review of Literature – 6
months, development of instruments – 2 months, Trial testing of the instruments 3 months data

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collection – 6 months, organization of data – 4 months etc. The Proposal will also contain the budget of
estimated expenses for carrying out the main research.

Note that budgets and Time schedules are not added in a proposal meant for your supervisor or defence
in the school or faculty. The degree research proposal may also contain supplementary pages where
appendices will contain references among others.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

It is very important to talk about ethical issues in research process. Ethics in research process have
assumed considerable significance especially when the area of study transgresses national boundaries
and because information needs to be disseminated or distributed accurately and with equity.

In designing your questionnaires tests and experimental procedures you have to take into
considerations the diversity in the circumstances of the students, and in relation to the effective data
collection procedures and ethical requirements. According to Evans and Jakupee (1996); Sample
participants in the research projects should be informed very clearly about the objectives of the
research, the procedure and the implications of the research findings including their utilization. When
you have distance participants in Pestal or telephonic interviews, you must try to empower them in
order to be able to respond to the research questions. Again, before you start the interview or the
questionnaire administration you should try to get written contents from them to ensure their freedom
and to reduce uncertain or unproductive travel time and cost. Strong ethical considerations are required
for the conduct and utilization of institutional research. You have to make a distinction between
students‟ research and research involving evaluation for the improvement of courses and students
services. You need to exercise caution and restrain in your temptation to publish result or present them
in a conference, when the findings are essentially meant for institutional monitoring and quality
assurance.

You have to distinguish between data stored for institutional monitoring and confidential strictly and
those meant for public use. When you want to use any data belonging to an institution, professional
ethics require that you seek prior consent from such institution before utilizing such data for purpose of
research and publication of publication of findings.

According to Evans and Jakupee (1996); Every research should not expose individuals to risks of course
unjustified political, personal, economic, physical, emotional, moral and psychological harm. No
researcher should undertake any researcher should undertake any research which violates principles of
free informed content. You should be truthful, honest and objective in caring out your research
investigations.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What are the main components of a research proposal?

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CONCLUSION

This unit has concluded the course on research. What you have studied so far is not comprehensive
enough to make you an expert in research? However, it will guide you to conduct your project research.
You need to refer to text in research and statistics to complement what you have learnt here. Again your
supervisor is ever ready to give your support where you need it.

SUMMARY

In this unit you have studied how to cite the materials which you have used or consulted in your
research process. The different categories of materials and how to cite them have been highlighted.
These include books, articles, government documents, periodicals and others. You have also learnt how
to write a research proposal. You were told that the first three chapters of the orthodox research
project report constitute the proposal. Again the language in cast in future tense. Ethnical issues in
research have also been discussed. You can now start to undertake your research project process.

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Select a research project report from any library. Let this project be in your area of study. Review the
literature and list the citations made in it look at the Bibliography or References and see if these
citations are adequately and properly referenced.

ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

You should locate the items and do the exercise

EXERCISE 2

The components of a research proposal are

Chapter one – Introduction

Chapter two – Literature review

Chapter three - Methodology

Time schedule

Proposal budget

Supplementary pages (if any)

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