CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In human's daily life, environment, gives the most significant impact to our health issues Therefore,

environment and industrial air quality issues are critically discussed to increase the awareness and

responsibility regarding the threat on the environment towards public and health workers. Most of

the dangerous gas such as carbon monoxide (CO), refrigerant gas and liquefied petroleum gas

(LPG) are colorless and odorless compound that are produced ty incomplete combustion. (Theraja,

1995)

An incomplete combustion also results in hazardous carbon monoxide

2CH+90,  400+200+ 8H₂O Therefore, gas detector device is needed in order to give information

about the safety situation continuously. Carbon monoxide (CO), often referred to as a "silent killer"

is an injurious gas and its prolonged exposure to living beings can lead to brain damage and even

death. The harmfulness of CO is dependent on both, the concentration of the gas and the exposure

time. Thus, a small concentration of the CO when exposed for a long period of time can be fatal just

like a large concentration of the CO for a small period of time. Fires are the most common source of

CO. In smaller quantities (eg 100 ppm) it may cause a headache and dizziness after a couple of

hours of exposure. Higher concentrations (example 3200 ppm) may causes headaches and dizziness

after 5-10 min, and death within 30 min.

Very high concentrations (e.g. 12800 ppm) causes unconsciousness after a couple of breaths,

followed by death in less than 3 min.

The indoor dangerous sources are the leak source of CO, CO2 and CH4, which may be gas tank or

the fire site. The essential component of coal gas or natural gas is CO or alkanes gas The burning of

chemical materials or decorative materials will emanate CO, CO2 and alkanes gas. The danger of

these gases arising is from two aspects, one is the toxicity of these gases themselves, the other side

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is that the accumulation of these gases can easy be ignited. The danger of the CO gas is the same as

the LPG and others dangerous gas in the environment Gas detector is a gas detecting device. That

gives alert in the event of gas leakage thought of finding a lasting solution to this problem infirm

the idea of design and construction of the project. (Cohen, 2002)

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Due to recent fire outbreak and incidence of gas explosion and fire resulting in gas leakages that are

not detected in time. The purpose of this project is to develop alarm system for gas detector. The

gas sensor used in this project is MQ6 which detect the present of smoke alcohol and Liquefied

Petroleum Gas (LPG). This sensor will detect the concentration of the gas according the voltage

output of the sensor. To make the sensors operate in the alarm system and data monitoring system,

Arduino Uno was used as the microcontroller for the whole system.

1.3. Aim and Objectives of the Project

1.3.1. Aim

The aim of this project is to design and construct a gas leakage detector

1.3.2. Objectives

The objectives of this project are as follows;

1 To analyze gas sensor in detecting the LPG smoke and alcohol

2 To design gas control system that shows the indicator alarm and blow the buzzer.

3 To develop a system that can automatically alert via Buzzer.

1.4. Scope and Limitation

This project work is design and construction of gas leakage detector that can detect the presence of

LPG gases and sound an alarm to alert the user of a gas leakage This project is limited to the use of

battery and cannot operate with Alternating current.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Related Works

A gas detector is a device that detects the presence of gases in an area, often as part of a safety

system. This type of equipment is used to detect a gas leakage or other emissions and can be

interface with a control system so that a process can be automatically shut down. A gas detector can

sound an alarm to operators in the area where the leak is occurring, giving them the opportunity to

leave. This type of device is important because there are many gases that can be harmful to organic

life, such as humans or animals, even plants. (Michael, 2012)

Gas detectors can be used to detect combustible, flammable and toxic gases, and oxygen depletion.

This type of device is used widely in industry and can be found in locations, such as on oil rigs, to

monitor manufacture processes and emerging technologies such as photovoltaic. They may be used

in firefighting.

Gas leak detection is the process of identifying potentially hazardous gas leaks by sensors. These

sensors usually employ an audible alarm to alert people when a dangerous gas has been detected.

Exposure to toxic gases can also occur in operations such as painting, fumigation, fuel filling,

construction, excavation of contaminated soils, landfill operations, entering confined spaces, etc.

Common sensors include combustible gas sensors, photoionization detectors, infrared point sensors,

ultrasonic sensors, electrochemical gas sensors, and semiconductor sensors. More recently, infrared

imaging sensors have come into use. All of these sensors are used for a wide range of applications

and can be found in industrial plants, refineries, pharmaceutical manufacturing. fumigation

facilities, paper pulp mills, aircraft and ship-building facilities, hazmat operations, waste-water

treatment facilities, vehicles, indoor air quality testing and homes (Moris, 1989)

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2.3 Types of Gas Detectors

Gas detectors can be classified according to the operation mechanism (semiconductors, oxidation,

catalytic, photolonization, infrared, etc). Gas detectors can be packaged into two main form is

Namely: portable gas detectors and fixed gas detectors.

Portable detectors are used to monitor the atmosphere around personnel and are either hand-held or

worn on clothing or on a belt/harness. These gas detectors are usually battery operated. They

transmit warnings via audible and visible signals, such as alarms and flashing lights, when

dangerous levels of gas vapors are detected (Haufman and Seidman, 1993)

Fixed type gas detectors may be used for detection of one or more gas types. Fixed type detectors

are generally mounted near the process area of a plant or control room, or an area to be protected,

such as a residential bedroom. Generally, industrial sensors are installed on fixed type mild steel

structures and a cable connects the detectors to a SCADA system for continuous monitoring. A

tripping interlock can be activated for an emergency situation.

Electrochemical

Electrochemical gas detectors work by allowing gases to diffuse through a porous membrane to an

electrode where it is either chemically oxidized or reduced. The amount of current produced is

determined by how much of the gas is oxidized at the electrode, indicating the concentration of the

gas. Manufactures can customize electrochemical gas detectors by changing the porous barrier to

allow for the detection of a certain gas concentration range. Also, since the diffusion barrier is a

physical/mechanical barrier, the detector tended to be more stable and reliable over the sensor's

duration and thus required less maintenance than other early detector technologies.

However, the sensors are subject to corrosive elements or chemical contamination and may last

only 1-2 years before a replacement is required. Electrochemical gas detectors are used in a wide

variety of environments such as refineries, gas turbines, chemical plants, underground gas storage

facilities, and more (Haufman and Seidman, 1993)

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Photoionization

Photoionization Detectors (PIDs) use a high-photon-energy UV lamp to ionize chemicals in the

sampled gas. If the compound has an ionization energy below that of the lamp photons, an electron

will be ejected, and the resulting current is proportional to the concentration of the compound.

Common lamp photon energies include 10.0 eV, 10.6 eV and 11.7 eV; the standard 10.6 eV lamp

lasts for years, while the 11.7 eV lamp typically last only a few months and is used only when no

other option is available. A broad range of compounds can be detected at levels ranging from a few

ppb to several thousand ppm. Detectable compound classes in order of decreasing sensitivity

include: aromatics and alkyl iodides, olefins, sulfur compounds, amines, ketones, ethers, alkyl

bromides and silicate esters; organic esters, alcohols, aldehydes and alkanes, H2S, NH3, PH3 and

organic acids. There is no response to standard components of air or to mineral acids. Major

advantages of PIDs are their excellent sensitivity and simplicity of use, the main limitation is that

measurements are not compound-specific. Recently PIDs with pre-filter tubes have been introduced

that enhance the specificity for such compounds as benzene or butadiene. Fixed, hand-held and

miniature clothing-clipped PIDs are widely used for industrial hygiene, hazmat, and environmental

monitoring (Stephen, 1999).

Infrared point

Infrared (IR) point sensors use radiation passing through a known volume of gas; energy from the

sensor beam is absorbed at certain wavelengths, depending on the properties of the specific gas. For

example, carbon monoxide absorbs wavelengths of about 4.2-4.5 um. The energy in this

wavelength is compared to a wavelength outside of the absorption range; the difference in energy

between these two wavelengths is proportional to the concentration of gas present.

This type of sensor is advantageous because it does not have to be placed into the gas to detect it

and can be used for remote sensing. Infrared point sensors can be used to detect hydrocarbons and

other infrared active gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide IR sensors are commonly found

in waste-water treatment facilities, refineries, gas turbines. chemical plants, and other facilities
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where flammable gases are present and the possibility of an explosion exists. The remote sensing

capability allows large volumes of space to be monitored.

Engine emissions are another area where IR sensors are being researched The sensor would detect

high levels of carbon monoxide or other abnormal gases in vehicle exhaust and even be integrated

with vehicle electronic systems to notify drivers.

Semiconductor

Semiconductor sensors detect gases by a chemical reaction that takes place when the gas comes in

direct contact with the sensor. Tin dioxide is the most common material used in semiconductor

sensors, and the electrical resistance in the sensor is decreased when it comes in contact with the

monitored gas. The resistance of the tin dioxide is typically around 50kQ in air but can drop to

around 3.5 k in the presence of 1% methane. This change in resistance is used to calculate the gas

concentration. Semiconductor sensors are commonly used to detect hydrogen, oxygen, alcohol

vapor, and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide. One of the most common uses for

semiconductor sensors is in carbon monoxide sensors. They are also used in breathalyzers. Because

the sensor must come in contact with the gas to detect it, semiconductor sensors work over a

smaller distance than infrared point or ultrasonic detectors.

Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic gas detectors use acoustic sensors to detect changes in the background noise of its

environment. Since most high-pressure gas leaks generate sound in the ultrasonic range of 25 kHz

to 10 MHz, the sensors are able to easily distinguish these frequencies from background acoustic

noise which occurs in the audible range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The ultrasonic gas leak detector then

produces an alarm when there is an ultrasonic deviation from the normal condition of background

noise. Ultrasonic gas leak detectors cannot measure gas concentration, but the device is able to

determine the leak rate of an escaping gas because the ultrasonic sound level depends on the gas

pressure and size of the leak (Stephen, 1999).

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Ultrasonic gas detectors are mainly used for remote sensing in outdoor environments where weather

conditions can easily dissipate escaping gas before allowing it to reach leak detectors that require

contact with the gas to detect it and sound an alarm. These detectors are commonly found on

offshore and onshore oil/gas platforms, gas compressor and metering stations, gas turbine power

plants.

2.3 Description of Components

2.3.1 Gas Sensor

The LPG Gas Sensor is used in gas detection equipment for detecting Propane gas in home,

automotive or industrial settings. This sensor is compatible with all Parallax microcontrollers, and

would be a good addition to any projects needing to sense the presence of propane

Gas sensors based on nickel oxide come in various types. Gas sensors can be either optical or

electrical. The principle of most gas sensors is that a reaction of the sensor with the gas causes

changes in the surface of the sensor, which results in changes of the optical and/or electrical

properties.

a. Optical Sensors

In optical sensors, the colour of the sensor varies with the concentration of the detected gas. Optical

sensors are mainly used in detection of CO.

b. Electrical Sensors

Electrical sensors come in two types. In the first type the resistance of the sensor varies with the

concentration of the gas. In the other type the output voltage depends on the concentration. The

resistance-type sensors operate due to a reaction of the gas with chemisorbed oxygen at the surface

of the sensor. This changes the amount of electrons at the surface and thereby the conductivity.

The voltage-type sensors use nickel oxide as thermoelectric (TE) material. By applying a

temperature gradient to a thermoelectric material, a small voltage is generated. This temperature

gradient can be provided by a chemical reaction at one side of the TE material.

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8
Figure 2.3. Principle of a Thermoelectric Gas Sensor

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2.3.2 MQ-6 Gas Sensor

Sensitive material of MQ-6 gas sensor is SnO2 with lower conductivity in clean air When the target

combustible gas exist the sensor's conductivity is increases along with the gas concentration rising.

Simple electro circuit is used to convert change of conductivity into corresponding output signal of

the gas concentration.

MQ-6 gas sensor has high sensitivity to Propane, Butane and LPG. It also response to Natural gas.

The sensor could be used to detect different combustible gas, especially Methane. It has low cost

and is suitable for different applications (Stephen, 1999)

Features

 High sensitivity to LPG, iso-butane and propane

 Small sensitivity to alcohol and smoke

 Fast response

 Wide detection range

 Stable performance and long life

 Simple drive circuit.

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Plate 1. MQ-6 Gas Sensor

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Table 1. Specifications:

Parameter Value Unit

Target Gas Iso-butane, Propane, LPG

Detection Range 100 to 10000 Ppm (Part per Millions)

Calibrated Gas 1000ppm iso-butane

Sensitivity R in air/Rin Typical gas > 5

Sensing Resistance 40 to 400KΩ in air Ω Ohms

Response Time < 10s Seconds

Resume Time < 30s Seconds

Heating Resistance 31Ω + 3Ω Ω Ohms

Heating Current < 180Ma mA

Heater Voltage 5V + 0.2V Volts

Heating Consumption < 900mW mW

Circuit Voltage < 15V Volts

Standard Working Temperature:- 10Oc to 65OC

Condition Humidity < 95%RH

Storage Condition Temperature:- 20Oc to 70OC

Humidity < 70%RH

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Structure and Circuit:

Plate 2 Structure & Measuring Circuit of MQ-6 Gas Sensor

Cross-Sectional View:

Plate 3 Cross Sectional View of MQ-6 Gas Sensor

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2.4 Microcontroller

Description
The AT8988253 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller. The device is

manufactured using Atmel's high-density non-volatile memory technology and is compatible with

the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip downloadable Flash allows

the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system through an SPI serial interface or by a

conventional non-volatile memory programmer. In addition, the AT89S8253 is designed with static

logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving

modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and

interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but

freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next external interrupt or hardware

reset (Mehta, 2000)

Features:
 12K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Program Memory

 Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles

 2K Bytes EEPROM Data Memory

 Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles

 64-byte User Signature Array

 2.7V to 5.5V Operating Range

 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz (in x1 and x2 Modes)

 Three-level Program Memory Lock

 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM

 32 Programmable I/O Lines

 Three 16-bit Timer/Counters

 Nine Interrupt Sources

 Enhanced UART Serial Port with Framing Error Detection and Automatic
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 Address Recognition

 Enhanced SPI (Double Write/Read Buffered) Serial Interface

 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes.

 Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode

 Programmable Watchdog Timer

 Dual Data Pointer

 Power-off Flag

 Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Modes)

 Page Mode: 64 Bytes/Page for Code Memory, 32 Bytes/Page for Data Memory

 Four-level Enhanced Interrupt Controller

 Programmable and Fuseable x2 Clock Option

 Internal Power-on Reset

 42-pin PDIP Package Option for Reduced EMC Emission

2.5 Voltage Regulator IC-7805

Description

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage

level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism or passive or active electronic components.

Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. With the

exception of passive shunt regulators, all modern electronic voltage regulators operate by

comparing the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any difference is

amplified and used to control the regulation element in such a way as to reduce the voltage error.

This forms a negative feedback control loop; increasing the open-loop gain tends to increase

regulation accuracy but reduce stability (avoidance of oscillation, or ringing during step changes).

If the output voltage is too low the regulation element is commanded, up to a point, to produce a

higher output voltage by dropping less of the input voltage if the output voltage is too high, the

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regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. However, many

regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely stop sourcing current (or limit the

current) if the output current is too high, and some regulators may also shut down if the input

voltage is outside a given range (Neocleous, 2006).

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Advantages:

The 7805 series has several key advantages over many other voltage regulator circuits which have

resulted in its popularity:

 7805 series ICs do not require any additional components to provide a constant, regulated

source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical. By contrast, most other

voltage regulators require several additional components to set the output voltage level. or to

assist in the regulation process.

 78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They also

have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most

applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide

protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit it is used in,

preventing other components from being damaged as well.

Disadvantages:

The 78xx devices have a few drawbacks which can make them unsuitable or less desirable for some

applications:

 The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum amount

(typically 2 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some devices from

certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit which requires 5 volts using 6-

volt batteries will not work using a 7805).

 As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current required is always the same as

the output current. As the input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage, this

means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the 78xx will be more than

the output power provided. The extra input power is dissipated as heat. This means both that for

some applications an adequate heat sink must be provided.

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2.6 Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal

of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency

is commonly used to keep track of time, to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated

circuits and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers.

Plate 6. Crystal Oscillator

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A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces electrical oscillations at a particular

designed frequency determined by the physical characteristics of one or more crystals, generally of

quartz positioned in the circuit feedback loop. A piezoelectric effect causes a crystal such as quartz

to vibrate and resonate at a particular frequency. The crystal oscillator is generally used in various

forms such as a frequency generator, a frequency modulator and a frequency converter (Haufman

and Seidma, 1993).

The crystal oscillator utilizes crystal having excellent piezoelectric characteristics, in which crystal

functions as a stable mechanical vibrator. There are many types of crystal oscillators. One of them

is a crystal oscillator employing an inverting amplifier including a CMOS (complementary metal

oxide semiconductor) circuit. Temperature-compensated crystal oscillators in which variation in

oscillation frequency arises from the frequency- temperature characteristic of the quartz-crystal unit

is compensated. A surface mounting crystal oscillator is used mainly as a frequency reference

source particularly for a variety of portable electronic devices such as portable telephones because

of its compact size and light weight.

Operation

When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field

by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as

piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to

its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a

circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.

Crystal Oscillator Circuit used in Microcontroller

A microcontroller is disclosed that includes a crystal oscillator circuit that is programmable to

provide multiple different levels of startup current. XTALI and XTAL2 are the input and output,

respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator. Either

19
a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. For frequencies above 16MHz it is

recommended that C1 be replaced with R1 for improved startup performance.

Plate 7. Oscillator Connections

To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while

XTAL1 is driven.

Plate 8. External Clock Drive Configuration

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Advantages:

High stability

Exhibit very low phase noise

Good temperature stability

Limitation:

Environmental changes of temperature, humidity, pressure, and vibration can change the resonant

frequency.

2.7 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically displaying information

such as text, images and moving pictures. Its uses include monitors for computers, televisions,

gaming devices, watches, calculators etc. It consumes low electrical power and is an electronically-

modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in

front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome.

Specifications

Important factors to be considered while evaluating an LCD monitor are:

 Resolution: The horizontal and vertical screen size expressed in pixels (e.g., 1,024×768).

 Dot pitch: The distance between the centres of two adjacent pixels. The smaller the dot

pitch size, the less granularity is present resulting in a sharper image.

 Viewable size: The size of an LCD panel measured on the diagonal (more specifically

known as active display area).

 Response time: The minimum time necessary to change a pixel's colour or brightness.

 Input lag: A delay between the moment monitor receives the image over display link and

the moment the image is displayed. Input lag is caused by internal digital processing such as

image scaling, noise reduction and details enhancement.

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  Refresh rate: The number of times per second in which the monitor draws the data it is

being given.

 Matrix type: Active TFT or Passive.

 Brightness: The amount of light emitted from the display (more specifically known as

luminance).

 Contrast ratio: The ratio of the intensity of the brightest bright to the darkest dark.

 Aspect ratio: The ratio of the width to the height (for example, 4:3, 5:4, 16:9 or 16:10).

Colour Display

In colour LCDs each individual pixel is divided into three cells, or sub pixels, which are coloured

red, green, and blue, respectively. LCD and CRT monitors are direct applications of the RGB

colour model and give the illusion of representing a continuous spectrum of hues as a result of the

trichromatic nature of human vision.

Colour components may be arrayed in various pixel geometries, depending on the monitor's usage.

If the software knows which type of geometry is being used in a given LCD, this can be used to

increase the apparent resolution of the monitor through sub pixel rendering. This technique is

especially useful for text anti-aliasing.

Passive Matrix Addressed LCDs

LCDs with a small number of segments have individual electrical contacts for each segment. An

external dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. Small monochrome

displays have a passive-matrix structure employing Super Twisted Nematic (STN) or Double Layer

STN (DSTN) technology and colour-STN (CSTN)-wherein colour is added by using an internal

filter.

Each row or column of the display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a

time by row and column addresses. This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed because

the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. As

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the number of pixels (and, correspondingly columns and rows) increases, this type of display

becomes less feasible. Very slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix

addressed LCDs.

Active Matrix Addressed LCDs

High-resolution colour displays such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions use an

active matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the polarizing and

colour filters. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one

pixel. When a row line is activated, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and the

correct voltage is driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next

row line is activated. All of the row lines are activated in sequence during a refresh operation.

Active-matrix addressed displays look "brighter" and "sharper" than passive-matrix addressed

displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better

images.

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24
2.8 Buzzer

A buzzer or beeper is transducer an audio signalling device, which may be mechanical,

electromechanical or electronic. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarms, timers and

confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke In electronic buzzer a piezoelectric

element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio signal source. Sounds

commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

Uses

 Annunciation panels

 Electronic metronomes

 Game shows: The buzzer is also used to signal wrong answers and when time expires on many

game shows.

 Microwave ovens and other household appliances

2.9 Resistors

The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. This symbol -W-is used to indicate a

resistor in a circuit diagram, known as a schematic. Resistance value is designated in units called

the "Ohm." There are two classes of resistors:

 Fixed resistors

 Variable resistors

They are also classified according to the material from which they are made. The typical resistor is

made of either carbon film or metal film. The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to

consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings

of the resistor are also important. The maximum rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts.

Power is calculated using the square of the current (12) x the resistance value (R) of the resistor. If

the maximum rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot, and may even burn.

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Generally, it's safe to choose a resistor which has a power rating of about twice the power

consumption needed. The resistance value is displayed using the colour code.

A. Fixed Resistors

A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.

Carbon film resistor: This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the

resistance value is ±5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used. This resistor

is called a Single-In-Line(SIL) resistor network. It is made with many resistors of the same value,

all in one package. One side of each resistor is connected with one side of all the other resistors

inside.

Metal film resistors: Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is

needed. They are much more accurate in value than carbon film resistors. They have about ±0.05%

tolerance. They have about ±0.05% tolerance Ni-Cr (Nichrome) used for the material of resistor.

The metal film resistor is used for bridge circuits, filter circuits, and low-noise analog signal

circuits.

B. Variable Resistors

There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable resistor which

value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The other is semi-fixed resistor that is

not meant to be circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate for the

inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of the variable resistor is

usually about 300 degrees. Some variable resistors must be turned many times to use the whole

range of resistance they offer. This allows for very precise adjustments of their value.

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27
Table 2.2 Resistor Colour Code
Colour Value Multiplier Tolerance (%)

Black 0 0 -

Brown 1 1 +1

Red 2 2 +2

Orange 3 3 + 0.05

Yellow 4 4 -

Green 5 5 + 0.5

Blue 6 6 + 0.25

Violet 7 7 + 0.1

Gray 8 8 -

White 9 9 -

Gold - -1 +5

Silver - -2 + 10

None - - + 20

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2.10 Capacitors

The capacitor's function is to store more electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also

functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC) and blocking direct current (DC). This symbol

is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is constructed with two electrode

plates facing each other but separated by an insulator.

When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored in electrode. While the

capacitor is charging up, current lows. The current will stop flowing when the capacitor has fully

charged.

The most used capacitors are mica, paper, electrolytic and ceramic capacitors Electrolytic

capacitors use a molecular thin oxide film as the dielectric resulting in large capacitance values.

There is no polarity required, since either side can be the most positive plate, except for electrolytic

capacitors. These are marked to indicate which side must be positive to maintain the internal

electrolytic action that produces the dielectric required to form the capacitance. It should be noted

that the polarity of the charging source determines the polarity of the capacitor voltage.

Capacitance:

This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol

F. However, IF is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values. Three prefixes

(multipliers) are used, u (micro), n (nano) and p (pico).

Types of Capacitors:

There are various types of capacitors available in the market. Some of them are as follows:

 Mica Capacitor

 Paper Capacitor

 Ceramic Capacitor

 Variable Capacitor

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 Electrolytic Capacitor

 Film Capacitor

 Polystyrene Capacitor

Examples

Plate 13. Polarised Capacitor

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Plate 14. Electrolytic Capacitor

31
Unpolarised Capacitors (Small Values, up to 1µF):

Examples:

Plate 15. Unpolarised capacitors

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not

damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high

voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so.

Capacitor Number Code:

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:

 The 1st number is the 1st digit,

 The 2nd number is the 2nd digit,

 The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.

Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.

For example: 102 means 1000pF 1nF (not 102pF!)

32
Table 2.3. Capacitor Colour Codes
Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White

Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

33
Ceramic Capacitor:
The ceramic dielectric materials are made from earth under extreme heat. By use of titanium

dioxide or several types of silicates, very high values of dielectric constant can be obtained.

34
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

1. Pic161877 Ic

2. Capacitors

3. Resistor 22p

4. LCD Screen

5. Casing (Patress Box)

6. Battery (9v)

3.2 Principle of Operation

The gas sensor module used in this circuit. This Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Gas Sensor (MQ6),

ideal sensor are used to detect the presence of a dangerous Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and it

has high sensitivity to propane(CH₂CH₂CH₂), butane (CH3CH2CH2CH3), isobutene

(CH2=C(CH3)2. The sensor can also be used to detect combustible gases, especially methane. This

sensor has a high sensitivity and fast response time. The circuit is very simple. This circuit can

detect leakages in your Home, car or in a service station, storage tank environment. This unit can be

useful in an industries by upgrading its ranges.

3.3 Microcontroller AT89S52

The AT89S52 is a low power, high performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8Kbytes of in-

system programmable flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel's high-density

nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set

and pin out. The on-chip flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a

conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system

35
programmable flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which

provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8Kbytes of flash, 256-bytes of Random

Access Memory (RAM), 32 Input/Output (I/O) lines, watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-

bit timers/counters, a six-vector two level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip

oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation

down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The idle mode

stops the Central Processing Unit (CPU) while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and

interrupt system to continue functioning. The power-down mode saves the Random Access

Memory (RAM) contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next

interrupt or hardware reset. The block diagram of Micro-controller Unit (MCU);

36
Circuit Diagram of the System

37
Transistors

Transistors are active component used basically as amplifier and switches. The two main types of

transistors whose operation depends on the flow of both minority and majority carrier, and the

unipolar or field transistor (called) FET in which current is due to majority carriers only (either

electron or hole). The value of the bias current is either increasing or decreasing about its mean

value by the input signal (if operated as an amplifier). For the transisitors configuration;

When the transistor is ON.

3.4 Resistor

Resistor is a component of an electric circuit that resists the flow of direct or alternating electric

current. Resistors can limit or divide the current, reduce the voltage, protect an electric circuit, or

provide large amounts of heat or light.

An electric current is the movement of charged particles called electrons from one region to

another. The amount of resistance to the flow of current that a resistor causes depends on the

material it is made of as well as its size and shape. Resistors are usually placed in electric circuits,

which are devices formed when current moves through an electrical conductor (a material that

allows the current to flow without much resistance, such as copper wire) and when the conductor

makes a complete loop.

When a voltage, or electric potential, is applied to opposite ends of a circuit, it causes current to

flow through the circuit. As the current flows, it encounters a certain amount of resistance from the

conductor and any resistors in the circuit. Each material has a characteristics resistance. For

example, wood is a bad conductor because it offers high resistance to current; copper is a better

conductor because it offers less resistance. In any electric circuit, the current in the entire circuit is

equal to the voltage across the circuit divided by the resistance of the circuit. Resistors are often

made to have a specific value of resistance so that the characteristics of the circuit can be accurately

calculated.

38
3.5 Capacitor

Capacitor, or electrical condenser, device for strong an electrical charge, in its simplest form a

capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a non-conducting layer called the dielectric.

When one plate is charged with electricity from a direct-current or electrostatic source, the other

plate will have induced in it a charge of the opposite sign, that is, positive if the original charge is

negative and negative if the charge is positive The Leyden jar is a simple form of capacitor in which

the two conducting plates are metal foil coatings on the inside and outside of a glass bottle or jar

that serves as the dielectric The electrical size of a capacitor is its capacitance, the amount of

electric charge it can hold. Capacitors are produced in a wide variety of forms. Air, mica, ceramics,

paper, oil, and vacuums are used as dielectric, depending on the purpose for which the device is

intended.

Capacitance, ability of a circuit system to store electricity, the capacitance of a capacitor is

measured in farads and is determined by the formula c q/v, where q is the charge (in coulombs) on

one of the conductors and v is the potential difference (in volts) between the conductors. The

capacitance depends only on the thickness, area, and composition of the capacitors dielectric.

3.6 Diode

The diode used in this project, perform the work of rectification. There three type of rectification;

half, full and bridge rectifier. But in this project work bridge rectifier was used.

39
Plate 3.1 Bridge Rectifier

Plate 3.2 LCD Screen

40
3.7 LCD

LCD (liquid crystal display) screen is an electronics display module and find a wide range of

applications.

A 16x2 LCD display is a very basic module and is very commonly used in various device and

circuit. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other muilti-segment LEDS. The

reasons being: LCDs are economical, easily programmable, have no limitation of displaying special

or customized characters unlike in seven segments, animations and so on

A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD

each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely command and

data

The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an

instruction given to LCD to do a prefixed task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the

cursor position, controlling display etc the data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD.

The data is the ASCII valve of the character to be displayed on the LCD. The physical appearance

of the Icd is shown below;

3.8 Power Supply

The design used 12V transformer. The circuit consists of microcontroller, transistors, regulator,

transistor LCD and some passive components. The regulator transistor is designed to limit the

output to 5V; this voltage will be maintain over the capability of the circuit, the transistor oscillator

is a high current type as it is turned ON for a very short time of period to saturate the core of the

transformer. The energy is then released as a high voltage pulse. These pulses are then passed to the

electrolytic capacitor and appear as a 5V supply to the traffic light controller circuit.

41
I.e. Vin = 12V
According to Hauman (1988)
Drop out voltage for I.C = 2V
Vdc = 1.41 Vac ------------------------------------- (i)
Idc = 191.6mA
Idc = 0.62mA Vac ------------------------- (ii)
Therefore total voltage = 12 + 2 + 1.14 = 15.41V
From equation (i)
Vdc = 1.41 x 12 = 16.92V
Vac= Vdc = 16.92V
1.41 1.41
This means input voltage to ICs is 12 V
From equation (ii)
Iac = Iac = 191.6
0.62 0.62
Iac = 3=9mA
This is the maximum current (Iac) each IC can carry effectively without deviation in its
characteristics.
The circuit is designed with an exit delay which is determined by the charging time of capacitor C 6
Hence: Time Constant ( ) = C6R11
Where C6 = 100µf , R11 = 220k
[] = 100 x 10-6 x 220 x 103
[] = 22s
Therefore at switch ON, it will take capacitor about 22seconds to charge.
The transistor Q1 has a gain of 258 i.e β = 258
Biasing is by fixed bias or Base Resistor method and it is used as a switch in the circuit.
Let Ic = Zero Signal Collector Current
IB = IC --------------------------- (i)
β
Ic = IB β ------------------------ (ii)

42
Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Vcc = IBRB+VBE
RB =Vcc – VBE = IB = VCC,
IB IB
IB is approximately Vcc (Mehta, 2000)
RB
IB= 12 = 1.2mA
10000
Tessting with the multi-meter, B =258
From Equation ---------------------------- (ii)
Ic = 1.2MA x 258
Ic = 0.30 96A = 309.6 ma

Stability of the transistor is given by

S= β +1
1- β (dlB) ---------------------------- (iii)
(dIc)
But (dIB) is approximately Zero (Mehta, 2000)
(dIc)
S= β +1
S = 258 + 1
S = 259

43
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0. TEST AND RESULTS

4.1 Construction

The construction of this project was conducted in various phases and each phase was carried out

based on the analysis of the design outline. The construction layout was implemented in the

following phases:

 Layout Design

 Assembly and Placement of Components

 Soldering

 Software Design and Algorithm.

4.1.1 Layout Design

The first thing that was considered during the planning of the layout design of the project was to

ensure that the project is as portable as possible. Before beginning the layouts design all the

required components to be used were purchased in order to make adequate assessment of space to

be used on the Vero board. Other considerations that were made including case to case of mounted

components over the Vero board or assess part of the present components. The entire components

needed for the projects were assembled part by part before the design layout of the project was

made.

It was necessary for some of the components to be arranged in different angular positions so that

the terminals would be as close as possible to ensure effective connections of the components. The

scale was checked by positioning the components on the squared paper or a sample board. All

common earths and common live/positive terminals where laid to a closely located position in order

to enable easy access to the board. This is very important especially when conducting testing

operations on the board. The layout design of the project was based on arranging and organizing the

44
board for this project in order to ensure space management, proper and regular component

placement.

4.1.2 Assembly and Placement of Components

The various components were arranged on the board based on the design layout. Having carried out

the layout and determined the way in which the various components are placed on the board. Then

the components were carefully placed on the board according to the design. The assembly and

placement of components was achieved by gradually placing the components on the Vero board.

4.1.3 Soldering

The soldering of the components on the Vero board involved mechanically attaching the various

components onto the board. It refers to the method by which various electrical components are

mechanically held together on the board to form an electrical circuit. The soldering process was

carried out using various soldering tools which include:

 60watt Soldering Iron

 Soldering Lead

 Cleanser

 Lead Sucker

 File

 Cleaning brush

 Cleaning rag.

The precautions observed during the soldering process include the following:

 The Soldering iron was kept clean throughout the soldering operation

 It was ensured that the soldering iron was left to assume optional temperature before putting

it into use.

45
  Shortest possible contact period was maintained on the component of the soldering iron to

avoid thermal damages of the associated component.

 Too much lead was avoided on the board as this can lead to short circuit of various points.

 Too small lead was avoided to avoid loose joint or dry joints.

4.1.4 Software Design and Algorithm

The software used for this project was designed to intelligently control the switching of the various

components that are interconnected to the microcontroller to perform the ON and OFF. The

programming language used to write the program of this project is Assembly language.

The software program for the project was written and compiled on Kiel U VERSION software

which allows compilation of 8051based codes. The hex code generated for the program was then

downloaded into an 8051 chip

4.2 Tests

The project was tested in various phases and these tests were carried out to ensure proper operation

of the constructed work. The Testing conducted for this project includes:

 Continuity test

 Power supply test.

 Microcontroller oscillation test.

 Software simulation test

 Output display test.

4.2.1 Continuity Test

The continuity test was conducted in order to ensure that the constructed project is in total

compliance with the stipulated design. The continuity test was conducted by sampling the various

positions of the circuit diagram using the test leads of the multi- meter with the range meter of the

multi-meter placed in continuity test mode. The continuity test was also carried out to ensure that
46
there was no short circuit (bridge in the Line or cables) or open circuit (Cut cable or line) in the

circuit. It ensures a continuous electrical conductivity throughout the circuit.

4.2.2 Power Supply Test

The purpose of the power supply test was to ensure that the various voltage levels required at

various points in the circuit were readily available. The supply voltages required for the project

include the SV which is supplied to the microcontroller and the CMOS 4050. The other supply

voltages include the 12VDC source that serve as input and the 220VAC output used to power the

connected load. The power supply test was conducted by placing the multi-meter test leads at

various testing points and the range switch positioned at the correct voltmeter range. The power

supply was also analyzed with an oscilloscope.

4.2.3 Microcontroller Oscillation Test

The microcontroller machine cycle depends on the external oscillator connected between pins 18

and 19 in order to function effectively. The test of the external oscillation of the microcontroller

gives an analysis whether or not the microcontroller is functioning as required. The test was

conducted by placing the negative terminal of the test probe of the multi-meter on the two crystal

oscillator pins to ensure that it is oscillating when the multi-meter is set to voltage measurement.

The oscillator unit was analyzed using the oscilloscope.

4.2.4 Software Simulation Test

The software simulation test involves designing the circuit of the project on a computer Sand

conducting simulations of the designed circuit. The simulation was carried out to observe how the

circuit operation will look like in reality using a given software program. The software used for the

simulation test of the project is the Proteus 7.4 which allows both the simulation of the software

code on the microcontroller chip.

47
4.2.5 Output Display Test

The output display used in the design of this project is the LCD and the buzzer. The operation of the

LCD was tested by using the oscilloscope to investigate the behaviors of the Enable pin (pin 6), the

Register Select pin (pin 4) and the Read Write pin (pin 5) of the LCD display. The behavior of the

output of these pins from the microcontroller tells the status of the LCD display.

4.3 Continuity Test

During the continuity test some regulators were discovered ie, dry joint, open circuit but at the end,

adjustments were made on the constructed work, the circuit was in compliance and agreement with

the design.

4.3.1 Power Supply Test

The following results were obtained at the output of the power supply

 Input power voltage = 12VDC

 Regulator (LM 7805) output = 12VDC

 5V regulator output = 5.08VDC

 Microcontroller supply Voltage = 5.08VDC

 CMOS 12VDC

The output wave form of the power supply can be illustrated as show below.

4.3.2 Microcontroller Oscillation Test

The results obtained from the microcontroller external oscillations test are as follows.

Voltage between ground and 1 ^ (st) oscillator pin (pin 19) =2. IV

Voltage between ground the second oscillator pin (pin * 18) = 2.1V

The output waveform of the oscilloscope is illustrated below.

48
49
4.3.3 Software Simulation Test

Since the software simulation was conducted on a computer, the test results were observed by

examining the output from the simulation on the computer system. The output illustrates the

behavior of the circuit upon the application of required input Voltage.

4.3.4 Output Display Test

The result from this test is the display of the output of the Inverter on the LCD display which gives

a visual display. It gives the value of the Voltage, the battery status, the state of operation and the

mode of operation.

4.4 Casing

The casing refers to the external housing of the project. The casing used for this project is a white

metallic casing. The casing was able to comfortably accommodate the entire project and proper

ventilation was provided for the casing by bored holes.

4.5 Cost Analysis

The cost implication of the project can be summarized by the bill of engineering measurement and

Evaluation (BEME) shown in the table below.

50
BILLING OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

S/NO COMPONENT QTY UNIT PRICE TOTAL (N)

(100) (N)

1. RESISTOR 8 20 160

2. DIODE 4 25 100

3. SWITCH 1 400 400

4. REGULATOR 1 450 450

5. BUZZER 1 1000 1000

6. IC SOCKET 2 200 400

7. LCD 1 1800 1800

8. CRYSTAL OSCILATOR 1 800 800

9. TRANSFORMER 1 400 400

10. CAPACITOR 5 70 350

11. CASING 1 4000 4000

12. VERO BOARD 1 200 200

13. BREAD BOARD 1 700 700

14. SOLDERING 1 (ROLL) 1500 1500

15. LEAD SOLDERING IRON 1 700 700

16. LEAD SUCKER 1 450 450

17. FINGER PRINT SENSOR 1 12000 12000

GRAND 25,110

TOTAL

51
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Discussion

The project construction was executed in multiple phases, including layout design, component

assembly, soldering, and software development. The layout design focused on maximizing

portability and efficient use of space on the Vero board, with careful arrangement of components to

facilitate easy connections and testing. Assembly involved placing components according to the

design and soldering them using various tools, ensuring no thermal damage or loose joints.

Testing confirmed the project's functionality through several phases: continuity tests ensured no

circuit faults, power supply tests verified correct voltage levels, and microcontroller oscillation tests

showed proper operation. Software simulation tests demonstrated that the code performed as

expected, and output display tests confirmed that the LCD and buzzer provided accurate

information on operational parameters.

Initial continuity tests identified issues like dry joints and open circuits, but these were resolved to

meet design specifications. Power supply tests showed stable voltages, while microcontroller

oscillation tests indicated correct functioning. The software simulation and output display tests

validated that the project operated correctly, displaying relevant data accurately.

The project was housed in a white metallic casing with proper ventilation, ensuring component

safety and functionality. The total cost of the project was 25,110 Naira, covering various

components and materials. The detailed cost analysis provides a clear overview of expenses,

reflecting a well-executed project within budget and demonstrating its successful construction and

operation.

5.2 Conclusion

At the completion of this project, it could be said here that despite the stress and difficulties

encountered in the research and construction work, the project work has been a success. The Gas

Leakage Detector with LCD display was tested in different modes and the performance had been
52
satisfactory. The flexibility of micro controller used in the design and construction has facilitated

uniformity and excellent performance.

5.3 Recommendation

Despite the excellent performance of the gas leakage detector with LCD display using micro

controller PIC 16F84A constructed tested and presenting in this report, further improvement is

recommended. Different programming alternatives and modification can be adopted for variety of

performance.

53
 REFERENCES

Theraja B.L and A.K (1995) A Text Book of Electrical Technology, 2 nd Edition, Published

by Publication Division of Nrja Construction Company CP/LTD PP 1457-1468 New

Delhi India.

Allel C.L Atwood K.W (John Authur II) (1973) Electronic Engineering Third Edition, John

Willy and Sons Inc. New York USA.

Moris J.C (1989) Electronics, Practical Application and Design, Pub Edward Arnold, PP

130. ISO/IEC17025, General Requirements for the Competence of Testing and

Calibration Laboratories; International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2000.

Anderson R..J and G.L Harris (1997), Specification and Tolerances for Field Standard

Stopwatches” Natl, Inst. Stand. Technol, Handbook 105-5, October 1997.

Michael R. (1975); Electronic Clocks and Watches; Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams Co.

Alexander, C and Sadiko, N. (2000). Fundamentals of Electronic Circuits. The Megrew-Hill

Companies, INC; New York

Cohen, Fred (1988) World War 3 … Information Warfare Basis, Journal of Security.

54