Lecture Presentation Solutions

• Solutions are defined

as homogeneous
Chapter 4 mixtures of two or more
pure substances.
Reactions in • The solvent is present
Aqueous Solution in greatest abundance.
• All other substances are
solutes.

Aqueous
Reactions
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Dissociation Dissociation

• When an ionic • An electrolyte is a

substance dissolves substances that
in water, the solvent dissociates into ions
pulls the individual when dissolved in
ions from the crystal water.
and solvates them.
• This process is
called dissociation.
Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Solutions Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

• An electrolyte is a
substance that
dissociates into ions
when dissolved in water.
• A nonelectrolyte may Soluble ionic
dissolve in water, but it compounds tend
does not dissociate into to be electrolytes.
ions when it does so.

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes Electrolytes

Molecular
compounds tend
to be • A strong electrolyte dissociates completely
nonelectrolytes, when dissolved in water.
except for acids • A weak electrolyte only dissociates partially
and bases. when dissolved in water.
Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Strong Electrolytes Are… 5.1 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions
• Strong acids
• Strong electrolyte is completely ionized in water.
• Strong bases
Good electrical conduction.

• Weak electrolyte only partially ionizes in water.

– Fair conductor of electricity.

• Non-electrolyte does not dissociate in water.

– Poor conductor of electricity.
Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
Copyright © 2011 General Chemistry:
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Strong Electrolytes Are…

• Strong acids
• Strong bases
• Soluble ionic salts

No light Bright light Dim light

Nonelectrolyte Strong electrolyte Weak electrolyte
(Not ionized) (completely ionized) (not completely
Aqueous No electrical Good electrical ionized) Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. conduction. conduction. Weak electrical
conduction
  Essentially all soluble ionic compounds and only relatively
few molecular compounds are strong electrolytes.

 Most molecular compounds are either nonelectrolytes or weak

electrolytes.

Example of A strong electrolyte (Magnesium Chloride)

Reaction goes to completion (non-reversible)
MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
Example of A weak electrolyte (Acetic Acid)
Reaction does not go to completion (reversible)
CH3COOH(aq) →CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
←
FIGURE 5-2
Example of A non-electrolyte (Methanol)
Conduction of electricity through a solution Aqueous
Copyright © 2011
Reactions
General Chemistry:
CH3OH(aq)
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Precipitation Reactions 5-2 Precipitation Reactions

Soluble ions can combine to form an
insoluble compound.
When one mixes ions
that form compounds When this happens precipitation occurs.
that are insoluble (as
could be predicted by This could be used to our advantage in the lab
and in industry (example: A test for the
the solubility
presence of chloride ion in water)
guidelines), a
precipitate is formed.
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
Figure 5-6
Aqueous •Qualitative test for Cl- in tap water Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
Copyright © 2011 Slide 16 of 43
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 Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions
• Metathesis comes from a Greek word that • Metathesis comes from a Greek word that
means “to transpose.” means “to transpose.”
• It appears as though the ions in the reactant
compounds exchange, or transpose, ions:

AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq) AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Solution Chemistry Molecular Equation

• It is helpful to pay attention to exactly The molecular equation lists the reactants
what species are present in a reaction and products in their molecular form:
mixture (i.e., solid, liquid, gas, aqueous
solution).
• If we are to understand reactivity, we
must be aware of just what is changing AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
during the course of a reaction.
Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Ionic Equation Net Ionic Equation
• In the ionic equation all strong electrolytes (strong • To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything
acids, strong bases, and soluble ionic salts) are that does not change from the left side of the
dissociated into their ions. equation to the right:
• This more accurately reflects the species that are
found in the reaction mixture:

Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) 

AgCl(s) + K+(aq) + NO3−(aq)
Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) 
Aqueous AgCl(s) + K+(aq) + NO3−(aq) Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Net Ionic Equation Net Ionic Equation

• To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything • To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything
that does not change from the left side of the that does not change from the left side of the
equation to the right. equation to the right.
• The only things left in the equation are those things • The only things left in the equation are those things
that change (i.e., react) during the course of the that change (i.e., react) during the course of the
reaction: reaction.
• Those things that didn’t change (and were deleted
from the net ionic equation) are called spectator
ions:
Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq)  AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) 
Aqueous AgCl(s) + K+(aq) + NO3−(aq) Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Net Ionic Equations Writing Net Ionic Equations
“whole formula form” (Note that they are all strong
electrolytes): 1. Write a balanced molecular equation.
AgNO (aq) +NaI(aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO (aq)
3 3
2. Dissociate all strong electrolytes.
ionic form: Spectator ions
3. Cross out anything that remains
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3- unchanged from the left side to the
(aq) right side of the equation.
Net ionic equation (only include the actual participants): 4. Write the net ionic equation with the
Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s) species that remain.

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
General Chemistry: Chapter 5 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Acids Acids

There are only seven

• The Swedish physicist and strong acids:
chemist S. A. Arrhenius
• Hydrochloric (HCl)
defined acids as substances
that increase the • Hydrobromic (HBr)
concentration of H+ when • Hydroiodic (HI)
dissolved in water. • Nitric (HNO3)
• Both the Danish chemist J. • Sulfuric (H2SO4)
N. Brønsted and the British • Chloric (HClO3)
chemist T. M. Lowry defined
• Perchloric (HClO4)
them as proton donors.
Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Bases Bases
• Arrhenius defined bases The strong bases are
as substances that the soluble metal salts
increase the of hydroxide ion:
concentration of OH− • Alkali metals
when dissolved in water. • Calcium
• Brønsted and Lowry • Strontium
defined them as proton • Barium
acceptors.

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Acid-Base Reactions Neutralization Reactions

Generally, when solutions of an acid and a base are
combined, the products are a salt and water:
In an acid–base reaction, the acid
donates a proton (H+) to the base.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Neutralization Reactions Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net
ionic equation is ionic equation is

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH−(aq) 

Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + H2O(l)

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Neutralization Reactions Gas-Forming Reactions

When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net
ionic equation is
• Some metathesis reactions do not give the
product expected.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• In this reaction, the expected product
(H2CO3) decomposes to give a gaseous
H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)  product (CO2):
Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) + H2O(l) CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

H+(aq) + OH−(aq)  H2O(l)

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Gas-Forming Reactions Gas-Forming Reactions

When a carbonate or bicarbonate reacts with Similarly, when a sulfite reacts with an acid,
an acid, the products are a salt, carbon the products are a salt, sulfur dioxide, and
dioxide, and water: water:

CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) SrSO3(s) + 2HI(aq) SrI2(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
NaHCO3(aq) + HBr(aq) NaBr(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Gas-Forming Reactions

• This reaction gives the predicted product, but

you had better carry it out in the hood, or you
will be very unpopular!
• But just as in the previous examples, a gas is
formed as a product of this reaction:

Na2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions:
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Some General Principles

• Hematite is converted to iron in a blast furnace.


Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(l) + 3 CO2(g)

Oxidation and reduction always occur together.

Fe3+ is reduced to metallic iron.
• An oxidation occurs when an atom or ion loses electrons.
• A reduction occurs when an atom or ion gains electrons. CO(g) is oxidized to carbon dioxide.
• One cannot occur without the other.
Aqueous
Reactions Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada
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Oxidation Numbers Oxidation and Reduction

• Oxidation
– O.S. of some element increases in the reaction.
To determine if an oxidation–reduction
– Electrons are on the right of the equation
reaction has occurred, we assign an
oxidation number to each element in a
neutral compound or charged entity. • Reduction
– O.S. of some element decreases in the reaction.
– Electrons are on the left of the equation.

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
Copyright © 2011 General Chemistry:
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Oxidation State Changes Oxidation Numbers

• Assign oxidation states:

3+ 2- 2+ 2- 0 4+ 2-
• Elements in their elemental form have

Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(l) + 3 CO2(g) an oxidation number of 0.

Fe3+ is reduced to metallic iron. • The oxidation number of a monatomic

ion is the same as its charge.
CO(g) is oxidized to carbon dioxide.

Aqueous
Reactions
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Oxidation Numbers Oxidation Numbers

• Nonmetals tend to have negative
• Nonmetals tend to have negative
oxidation numbers, although some are
oxidation numbers, although some are
positive in certain compounds or ions.
positive in certain compounds or ions.

– Fluorine always has an oxidation number

– Oxygen has an oxidation number of −2,
of −1.
except in the peroxide ion, in which it has
an oxidation number of −1.
– The other halogens have an oxidation
number of −1 when they are negative; they
– Hydrogen is −1 when bonded to a metal,
can have positive oxidation numbers,
+1 when bonded to a nonmetal. Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions however, most notably in oxyanions. Reactions
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 Oxidation Numbers Displacement Reactions
• In displacement reactions, ions oxidize an element.
• The ions, then, are reduced.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a
neutral compound is 0.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a
polyatomic ion is the charge on the ion.

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Displacement Reactions Displacement Reactions

The reverse reaction,

In this reaction,
however, does not
silver ions oxidize
occur:
copper metal:
x Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) 
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Oxidation and Reduction Half-Reactions

• The reaction represented by two half-reactions.

Oxidation: Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-

Reduction: Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- → Cu(s)

Overall: Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Figure 5-12
•An oxidation-reduction reaction

Oxidation and Reduction Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations

• Oxidation
– O.S. of some element increases in the reaction. • Few can be balanced by inspection.
– Electrons are on the right of the equation
• Systematic approach required.

• Reduction
– O.S. of some element decreases in the reaction.
– Electrons are on the left of the equation.
Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations The Half-Equation Method
• Write and balance separate half-equations
for oxidation and reduction.
• Few can be balanced by inspection.
• Systematic approach required.
• Adjust coefficients in the two half-equations
so that the same number of electrons appear
in each half-equation.

• Add together the two half-equations

(canceling out electrons) to obtain the
balanced overall equation
 Molarity
• Two solutions can contain the same
compounds but be quite different because the
proportions of those compounds are different.

• Molarity is one way to measure the

concentration of a solution:

moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters
Aqueous
Reactions
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Mixing a Solution Dilution

• One can also dilute a more concentrated
• To create a solution of a solution by
known molarity, one – Using a pipet to deliver a volume of the solution to a
weighs out a known mass new volumetric flask, and
(and, therefore, number of – Adding solvent to the line on the neck of the new flask.
moles) of the solute.

• The solute is added to a

volumetric flask, and
solvent is added to the line
on the neck of the flask.
Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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 Dilution
The molarity of the new solution can be determined
from the equation
Mc  Vc = Md  Vd,
where Mc and Md are the molarity of the concentrated
and dilute solutions, respectively, and Vc and Vd are
the volumes of the two solutions.

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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Using Molarities in Titration

Stoichiometric Calculations

Titration is an
analytical
technique in
which one can
calculate the
concentration
of a solute in
a solution.

Aqueous Aqueous
Reactions Reactions
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