Theorem (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT))

Let f (x) be continuous on the interval [a, b] with f (a) = A and

f (b) = B.

Given any value C between A and B, there is at least one point

c 2 [a, b] with f (c) = C .

Important special case of the IVT:

Suppose that f (x) is continuous on the interval [a, b] with
f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0.
Then there is a point c 2 [a, b] where f (c) = 0.
Geometric View of the Derivative
Recall, the slope of a line is
rise y y2 y1 change in y
m= = = =
run x x2 x1 change in x

Definition (Tangent Line)

A tangent line is a line that (in general)
1. touches the graph at one point (near that point) and
2. has a slope equal to the slope of the curve.
If the curve is a line segment, the tangent line coincides with the
segment.
Slope of a curve at x = a equals mtan = slope of tangent line.
Definition (Derivative — geometric)
The derivative of a function f (x) at x = a, denoted f 0 (a)
(pronounced ”f prime of a”), is the slope of the curve y = f (x) at
x = a.

f 0 (a) = the derivative of f(x) at a

= mtan , the slope of the tangent line.
Algebraic View of the Derivative

Let us determine the slope of the curve at x = a.

Let h = tiny positive number (e.g. 0.0001)
msec = slope of the secant line shown above
y f (a + h) f (a)
= =
x h
mtan = lim msec
h!0

Definition (Derivative — algebraic)

f (a + h) f (a) f (x) f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim = lim
h!0 h x!a x a
 Important Derivatives

f (x) f 0 (x)
c 0 (c any real constant)
x 1
xn n xn 1 (n any real constant)
ex ex
bx (ln b) b x (b any positive constant)
1
ln x
x
1 1
logb x (b any positive constant)
ln b x
sin x cos x
cos x sin x
tan x sec2 x
sec x sec x tan x
1
arcsin x p
1 x2
1
arctan x
1 + x2
 Important Rules
Sum and Di↵erence Rule
d d d
f (x) ± g (x) = f (x) ± g (x)
dx dx dx
Constant Factor Rule
d d
c · f (x) = c f (x) (c a constant)
dx dx
Product Rule
d d d
f (x) · g (x) = f (x) · g (x) + f (x) · g (x)
dx dx dx
Quotient Rule
✓ ◆ d d
d f (x) f (x) · g (x) f (x) · g (x)
= dx dx
dx g (x) g (x)2
Chain Rule
d
f (g (x)) = f 0 (g (x)) · g 0 (x)
dx
Inverse Function Rule
d 1
f 1 (x) = 0
dx f (f 1 (x))
Example: Find the derivatives.
d x2 2 2
a) 2 = (ln 2)2x · 2x =2(ln 2)x 2x
dx
d x 1
b) e arcsin(x 2 ) = e x arcsin(x 2 ) + e x · p · 2x
dx 1 (x 2 )2
✓ ◆
2 2x
= arcsin(x ) + p ex
1 x 4

c) tan3 (1 x 2 )= 3 tan2 (1 x 2 ) · sec2 (1 x 2 )( 2x)

2
= 6x tan(1 x 2 ) sec(1 x 2)
1
arctan x 1+x 2
(1 + ln x) arctan(x) x1
d) =
1 + ln x (1 + ln x)2
1 arctan x
=
(1 + x 2 )(1 + ln x) x(1 + ln x)2
 dy
Example: Use logarithmic di↵erentiation to find dx for
y = x x (x 2 + 1)5/2 .
Solution:
ln y = ln(x x ) + ln((x 2 + 1)5/2 )
5
ln y = x ln x + ln(x 2 + 1)
2
d d d 5
ln y = (x ln x) + ( ln(x 2 + 1))
dx dx dx 2
1 dy 1 5 1
· = (1 · ln x + x · ) + · 2x)
y dx x 2 x2 + 1

dy x 2 5/2 5x
= x (x + 1) 1 + ln x + 2
dx x +1
Example: Find the tangent line to the curve x 2 y 3 = y 2 + 3 at
(2, 1).
Solution:
d 2 3 d
(x y ) = (y 2 + 3)
dx dx
2xy + x · 3y 2 · y 0 = 2y · y 0
3 2

(3x 2 y 2 2y ) · y 0 = 2xy 3
2xy 3 2xy 2
y0 = 2 2 =
3x y 2y 3x 2 y 2
2 · 2 · 12 4 2
y0 = 2
= =
(2,1) 3·2 ·1 2 10 5
Tangent line:
y = m(x x0 ) + y0
2 2 9
y= (x 2) + 1 = x+
5 5 5
Example: Recall that in baseball the home plate and the three
bases form a square of side length 90 ft. A batter hits the ball and
runs to the first base at 24 ft/sec. At what rate is his distance
from the 2nd base decreasing when he is halfway to the first base.
Solution:
Let x distance between player and first base.
Let y distance between player and 2nd base.
dy 90
Given dx
dt = 24 ft/sec. Find dt when x = 2 = 45 ft.
y 2 = x 2 + 902
d 2 d
(y ) = (x 2 + 902 )
dt dt
dy dx
2y · = 2x ·
dt dt
dy x dx
= ·
dt y dt p p p
x = 45, y = x 2 + 902 = 452 + 902 = 45 5
dy 45 24
Thus = p · ( 24) = p ft/sec.
dt 45 5 5
Example: Grain flows into a conical pile such that the height
increases 2 ft/min while the radius increases 3 ft/min. At what
rate is the volume increasing when the pile is 2 feet high and has a
radius of 4 feet.
Solution:
Volume of the cone: V = 13 ⇡r 2 h
dh
dt = 2 ft/min when h = 2
dr
dt = 3 ft/min when r = 4
✓ ◆ 
dV d 1 2 1 dr dh
= ⇡r h = ⇡ 2r · · h + r2 ·
dt dt 3 3 dt dt
Evaluating at h = 2 and r = 4 gives:
dV 1 ⇥ ⇤ 1
= ⇡ 2 · 4 · 3 · 2 + 42 · 2 = ⇡ [48 + 82]
dt 3 3
80⇡ 3
= ft /sec.
3
Example: Does the function f (x) = 2x 3 sin(x 1) has a zero?
Solution:
We have:
f ( 2) = 2( 2)3 sin( 3)  16 + 1 = 15 < 0
f (2) = 2 · 23 sin(1) 16 1 = 15 > 0
Since f (x) is a continuous function, it has by the intermediate
value theorem a zero on the interval [ 2, 2].