CEDC0210

Soil Mechanics

Part # 1

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 1 26 January 2025

 CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 3104

❖ Section 1 : Definition of soil and soil mechanics common soil problem in Civil Engineering field.
Principal types of soils. Important properties of very fine soil i.e. adsorbed water, base exchange and
soil structure. Characteristics of main clay mineral groups. Basic definitions in soil mechanics. Weight
volume relationship physical properties of soils. Determination of Index properties, classification of
coarse-grained soils and fine-grained soils.

❖ Section 2 : Concept of effective stress principle. Seepage pressure, critical hydraulic gradient and
quick-sand condition, Phreatic Line. Capillary phenomenon in soil. Darcy’s law and its validity seepage
velocity. Co-efficient of permeability and its determination average permeability of striated soil mass
Factors affecting ‘K’ and brief discussion

❖ Section 3: Definition and object of compaction and concept of O.M.C. and zero Air Void Line. Modified
proctor test. Factors affecting compaction. Effect of compaction on soil properties and their discussion.
Field compaction methods their comparison of performance and relative suitability. Field comp active
effort. Field control of compaction by proctor needle.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 2 26 January 2025

 CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 3104
❖ Section 4: Definition and object of consolidation difference between compaction and consolidation.
Concept of various consolidation characteristics i.e. av, mv and Cv primary and secondary
consolidation. Terzaghi’s method for one-dimensional consolidation. Consolidation test. Determination
of Cv from curve fitting methods. Normally consolidated and over consolidated clays importance of
consolidation settlement in the design of structures.

❖ Section 5: Boussinesq’s equation for a point load, uniformly loaded circular and rectangular area,
pressure distribution diagrams. New marks chart and its construction. Two- to – one method of load
distribution. Comparison of Boussinesq and Westergaard analysis for a point load. Limitations of elastic
formula.

❖ Section 6: Stress analysis of a two - dimensional stress system by Mohr circle. Concept of
pole.Coulomb’s law of shear strength Coulomb - Mohr strength theory. Relations between principle
stresses at failure Shear strength tests. Derivation of Skempton’s pore pressure parameters. Stress strain
and volume change characteristics of sands. Stress Strain characteristics of clays and sands, Stress
Paths.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 3 26 January 2025

 Course Outcomes (CO)
❑ CO1: Understand the basic concepts of soil mechanics and their practical applications.

❑ CO2: Apply the principles of soil mechanics to analyze and solve problems related to soil
behavior
❑ CO3: Analyze and evaluate soil mechanics problems using appropriate mathematical and
scientific techniques.

❑ CO4: Synthesize solutions to complex soil mechanics problems using critical thinking and
creativity.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 4 26 January 2025

 Marks Assessment
Mid Exam Internal Marks End Exam
30 20 50

Quiz 10 M
Presentation 05 M Class
performance 05 M

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 5 26 January 2025

 Civil Engineering

➢ Structural engineering

➢ Geotechnical engineering

➢ Transportation Engineering

➢ Water resource Engineering

➢ Environmental Engineering

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 6 26 January 2025

Geotechnical Engineering is a division of civil engineering concerned with the engineering
behavior of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering is a science that explains mechanics of
soil and rock. It focused on the analysis, design, and construction of foundations, slopes,
retaining structures, embankments, roadways, tunnels, levees, wharves, landfills and other
systems that are made of or are supported by soil or rock.

Soil Mechanics: Describes the behavior of soils and determine the relevant physical/mechanical
and chemical properties of these soils; soil mechanics provides the theoretical basis for analysis
in geotechnical engineering.

Foundation Engineering: is the aspect of engineering concerned with the evaluation of the
ability of the earth to support load, and the design of a substructure to transmit the load of the
superstructure to the earth.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 7 26 January 2025

 Why do you need to learn about soils?
➢ Almost all structures are either constructed of soil, supported on soil, or both.

➢ Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:

1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments

2. Construction Material
3. Slopes and Landslides
4. Earth Retaining Structures
5. Special Problems

Civil engineers (structural, environmental and geotechnical) must understand the soil
properties to use them effectively in construction.

Soil is very heterogeneous material

FOS: Factor of safety

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 8 26 January 2025

 Why Geotechnical Engineering required?

Lecture notes CE632, IIT Bombay

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Ground Heaving (Wadala-Sewri Link Road)

Leaning twin silos caused by non uniform settlement

in zone of overlapping pressure bulbs

Malin Landslide (30th July 2014)

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 10 26 January 2025

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
 Lecture notes CE632, IIT Bombay
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 14 26 January 2025
 Liquefaction

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 15 26 January 2025

 FESEM images of sand at different
magnification scale

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 SEM images of the clay at
different magnification scale

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Soil: is natural mineral particles that can be separated into relatively small pieces and
may contain water, air, or organic materials (derived from the decay of vegetation).

Rock: is a natural material comprised of mineral particles so firmly bonded together

that relatively high effort is required to separate the particles (i.e., blasting or heavy
crushing forces).

The Origin of Soils

❑ In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. Rocks can be divided into three basic
types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 18 26 January 2025

 Soil definition

❑ The term soil according to engineering point of view is defined as the material, by means
of which and upon which engineers build their structures.
❑ The term soil includes entire thickness of the earth's crust (from ground surface to bed
rock), which is accessible and feasible for practical utilization as foundation support or
construction material.
❑ It is composed of loosely bound mineral particles of various sizes and shapes formed due
to weathering of rocks.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 19 26 January 2025

 Soil Formation and Types
Soils are classified based on the geological origin of their constituent sediments in to 3 main
groups

3 Main Groups

Physical or Chemical
mechanical weathering of
Organic
weathering of parent rock
parent rock

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 20 26 January 2025

 Physical or mechanical weathering of parent rock
➢ Making little pieces out of big ones
➢ Composition of original rocks does not change
➢ Result: lithic fragments

✓ Because of impact and grinding, action of flowing water, ice and wind
✓ Retain minerals present in parent rock and these are coarse grained

e.g. Sand and Gravel

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 21 26 January 2025

 Boulder deposits
❖ Rivers flowing in highly terrains and near foot-hills carry large boulders
downstream
❖ These deposits can be found in the sub-himalayan regions and Uttarakhand
❖ The properties of these deposits depends on the relative proportions of the
boulders and soil matrix

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 22 26 January 2025

❑ Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical
processes into smaller pieces. The products of weathering may stay in the same
place or may be moved to other places by ice, water, wind, and gravity.

❑ Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks

from the continuous gain and loss of heat. The processes that cause physical
weathering are:
• Freezing and thawing
• Temperature changes
• Erosion (Abrasion)
• Activity of plants and animals including man
❑ For example, water seeps into the pores and existing cracks in rocks. As the
temperature drops, the water freezes and expands. The pressure exerted by ice
because of volume expansion is strong enough to break down even large rocks.
❑ Other physical agents: glacier ice, the wind, running water of streams and rivers,
and ocean waves.
❑ Its properties are the same as parent rock

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 23 26 January 2025

 Chemical weathering of parent rock

❖ Original minerals chemically break down

❖ Result: formation of new minerals stable at Earth-surface conditions
❖ Because of oxidation, hydration, carbonation and leaching by organics,
acids and water
❖ Chemical weathering causes decomposition of rocks and are fine grained
e.g. clays and fine silts

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 24 26 January 2025

❑ Chemical weathering, the original rock minerals are
transformed into new minerals by chemical reaction.
❑ Oxidation – union of oxygen with minerals in rocks
forming another mineral.
❑ Hydration – water will enter the crystalline structure of
minerals forming another group of minerals.
❑ Carbonation – when CO2 is available with the existence
of water the minerals changed to Carbonates.
❑ The chemical weathering of plagioclase feldspars
produces clay minerals, silica, and different soluble
salts.
❑ The physical property of this product does not reflect
the same properties of the parent rocks

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 25 26 January 2025

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 26 26 January 2025
 Oxidation (Chemical weathering)

Iron objects like, gates, fence, etc. rust on being exposed to moist air.

Iron + Oxygen = Ferric oxide (red coloured compound)

❑ Oxidation is a form of chemical weathering where the rocks rich in iron reacts with the
oxygen present in air and wither away.
❑ Iron rich rocks like hematite and magnetite are vulnerable to oxidation.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 27 26 January 2025

 Carbonation (Chemical weathering)
Rainwater + Carbon dioxide - Carbonic acid
Carbonic acid + Limestone = Calcium carbonate
❑ Carbonation is the process in which rainwater mixes with the atmospheric carbon dioxide
to form carbonic acid that withers away limestone rocks.
❑ Calcite in limestone is easily dissolved by carbonic acid present in rain water. This
ultimately leads to the formation of solution caves.
❑ Solution is the process in which when the soluble minerals in the rock get dissolved in
water and leads to the disintegration of rocks.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 28 26 January 2025

 Hydration (Chemical weathering)
❑ Feldspar is a common rock that expands in volume and forms clayey crystalline minerals
called kaolin on absorbing water.
❑ The process of weathering in which the rocks expand on absorbing water and transforms
into a loose clayey mass is known as hydration.
❑ Hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and
OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.
❑ When a rock's minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses
within the rock.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 29 26 January 2025

 Origin: Organic
➢ Organic soils contain organic matter that is rich in many nutrients
and minerals. Organic soil consists of decaying plant material,
microorganisms, worms, and many other things
➢ Extremely compressible and their use as foundation material should
be avoided
e.g. Peat

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 30 26 January 2025

 Depending on the method of deposition, soils can be grouped into two categories:

Parent rock

➢ Residual soils: The soils which ➢ Transported soils: The soils, which
remain at the place of disintegration carried away from their place of
of parent rock. disintegration to some other place by
➢ In situ weathering by physical and transporting agencies.
chemical agents of parent rock ➢ weathered and transported far away
by
Residual soils: the soils formed by the ➢ (a) Water
weathered products at their place of origin ➢ (b) wind
Sands: Residual sands and fragments of gravel ➢ (c) Gravity
size formed by solution and leaching of ➢ (d) Ice
cementing material, leaving the more resistant
particles; commonly quartz.
Clays: Residual clays formed by
decomposition of silicate rocks, the
disintegration of shales, and solution of
carbonates in limestone.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 31 26 January 2025

 Transported soils
[1] Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition
of glaciers.
Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all the
materials scoured by it leading to formation of glacial
deposits.

[2] Alluvial soils

❑ Transported by running water and deposited along streams.
❖ Covers large parts of northern India lying north of Indo-Gangetic and

Bramaputra flood plains

❖ Thickness of these soil deposits is sometimes over 100 m

❖ The alluvial deposits extend from Assam in the east to Punjab in the west

❖ Alternate layers are formed in different seasons depending on flow rate. The

deposits have alternative layers of sand, silt and clay.

❖ Liquefaction of could occur.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 32 26 January 2025
 Lacustrine soils Marine soils
Formed by deposition in quiet lakes formed by deposition in the seas.

Colluvial soils
Aeolian soils
formed by movement of soil from its original place
transported and deposited by the wind.
by gravity, such as during landslides

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 33 26 January 2025

 Aeolian soils
transported and deposited by the wind.
❖ Large parts of Rajasthan covering about 5 Lak sq. KM, consist of desert soil which
are wind blown, have an average height of about 15m
❖ They are formed under highly arid conditions
❖ Dune sand is non plastic uniformly graded, fine sand

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 34 26 January 2025

 Marine deposits
❖ If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are called marine deposits. Marine
deposits contain both particulate material brought from the shore as well as organic
remnants of marine life forms.
❖ Sofit soils and having High moisture content
❖ These deposits are found all along the coast in narrow tidal plains
❖ The marine clays are very soft and may contain organic matter
❖ It has low shear strength and high compressibility

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 35 26 January 2025

 Transported soils are named according to name of transportation
❖ Alluvial soils - running water

❖ Colluvial soil - gravitational force, as land slides

❖ Lacustrine soils - quiet lakes

❖ Marine soils - sea water

❖ Aeolin soils - wind

❖ Glacial soils - Glaciers

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Organic Soils
Accumulation of highly organic material formed in place by the growth and subsequent
decay of plant life.
Peat: A somewhat fibrous aggregate of decayed and decaying vegetation matter having a
dark color
Muck: Peat deposits which have advanced in the stage of decomposition to such extent that
the botanical character is no longer evident.
Very compressible, entirely unsuitable for supporting building foundations.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 37 26 January 2025

 Soil Problems in Civil Engineering

❑ The soil in civil engineering is used as a foundation material or construction material.

❑ The main purpose of the studying geotechnical engineering is to find the shear strength and
settlement of the soil.

Expansive Soils
➢ Expansive soils are distinguished by
their potential for great volume
increase upon access to moisture.
Soils exhibiting such behaviour are
mostly clays.
Collapsing Soils
➢ Collapsing soils are distinguished by
their potential to undergo a large
decrease in volume upon an increase
in moisture content even without an
increase in external loads.

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 38 26 January 2025

 Expansive soil /Black cotton soil
❖ This is the Indian name given to the expansive soil deposits in the central part
of the country
❖ They cover an area of about 3 Lak sq km
❖ Soils extend over Maharastra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and
Uttar Pradesh
❖ These soils are formed from basalt or trap and contain the clay mineral
montmorillonite

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 39 26 January 2025

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 40 26 January 2025
 Continental Drift Theory
❑ The theory that continents and plates move on the surface of the Earth was proposed by Alfred
Wegener in 1915.

Evidence for continental drift

❑ Matching coastlines
❑ Matching mountains
❑ Matching rock types and rock ages
❑ Matching glacier deposits
❑ Matching fossils
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 41 26 January 2025
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 42 26 January 2025
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 43 26 January 2025
 Soil-Water-Air Relationships
❑ To compute the masses (or weights) and volumes of the three different phases

Va Air Ma=0
Notation Vv
M = mass or weight Vw water Mw
V = volume Vt Mt
s = soil grains
w = water
Vs Soil
a = air Ms
v = voids
t = total

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 44 26 January 2025

 VM Air
aa Vv
= Vw
M water
0M
w V
t t
V M Soil
s s

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 45 26 January 2025

 Definitions
Water content (w) is a measure of the water present in the soil

MW
w= 100 Va air Ma=0
MS Vv
Vw water Mw
✓Expressed as percentage Mt
Vt
✓Range > 0
Vs soil Ms

Phase Diagram
Void ratio (e) is a measure of the void volume in the soil

VV
e= Va Ma=0
VS air
Vv
Vw water Mw
▪ Expressed as fraction or decimal Mt
Vt
▪ Value range can be > 0
soil
MW
w=
Vs MS
Ms
Porosity (n) is a measure of the void
volume in the soil
Phase Diagram
VV
n=  100
VT
▪ Expressed as percentage
▪ Theoretical range: 0 – 100%
 Degree of Saturation (S or Sr) is the percentage of void volume filled by water

VW
Sr =  100
VV
▪ Expressed as percentage
Va air Ma=0
▪ Theoretical range: 0 – 100%
Vv
Vw water
w=
M
W Mw
Mt
MS
VT
Dry Saturated
Vs soil Ms
Air content (ac) is the void volume filled by air

Va
ac = 100 ac = 1 − Sr
VV
Phase Diagram
▪ Expressed as percentage
▪ Theoretical range: 0 – 100%
Percentage Air voids (na) is the percentage of volume filled by the air
Va
na =  100
VT

▪ Expressed as percentage

Va air Ma=0
Vv w=
MW
MS
Vw water Mw
Mt
VT

Vs soil Ms

Phase Diagram
Bulk density (m) is the density of soil in the current state

MT Units:
m =
VT ▪ t/m3 or g/cc or kg/m3 or Mg/m3

Dry density (d) is the density Va air Ma=0

of the soil in dry state Vv w=
MW
MS
Vw water Mw
MS MT
d = VT
VT
Vs soil Ms

Units:
▪ t/m3 or g/cc or kg/m3 or Mg/m3 Phase Diagram
❑ Saturated density (sat) is the density of the soil when the voids are
filled with water
❑ Submerged density (’) is the effective density of the soil when it is
submerged
’ = sat - w
❖Bulk, saturated, dry and submerged unit weights () are defined in a
similar manner
Here, use weight (kN) instead of mass (kg)

 = g

N/m3 kg/m3 m/s2

 Mass Specific Gravity (Gm): It is defined as the ratio of its mass in air to the
mass of an equal volume of water at reference temperature, 4o C. The corresponding
gravity of a mass of soil (including air, water and solids) is termed as mass specific
gravity Gm
t  t
Gm = =
w  w

Specific gravity of solids (Gs): The specific gravity of solids (excluding air and
water) is expressed by
s  s
Gs = =
w  w
 ▪ Consider a fraction of the soil where Vs = 1
▪ The other volumes can be obtained from the previous definitions
▪ The masses can be obtained from
▪ Mass = Density x Volume Air
e
Se water Sew

1 soil G s w

volumes Masses
Phase Diagram

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 S =
Vw V
w=
ww s
e= v Gs =
Vv Vs ws w

Vw = SVv
VS = 1 e = Vv Vw = Se
Relation between e, w, Gs and S
Vv Vv Vw
e= = 
Vs Vw Vs
Vv Ww /  w
= 
Vw Ws /  s

=
1
S
 wGs eS = wGs

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 From the previous definitions
M W Se w Se
w= = =
M S GS  w GS Air
e
VV e Se water Sew
n = =
VT 1+ e
MT GS + Se
m = = W 1 soil
Gsw
VT 1+ e
MT GS + e volumes Masses
 sat = = W
VT 1+ e
Phase Diagram
MS GS
d = = W
VT 1+ e

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 55 26 January 2025

 Some useful relationships

Mw
Mass of solids M s=
w

VT Ms
Volume of solids V s= = Vs = 1
1+ e Gs  w

e
Porosity n=
1+ e

eS = wGs
 GS + Se  Gs (1 + w) w
Bulk density of soil  t=  w =
 1+ e  1+ e

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

  GS + e 
Saturated density  sat =  w S=1
 1+ e 

 GS   Gs  w 
Dry density  d=  w e=
  
 −1
1+ e   d 

 d=
(1 − na )Gs  w
Dry density 1 + wGs

 t 
Dry density  d=  
1+ w 

 GS − 1 
Submerged density  =
'
w
 1+ e 

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

Example: 1.5 cum of wet soil mass 3000 kg, dry weight of soil is 2700 kg. Specific
gravity of solids is 2.67. Determine the water content, porosity, void ratio, degree of
saturation, bulk and dry densities.

Mass of water Va Ma=0

air
M w = M T − M s = 300kg
Volume of solids Vw water 300
3000
Ms 2700 1.5 cum
V s= =
Gs  w 2.67  997
Vs soil
= 1.01 cum 2700

Mw 300
V w= = = 0.30 cum
w 997
Va = 1.5 - (1.01 + 0.30) = 0.19 cum

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Water content
MW 300
w=  100 =  100 = 11.1%
MS 2700

Porosity

VV 0.49 Or 0.326
n=  100 =  100 = 32.67
VT 1.5
Void ratio

Vv
e=  100 = 0.49  100 = 48.51% Or 0.48
Vs 1.01
Degree of saturation

Vw 0.3
S =  100 =  100 = 61.22% Or 0.61
Vv 0.49
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
 Bulk density

GS + Se 2.67 + (0.61 0.48)

m = W =  997 = 1995.88kg / m 3
1+ e 1 + 0.48
or
MT
m = =
3000
= 2000kg / m 3
VT 1.5
Dry density
 t  1995.88
 d=   = = 1798.09kg / m 3
1+ w  1 + 0.111
or
 GS   2.67 
 d=  
 w =    997 = 1805.37 kg / m
3

1+ e   1 + 0.48 

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Embankment volume relationships

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Relation between Ƴd, e, w
V2, e2,
ws, γd2,
V1, e1, w2
ws, γd1,
w1 Embankment

Borrow pits

V1 1 + e1  d 2
= =
V2 1 + e2  d 1

To raise water content from w1 to w2, an additional weight of water to be added is

=  d 1V1 w2 − w1  =  d 2V2 w2 − w1 

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
Example: A soil is to be excavated from borrow pit which has density of 1.75g/cc and
water content of 12%. The G is 2.7. The soil is compacted to that water content of
18% and dry density of 1.65 g/cc. For 1000 m3 of soil fill, estimate (a) quantity of soil
to be excavated from the pit, in m3 (b) amount of water to be added in tons.

γd2 = 1.65 g/cc

W2 = 18%
γ1 = 1.75 g/cc V2 = 1000 m3
W1 = 12%
V1 = ? Embankment

Barrow pits

 1.75 
Dry density  d 1=   = 1.56 g / cc
 1 + 0.12 
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
 Volume of soil need to be excavated form the borrow pit is

V1  d 2 V1 1.65
= = = 1057.6m 3

V2  d 1 1000 1.56
Additional water to be added in embankment is

=  d1V1w2 − w1 

= 1.56 1057.60.18 − 0.12 = 98.94t

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

Example: For construction an embankment the soil is transported from a barrow area
using a truck which can carry 6 m3 of soil at a time. The details are follows.

Property Borrow Truck Field

area (loose) (compacted)

Bulk density 1.66 1.15 1.82

(g/cc)
Water content (%) 8 6 14

Determine (a) quantity of soil to be excavated from the pit, in m3 (b) the number of
truckloads of soil required to obtain 100 m3 of compacted earth fill?

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 ρ2 = 1.15 g/cc
W2 = 6% ρ3 = 1.82 g/cc
V2 = N x 6? W3= 14%
V3 = 100 m3
ρ1 = 1.66 g/cc
W1 = 8% Embankment
Truck
V1 = ?

Barrow pits
Dry density
 1.66   1.15   1.82 
 d 1=   = 1.537 g / cc  d 2=   = 1.085 g / cc  d 3=   = 1.596 g / cc
 1 + 0.08   1 + 0.06   1 + 0.14 

Volume of soil need to be excavated form the borrow pit is

V1  d 3 V1 1.596
= = = 103.84m 3
V3  d 1 100 1.537
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
 No of trucks loads
V2  d 3 V2 1.596
= = = 147.1m 3
V3  d 2 100 1.085

V2 147.1
N= = = 24.51
Truckvolume 6
N= ~25 trucks loads required to fill the embankment

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

Example: An airport runway fill or embankment needs 600000 m3 of soil compacted
to a void ratio of 0.75. There are two borrow pits A and B from where the required soil
can be taken and transported to the site.
Borrow pit In situ void Cost per m3
ratio
A 0.6 10 Rs
B 2.3 5 Rs

Which of the two borrow pits would be more economical?

Volume of solids present in the finished embankment

V 600000
V S= = = 342857.14m 3
1 + e 1 + 0.75

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Determine the volume of soil required to be taken out from borrow pits A and B.

Borrow pit A;

V =V S (1 + e ) = 342857.14(1 + 0.6) = 548571.4m3

Borrow pit B; V =V S (1 + e ) = 342857.14(1 + 2.3) = 1131428.6m3

Total cost if borrow pit A is

used: =548571.4 × 10 = Rs., 54,85,714.0

Total cost if borrow pit B is

used:
=1131428.6 × 5 = Rs., 5657143.0

Hence, borrow “Pit A” is more

economical

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 (Q) Sampler with a volume of 45 cm3 is filled with a soil sample. When the soil is
poured into a graduated cylinder, it displaces 25cm3 of water. What is the porosity
and void ratio of the soil?

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 70 26 January 2025

 Clay Minerals
&
Specific surface

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 71 26 January 2025

 Clay minerals
❖ Clay minerals are majorly crystalline in nature, though some clay minerals do
contain material which is non-crystalline (ex: Allophane)
❖ Two fundamental building blocks are involved in the formation of clay mineral
structures
They are:
1) Tetrahedral unit or Silica sheet
2) Octahedral unit or Gibbsite sheet

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Tetrahedron or Silica sheet
Consists of 4 oxygen atoms (or hydroxyls) at apices or apex of tetrahedron enclosing
a silicon atom

Murthy, V. N. S., 2002

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
 Octahedron or Gibbsite sheet
❖ Consists of 6 hydroxlys ions at apices of octahedral enclosing a aluminum ion at
center
❖ If magnesium replaces aluminum atoms, it is called as Brucite sheet

Hydroxyls
Aluminums or
Magnesium or iron

Murthy, V. N. S., 2002

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
 Microstructure of different clay minerals

Hydrogen

(a) Kaolinite (b) Illite (c) Montmorillonite

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 75 26 January 2025

Kaolinite
❖ Kaolinite consists of repeating layers of elemental silica-gibbsite sheets in a 1:1
lattice
❖ Each layer thickness is about 7.2 A˚
❖ Silica and gibbsite sheets are bounded by Ionic bond and layers held by hydrogen
bond

Illite
❖ It consists of a one gibbsite sheet sandwiched between two silica sheets
❖ The thickness of Illite mineral is 10 A˚
❖ Illite layers are bonded by potassium ions

Montmorillonite
❖ It consists of a one gibbsite sheet sandwiched between two silica sheets
❖ Montmorillonite bonded by water molecules

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Attraction of water molecules on soil surfaces

1) The faces of clay particles carry a negative charge, there is attraction between
the negatively charged faces and the positive ends of water dipoles
2) The second mode of attraction between the water dipoles and the clay surface is
through cations
3) The third possible mode by which the attraction between water and the clay
surface occurs is by sharing of the hydrogen atom in the water molecules by
hydrogen bond.

Arora, K. R. 2004
CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics
 Diffused double layer

10A˚ ~400A˚
Murthy, V. N. S., (2002); Das, B . M. (2010)

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

❖ The cations attracted to clay mineral surface also try to move away from the
surface because of their thermal energy
❖ The net effect due to repulsion forces is that the forces of attraction decrease
exponentially with an increase in distance from the clay particles surface
❖ It is believed that immediately surrounding the particle, there is a thin, very
tightly held layer of water about 10A˚ thick
❖ Beyond held water thickness there is a second layer, in which water is easily
movable
❖ This second layer extends to the attraction limit, and this is known as diffuse
double layer

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 ❖ The force of attraction between water and clay decreases with distance from the
surface of the particles
❖ All the water held to clay particles by force of attraction is known as double-
layer water
❖ The innermost layer of double-layer water, which is held very strongly by clay, is
known as adsorbed water. This water is more viscous than free water

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
❖ The cations attracted to the negatively charged surface of the
soil particles which are not strongly attached
❖ These cations can be replaced by other ions, and these ion’s
are known as exchangeable ions
❖ The soil particle and the exchangeable ions make system
neutral
❖ The phenomenon of replacement of cation’s is called as cation
exchange or base exchange
❖ It’s a function of the mineral structure of the clay and the size
of the clay particles
❖ The net negative charge on the mineral which can be satisfied
by exchangeable cations is termed as cation-exchange or base-
exchange capacity

Li+ < Na+ < H+ < K+ < NH4+ < Mg2+ < Ca2+ < Al3+

https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=8fJojcqF978

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

❖ The cations are termed exchangeable because one cation can easily be exchanged
with one of the same valence or by two of the cations with one-half the valence of
the original cation
❖ In other words, cation-exchange capacity is expressed in terms of the total number
of positive charges absorbed per 100 gm of soil (meg/100g)
❖ Some cations are more strongly adsorbed than others. The adsorbed cations
commonly found in soils, arranged in a series interms of their affinity for attraction
❖ For example, Al3+ cations are strongly attracted than Ca2+ cations. Thus Al3+ ions
can replace Ca2+ ions, like wise Ca2+ ions can replace Na+ ions, etc.

Li+ < Na+ < H+ < K+ < NH4+ < Mg2+ < Ca2+ < Al3+

Mineral CEC (meg/100g)

Kaolinite 3-8
Illite 40
Montmorillonite 80

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Specific Surface
❖ Surface area divided by unit mass is defined as specific surface

❖ Sand: 0.01 m2/g

❖ Kaolinite: 10-25 m2/g

❖ Illite: 65-100 m2/g

❖ Montmorillonite: 800 m2/g

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics 83 26 January 2025

 Das, B . M. (2010)

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics

 Das, B . M. (2010)

CEDC0210 Soil Mechanics