Week 3

ICT INFRASTRUCTURE & SYSTEMS

Contents
1. Computer Hardware
2. Computer Software
3. Data Management
4. Computer Networking
5. AI & ML

1. Computer Hardware
Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer
system. These components work together to process information, store
data, and communicate with other devices.

Key Components of a Computer:

a) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 The "brain" of the computer, responsible for executing instructions and performing
calculations.
 Measured in gigahertz (GHz), indicating its processing speed.
 Types include CPUs from Intel and AMD.

b) Memory
 Stores data and instructions that the CPU is currently using.
 Types:

o Random Access Memory (RAM): Volatile memory that loses its data when the
computer is turned off.
o Read-Only Memory (ROM): Non-volatile memory that stores permanent data.

c) Storage Devices
a) Store data for long-term use.
b) Types:

o Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): Use magnetic disks to store data.

o Solid-State Drives (SSDs): Use flash memory to store data, offering faster
performance and lower power consumption.
o Optical Drives: Use lasers to read and write data on discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-
rays).
 c) Input Devices
 Allow users to enter data into the computer.
 Examples:

o Keyboard
o Mouse
o Scanner
o Webcam
o Microphone

d) Output Devices
 Display or present information from the computer.
 Examples:

o Monitor
o Printer
o Speakers
o Headphones

e) Motherboard
 The main circuit board that connects all the components of a computer.
 Contains sockets for the CPU, memory slots, expansion slots, and ports for connecting
peripherals.

Factors Affecting Computer Performance:

 Processor speed: The speed at which the CPU can execute instructions.
 Memory capacity: The amount of RAM available for storing data.
 Storage speed: The speed at which data can be read from and written to storage devices.
 Graphics card: For handling graphics-intensive tasks like gaming or video editing.

Trends in Computer Hardware:

 Miniaturization: Computers are becoming smaller and more portable.
 Increased processing power: CPUs are becoming more powerful and energy-efficient.
 Solid-state storage: SSDs are replacing HDDs due to their faster performance.
 Cloud computing: Offloading computing resources to remote servers.

2. Computer Software
Computer software is the intangible component of a computer system. It consists of
instructions and data that tell the hardware how to operate. There are two main types of
software: system software and application software.

System Software

System software manages the computer's hardware and provides a platform for application
software to run. It includes:
  Operating Systems: The core software that controls the computer's resources,
interacts with hardware, and provides a user interface. Examples include Windows,
macOS, Linux.
 Utility Programs: Software that performs specific tasks related to system
maintenance, such as antivirus software, disk defragmenters, and backup tools.
 Device Drivers: Software that enables the computer to communicate with hardware
devices.

Application Software

Application software is designed to perform specific tasks for users. It can be categorized into:

 Productivity Software: Tools for creating, editing, and managing documents,

spreadsheets, presentations, and emails. Examples include Microsoft Office, Google
Workspace, LibreOffice.
 Business Software: Applications used in various business functions, such as
accounting, customer relationship management (CRM), enterprise resource planning
(ERP), and human resource management (HRM).
 Entertainment Software: Games, media players, and other applications for leisure.
 Specialized Software: Software designed for specific industries or fields, such as
engineering software, medical software, and educational software.

Software Development: The process of creating software involves several stages:

1. Requirements Gathering: Identifying the specific needs and goals of the software.
2. Design: Creating a blueprint or plan for the software's structure and functionality.
3. Development: Writing the actual code using programming languages.
4. Testing: Ensuring the software works as intended and is free of bugs.
5. Deployment: Making the software available to users.
6. Maintenance: Updating and improving the software over time.

Software Licensing: Software licenses determine how the software can be used. Common
types include:

 Proprietary Software: Software owned by a company that grants users limited rights
to use it.
 Open-Source Software: Software whose source code is freely available, allowing
users to modify and distribute it.

Software Trends:

 Cloud-Based Software: Software delivered over the internet as a service.

 Mobile Apps: Software designed for smartphones and tablets.
 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Incorporating AI and ML
capabilities into software.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Software that enables communication and control of
connected devices.

By understanding the different types of software and their functions, you can make informed
decisions about the software you use and how it can benefit your work or personal life.

3. Data Management
Data management is the practice of organizing, storing, protecting, and utilizing data
to achieve specific goals. It involves various activities such as data collection, data
cleaning, data analysis, and data visualization.

Key Components of Data Management:

Data Collection

 Sources: Identifying where data will come from (internal systems, external databases, social
media, sensors, etc.)
 Methods: Determining how data will be collected (manual entry, automated processes, APIs,
etc.)
 Quality: Ensuring data collected is accurate, consistent, and relevant.

Data Storage

 Data Warehouses: Centralized repositories for storing large volumes of data from various
sources.
 Data Lakes: Unstructured repositories for storing raw data in its native format.
 Database Management Systems (DBMS): Software used to create, manage, and access
databases.
 Cloud Storage: Storing data on remote servers accessed over the internet.

Data Cleaning

 Identifying and correcting errors: Fixing inconsistencies, missing values, duplicates, and
outliers.
 Data standardization: Ensuring data is in a consistent format and follows specific standards.
 Data enrichment: Adding relevant information to enhance data quality.

Data Analysis

 Descriptive statistics: Summarizing data using measures like mean, median, mode, and
standard deviation.
 Predictive analytics: Using statistical models to forecast future trends or outcomes.
 Prescriptive analytics: Suggesting optimal actions based on data analysis.
 Data mining: Discovering patterns and relationships within large datasets.

Data Visualization

 Creating visual representations: Using charts, graphs, and other tools to make data easier to
understand.
 Choosing appropriate visualizations: Selecting the best visual elements to convey specific
insights.
 Data storytelling: Using visualizations to create compelling narratives around data.

Data Security and Governance

 Data protection: Implementing measures to prevent unauthorized access, modification, or

deletion of data.
 Data privacy: Ensuring compliance with data privacy regulations (e.g., GDPR, CCPA).
  Data governance: Establishing policies and procedures for managing data throughout its
lifecycle.

Challenges in Data Management:

 Data volume: Dealing with large and growing datasets.

 Data variety: Managing data in different formats and structures.
 Data velocity: Processing data in real-time or near real-time.
 Data quality: Ensuring data accuracy, completeness, and consistency.
 Data security: Protecting data from unauthorized access and breaches.

Effective data management is crucial for organizations to make informed decisions,

improve efficiency, and gain a competitive advantage.

4. Computer Networking

A computer network comprises two or more computers that are

connected—either by cables (wired) or wifi (wireless)—with the
purpose of transmitting, exchanging, or sharing data and resources.

You build a computer network by using hardware (for example, routers, switches,
access points, and cables) and software (for example, operating systems or business
applications).

Geographic location often defines a computer network. For example, a LAN (local
area network) connects computers in a defined physical space, like an office building,
whereas a WAN (wide area network) can connect computers across continents. The
internet is the largest example of a WAN, connecting billions of computers worldwide.

You can further define a computer network by the protocols it uses to communicate,
the physical arrangement of its components, how it controls traffic, and its purpose.

Computer networks enable communication for every business, entertainment, and

research purpose. The internet, online search, email, audio and video sharing, online
commerce, live-streaming, and social networks all exist because of computer
networks.

Computer Network Types

As networking needs evolved, so did the computer network types that serve those
needs. Here are the most common and widely used computer network types:

1. LAN (local area network): A LAN connects computers over a relatively short
distance, allowing them to share data, files, and resources. For example, a LAN
may connect all the computers in an office building, school, or hospital. Typically,
 LANs are privately owned and managed.

2. WLAN (wireless local area network): A WLAN is just like a LAN but
connections between devices on the network are made wirelessly.

3. WAN (wide area network): As the name implies, a WAN connects computers
over a wide area, such as from region to region or even continent to continent.
The internet is the largest WAN, connecting billions of computers worldwide.
You will typically see collective or distributed ownership models for WAN
management.

4. MAN (metropolitan area network): MANs are typically larger than LANs but
smaller than WANs. Cities and government entities typically own and manage
MANs.

5. PAN (personal area network): A PAN serves one person. For example, if you
have an iPhone and a Mac, it’s likely you’ve set up a PAN that shares and syncs
content—text messages, emails, photos, and more—across both devices.

6. SAN (storage area network): A SAN is a specialized network that provides

access to block-level storage—shared network or cloud storage. To the user, it
looks, and works like a storage drive that’s physically attached to a computer.

7. CAN (campus area network): A CAN is also known as a corporate area

network. A CAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. CANs serve sites
such as colleges, universities, and business campuses.

8. VPN (virtual private network): A VPN is a secure, point-to-point connection

between two network end points (see ‘nodes’ below). A VPN establishes an
encrypted channel that keeps a user’s identity and access credentials, as well as
any data transferred, inaccessible to hackers.

Important Terms and Concepts

The following are some common terms to know when discussing computer
networking:

 IP address: An IP address is a unique number assigned to every device

connected to a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Each
IP address identifies the device’s host network and the location of the device on
the host network. When one device sends data to another, the data includes a
‘header’ that includes the IP address of the sending device and the IP address of
the destination device.

 Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6 Addresses?

 IPv4 addresses consist of four one- to three-digit numerals separated
by a dot, whereas IPv6 is the newer version of internet addressing
that uses a 128-bit alphanumeric value to identify an endpoint device
online.
  An Ipv4 address may look something like 208.80. 154.224, while an
Ipv6 address may look like:
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.
 IPv6 allows for far more connected devices to exist on the internet
without duplicating addresses.

 Nodes: A node is a connection point inside a network that can receive, send,
create, or store data. Each node requires you to provide some form of
identification to receive access, like an IP address. A few examples of nodes
include computers, printers, modems, bridges, and switches. A node is essentially
any network device that can recognize, process, and transmit information to any
other network node.

 Routers: A router is a physical or virtual device that sends information that is

contained in data packets between networks. Routers analyze data within the
packets to determine the best way for the information to reach its ultimate
destination. Routers forward data packets until they reach their destination node.

 Switches: A switch is a device that connects other devices and manages node-to-
node communication within a network, ensuring that data packets reach their
ultimate destination. While a router sends information between networks, a
switch sends information between nodes in a single network. When discussing
computer networks, ‘switching’ refers to how data is transferred between devices
in a network. The three main types of switching are as follows:

 Circuit switching, which establishes a dedicated communication path

between nodes in a network. This dedicated path assures the full bandwidth
is available during the transmission, meaning that no other traffic can travel
along that path.

 Packet switching involves breaking down data into independent components

that are called packets, which because of their small size, make fewer
demands on the network. The packets travel through the network to their end
destination.

 Message switching sends a message in its entirety from the source node,
traveling from switch to switch until it reaches its destination node.

 Ports: A port identifies a specific connection between network devices. Each port
is identified by a number. If you think of an IP address as comparable to the
address of a hotel, then ports are the suites or room numbers within that hotel.
Computers use port numbers to determine which application, service, or process
should receive specific messages.

 Network cable types: The most common network cable types are Ethernet
twisted pair, coaxial, and fiber optic. The choice of cable type depends on the size
of the network, the arrangement of network elements, and the physical distance
between devices.
What is a network topology?
A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections
in a network. Nodes usually include devices such as switches, routers and software
with switch and router features. Network topologies are often represented as a graph.

A well-defined network topology makes it easier for network admins to locate faults,
troubleshoot issues and to allocate network resources. Diagrams are an important
reference point in helping to diagnose network issues, as they can represent physical
and logical layouts.
What are the types of network topologies?

a) Bus network. In the bus network topology, every node is connected in series
along a single cable. This arrangement is found today primarily in cable
broadband distribution networks.

b) Star network. In the star network topology, a central device connects to all other
nodes through a central hub. Switched local area networks based on Ethernet
switches and most wired home and office networks have a physical star topology.

c) Ring network. In the ring network topology, the nodes are connected in a closed-
loop configuration. Some rings pass data in one direction only, while others are
capable of transmission in both directions. These bidirectional ring networks are
more resilient than bus networks since traffic can reach a node by moving in
either direction. Metro networks based on Synchronous Optical Network
technology are the primary example of ring networks.

d) Mesh network. The mesh network topology links nodes with connections so that
multiple paths between at least some points of the network are available. A
 network is considered to be fully meshed if all nodes are directly connected to all
other nodes and partially meshed if only some nodes have multiple connections to
others. Meshing multiple paths increases resiliency but also increases cost.
However, more space is needed for dedicated links.

e) Tree network. The tree network topology consists of one root node, and all other
nodes are connected in a hierarchy. The topology itself is connected in a star
configuration. Many larger Ethernet switch networks, including data center
networks, are configured as trees.

f) Hybrid network. The hybrid network topology is any combination of two or

more topologies. Hybrid topologies typically provide exceptional flexibility, as
they can accommodate a number of setups. For example, different departments in
the same organization may opt for personalized network topologies that are more
adaptable to their network needs.

5. AI and ML Concepts
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a broad field of computer science that aims to create
intelligent agents, which are systems that can reason, learn, and act autonomously.
In essence, AI seeks to mimic human intelligence and problem-solving abilities.

Core Concepts of AI

 Machine Learning (ML): A subset of AI that focuses on developing algorithms that allow
computers to learn from data and improve their performance over time without being
explicitly programmed.
 Natural Language Processing (NLP): The ability of computers to understand, interpret,
and generate human language.
 Computer Vision: The ability of computers to interpret and understand visual information
from the real world.
 Robotics: The design and construction of robots, as well as their application to real-world
tasks.
 Expert Systems: AI systems that can reason and provide advice on a specific domain.

Types of AI

 Narrow AI: AI that is designed to perform a specific task, such as playing chess or recognizing
faces.
 General AI: AI that is capable of performing any intellectual task that a human can.
 Superintelligence: AI that is significantly more intelligent than any human.

Machine Learning Algorithms

 Supervised Learning: Algorithms that learn from labeled data, where the correct output is
provided for each input. Examples include linear regression, logistic regression, and decision
trees.
  Unsupervised Learning: Algorithms that learn from unlabeled data, where the correct
output is not provided. Examples include clustering and dimensionality reduction.
 Reinforcement Learning: Algorithms that learn by interacting with an environment and
receiving rewards or penalties for their actions. Examples include Q-learning: a machine
learning approach that enables a model to iteratively learn and improve over time by taking
the correct action. Q-learning is a type of reinforcement learning. With reinforcement
learning, a machine learning model is trained to mimic the way animals or children learn.
Good actions are rewarded or reinforced, while bad actions are discouraged and penalized

Applications of AI and ML

 Healthcare: Diagnosis, drug discovery, personalized medicine

 Finance: Fraud detection, algorithmic trading, risk assessment
 Customer Service: Chatbots, virtual assistants
 Manufacturing: Predictive maintenance, quality control
 Transportation: Self-driving cars, traffic optimization
 Entertainment: Recommendation systems, content generation