INTERNET OF THINGS

UNIT - I
Introduction to Internet of Things -Introduction of IoT, Physical Design of IoT, Logical Design of
IoT, IoT enabled Technologies –, IoT Levels and Templates, Domain Specific IoTs
– Home, City, Environment, Energy, Retail, Logistics, Agriculture, Industry, health
and Lifestyle.

UNIT - II
IoT and M2M - Software defined networks, network function virtualization, difference between
SDN and NFV for IoT. Basics of IoT System Management with NETCOZF, YANG -
NETCONF, YANG, SNMP NETOPEER

UNIT - III
Introduction to Python - Language features of Python, Data types, data structures, Control of
flow, functions, modules, packaging, file handling, data/time operations, classes, Exception
handling. Python packages - JSON, XML, HTTP Lib, URL Lib, SMTP Lib.

UNIT - IV
IoT Physical Devices and Endpoints - Introduction to Raspberry PI - Interfaces (serial, SPI, I2C).
Programming – Python program with Raspberry PI with focus of interfacing external gadgets,
controlling output, reading input from pins.

UNIT - V
IoT Physical Servers and Cloud Offerings - Introduction to Cloud Storage models and
communication APIs. Web server – Web server for IoT, Cloud for IoT, Python web application
framework. Designing a REST ful web API.
TEXT BOOK:
1. Internet of Things - A Hands-on Approach, Arshdeep Bahga and Vijay Madisetti,
Universities Press, 2015, ISBN: 9788173719547
2. Getting Started with Raspberry Pi, Matt Richardson & Shawn Wallace, O'Reilly (SPD),
2014, ISBN: 9789350239759.
INTERNET OF THINGS

UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET OF THINGS

Introduction:
The concept of a network of smart devices was discussed as early as 1982, with a
modified Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University becoming the first internet-connected
appliance, able to report its inventory and whether newly loaded drinks were cold. Kevin Ashton
(born 1968) is a British technology pioneer who is known for inventing the term "the Internet of
Things" to describe a system where the Internet is connected to the physical world via ubiquitous
sensors. IoT is able to interact without human intervention. Some preliminary IoT applications
have been already developed in healthcare, transportation, and automotive industries. IoT
technologies are at their infant stages; however, many new developments have occurred in the
integration of objects with sensors in the Internet. The development of IoT involves many issues
such as infrastructure, communications, interfaces, protocols, and standards. The objective of this
paper is to give general concept of IoT, the architecture and layers in IoT, some basic terms
associated with it and the services provided. The below fig 1.1 give an example things connected
to internet.
The IOT concept was coined by a member of the Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) development community in 1999, and it has recently become more relevant to the
practical world largely because of the growth of mobile devices, embedded and ubiquitous
communication, cloud computing and data analytics

Fig 1.1: Things connected to Internet.

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Definition of IoT:
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects—devices, instruments,
vehicles, buildings and other items embedded with electronics, circuits , software, sensors and
network connectivity that enables these objects to collect and exchange data. The Internet of
Things allows objects to be sensed and controlled remotely across existing network
infrastructure, creating opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into
computer-based systems, and resulting in improved efficiency and accuracy.
IoT refers to the interconnection via the internet of computing devices embedded in
everyday objects, enabled them to send and receive the data.
A dynamic global network infrastructure with self- configuring capabilities based on
standard and interoperable communication protocols, where physical and virtual “things” have
identities, physical attributes, and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated into
information network that communicate data with users and environments.

Characteristics of IoT :
1. Dynamic & Self-Adapting: IoT device and system may have the capability to dynamically
adapt with the changing contexts and take actions based on their operating conditions, user’s
context, or sensed environment. For example, consider a surveillance adpt their modes based on
the weather it is day or night, cameras could switch from lower resolution to higher resolution
modes when any motion is detected and alert nearby cameras to do the same.
2. Self-Configuring: IoT devices may have self-configuring capability, allowing a large number of
devices to work together to provide certain functionality (such as weather monitoring). These
devices have the ability configure themselves, setup the networking and fetch latest software
upgrades with minimal manual or user intervention.
3. Interoperable Communication Protocols: IoT devices may support a number of interoperable
communication protocols and can communicate with other devices and also with the
infrastructure.
4. Unique Identity: Each IoT device has a unique identity and a unique identifier (such as an IP
address). IoT systems may have intelligent interface which adapt based on the context, allow
communicating with user and the environmental contexts, IoT device interfaces allow users to
query the devices, monitor their status and control them remotely.
5. Integrated into Information Network: IoT devices are usually integrated into the information
network that allows them to communicate and exchange data with other devices and systems,
IoT dvices can be dynamically discovered in the network, by other devices and/or the network,
and have the capability to describe themselves to other devices or user applications.

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Physical Design of
IoT Things in IoT
1. Refers to IoT devices which have unique identities that can perform sensing, actuating
and monitoring capabilities.
2. IoT devices can exchange data with other connected devices or collect data from other
devices and process the data either locally or send the data to centralized servers or cloud
– based application back-ends for processing the data.

Generic Block Diagram of an IoT Device:

An IoT device may consist of several interfaces for connections to other devices,
both wired and wireless. The below Fig 1.2 shows the block diagram of an IoT
Device.
◦ I/O interfaces for sensors
◦ Interfaces for internet connectivity
◦ Memory and storage interfaces
◦ Audio/video interfaces

Fig 1.2: Block Diagram of an IoT Device

IoT Protocols:

The IoT devices are typically connected to the Internet via an IP (Internet Protocol) network.
However, devices such as Bluetooth and RFID allow IoT devices to connect locally. In these
cases, there’s a difference in power, range, and memory used. Connection through IP networks

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are comparatively complex, requires increased memory and power from the IoT devices while
the range is not a problem. On the other hand, non-IP networks demand comparatively less
power and memory but have a range limitation.

As far as the IoT communication protocols or technologies are concerned, a mix of both IP and
non-IP networks can be considered depending on usage.

Fig 1.3 shows Four Layer of IoT Protocol

1. Link Layer
2. Network Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer

Fig 1.3 Four Layer IoT Protocol

1. Link Layer:
In computer networking, the link layer is the lowest layer in the Internet protocol suite,
the networking architecture of the Internet. The link layer is the group of methods and
communications protocols confined to the link that a host is physically connected to. The link is
the physical and logical network component used to interconnect hosts or nodes in the network
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and a link protocol is a suite of methods and standards that operate only between adjacent
network nodes of a network segment.

Table 1.1: different methods of link layer with standards.

Ethernet Standard

Sr.No Standard Shared medium

1 802.3 Coaxial cable
2 802.3.i Copper Twisted pair

3 802.3.j Fiber Optic

4 802.3.ae Fiber…..10Gbits/s

WiFi Standard

S.No Standard Operates in

1 802.11a 5 GHz band

2 802.11b& 802.11g 2.4GHz band

3 802.11.n 2.4/5 GHz bands

4 802.11.ac 5GHz band

5 802.11.ad 60Hz band

WiMax Standard
S.No Standard Data Rate
1 802.16m 100Mb/s for mobile stations, 1Gb/s for fixed stations

Mobile Communication Standard

Sr.No Standard Operates in

1 2G GSM-CDMA

2 3G UMTS and CDMA 2000

3 4G LTE

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The above Table 1.1 shows the different method of link layer with different
standards. For Ethernet method Data Rates are provided from 10Gbit/s to 40Gb/s and
higher. Collection of Wireless LAN Data Rates from 1Mb/s to 6.75 Gb/s. Collection of
Wireless Broadband standards Data Rates from 1.5Mb/s to 1 Gb/s. LR-WPAN:
Collection of standards for low-rate wireless personal area networks, Basis for high level
communication protocols such as Zigbee, Data Rates from 40Kb/s to 250Kb/s. 2G/3G/4G
–Mobile Communication: Data Rates from 9.6Kb/s (for 2G) to up to 100Mb/s (for 4G).

2. Network/Internet Layer:
The internet layer is a group of internetworking methods, protocols, and specifications in
the Internet protocol suite that are used to transport network packets from the originating host
across network boundaries; if necessary, to the destination host specified by an IP address. The
internet layer derives its name from its function facilitating internetworking, which is the concept
of connecting multiple networks with each other through gateways.
• Responsible for sending of IP datagrams from source to destination network
• Performs the host addressing and packet routing
• Host identification is done using hierarchical IP addressing schemes such as IPV4 or
IPV6
IPV4
Used to identify the devices on a network using hierarchical addressing scheme
Uses 32-bit address scheme
IPV6
Uses 128-bit address scheme
6LoWPAN (IPV6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Network)
Used for devices with limited processing capacity, Operates in 2.4 Ghz , Data Rates of
250Kb/s.

3. Transport Layer:
In computer networking, the transport layer is a conceptual division of methods in the
layered architecture of protocols in the network stack in the Internet protocol suite and the OSI
model. The protocols of this layer provide host-to-host communication services for applications.
It provides services such as connection-oriented communication, reliability, flow control, and
multiplexing.

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The best-known transport protocol of the Internet protocol suite is the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP). It is used for connection-oriented transmissions, whereas the
connectionless User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used for simpler messaging transmissions.

• Provide end-to-end message transfer capability independent of the underlying network

• It provides functions such as error control, segmentation, flow-control and congestion
control
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
• Connection Oriented
• Ensures Reliable transmission
• Provides Error Detection Capability to ensure no duplicacy of packets and retransmit lost
packets
• Flow Control capability to ensure the sending data rate is not too high for the receiver
process
• Congestion control capability helps in avoiding congestion which leads to degradation of
n/w performance
User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
• Connectionless
• Does not ensures Reliable transmission
• Does not do connection before transmitting
• Does not provide proper ordering of messages
• Transaction oriented and stateless

4. Application Layer:
An application layer is an abstraction layer that specifies the shared communications
protocols and interface methods used by hosts in a communications network. The application
layer abstraction is used in both of the standard models of computer networking: the Internet
Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) and the OSI model. Although both models use the same term for their
respective highest level layer, the detailed definitions and purposes are different.
Hyper Transfer Protocol:
• Forms foundation of World Wide Web(WWW)
• Includes commands such as GET,PUT, POST, HEAD, OPTIONS, TRACE..etc
• Follows a request-response model
• Uses Universal Resource Identifiers(URIs) to identify HTTP resources.
Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP):
• Used for Machine to machine (M2M) applications meant for constrained devices and
n/w’s
• Web transfer protocol for IoT and uses request-response model

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• Uses client –server architecture

• Supports methods such as GET,POST, PUT and DELETE
WebSocket:
 Allows full-duplex communication over single socket, Based on TCP, Client can be a
browser, IoT device or mobile application
Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT):
 light-weight messaging protocol, Based on publish-subscribe model, Well suited for
constrained environments where devices have limited processing, low memory and n/w
bandwith requirement
XMPP:
• Extensible messaging and presence protocol, For Real time communication and
streaming XML data between n/w entities, Used for Applications such as Multi-party
chat and voice/video calls.

Logical Design of IoT:

🞂 Logical design of an IoT system refers to an abstract representation of the
entities and processes without going into the low-level specifics of the
implementation.

🞂 An IoT system comprises a number of functional blocks that provide the system
the capabilities for identification, sensing, actuation, communication and management.
🞂 Fig 1.4 shows the functional block diagram of IoT. Below are the individual
block explanation.
1. Device : Devices such as sensing, actuation, monitoring and control functions.
2. Communication : IoT Protocols
3. Services like device monitoring, device control services, data publishing services and
device discovery
4. Management : Functions to govern the system
5. Security : Functions as authentication, authorization, message and content integrity, and
data security Applications

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Fig 1.4: Functional Block Diagram of IoT.

IoT Communication Modules:
1. Request–Response Communication Model:
 Request–Response is a communication model in which the client sends requests to the
server and the server responds to the requests.
 When the server receives a request, it decides how to respond, fetches the data, retrieves
resource representations, prepares the response and then sends the response to the client.
 Stateless communication model, Fig 1.5 shows the block diagram of Request-Response
Communication Model.

Fig 1.5: Request–Response Communication Model.

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2. Publish–Subscribe Communication Model:

 Publish–Subscribe is a communication model that involves publishers, brokers and
consumers.
 Publishers are the source of data. Publishers send the data to the topics which are
managed by the broker. Publishers are not aware of the consumers.
 Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.
 When the broker receives data for a topic from the publisher, it sends the data to all the
subscribed consumers. Fig 1.6 shows the block diagram of Publish-Subscribe
Communication Model.

Fig 1.6: Publish–Subscribe Communication Model.

3. Push–Pull Communication Model:
 Push–Pull is a communication model in which the data producers push the data to
queues and the consumers pull the data from the queues. Producers do not need to be
aware of the consumers.
 Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producers and consumers.
 Queues also act as a buffer which helps in situations when there is a mismatch between
the rate at which the producers push data and the rate at which the consumers pull data.
Fig 1.7 shows the block diagram of Push-Pull Communication Model.

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Fig 1.7: Push–Pull Communication Model.

4. Exclusive Pair Communication Model:

 Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, fully duplex communication model that uses a persistent
connection between the client and the server.
 Once the connection is set up it, remains open until the client sends a request to close the
connection.
 Client and server can send messages to each other after connection setup. Fig 1.8 shows
the block diagram of Exclusive Pair Communication Model

Fig 1.8: Exclusive Pair Communication Model.

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IoT Communication APIs:

1. REST-based Communication APIs:
 Representational State Transfer (REST) is a set of architectural principles by
which you can design web services and web APIs that focus on a system’s
resources and how resource states are addressed and transferred.
 REST APIs follow the request–response communication model. Fig 1.9 shows the
RESET API Architecture diagram.
 REST architectural constraints apply to the components, connectors and data
elements within a distributed hypermedia system.

Fig 1.9: REST API Architecture.

Constraints:
🞂 Client – Server
🞂 Stateless
🞂 Cacheable
🞂 Layered System
🞂 Uniform Interface
🞂 Code on demand

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Fig 1.10: RESET API Constrants.

2. Web Socket-based Communication APIs:
 WebSocket APIs allow bi-directional, full duplex communication between clients
and servers.
 WebSocket APIs follow the exclusive pair communication model.

Fig1.11 WebSocket Protocol.

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Difference between REST and WebSocket-based Communication APIs:

Comparison Based REST Websocket

on

State Stateless Stateful

Directional Unidirectional Bidirectional

Req-Res/Full Duplex Follow Request Response Model Exclusive Pair Model

TCP Connections Each HTTP request involves Involves a single TCP

setting up a new TCP Connection Connection for all
requests

Header Overhead Each request carries HTTP Does not involve

Headers, hence not suitable for overhead of headers.
real-time

Scalability Both horizontal and vertical are Only Vertical is easier

easier

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IoT Enabling Technologies:

1. Wireless Sensor Network(WSN):
 Distributed Devices with sensors used to monitor the environmental and
physical conditions
 Consists of several end-nodes acting as routers or coordinators too
 Coordinators collects data from all nodes / acts as gateway that connects WSN to
internet
 Routers route the data packets from end nodes to coordinators.
Example:
🞂 Weather monitoring system
🞂 Indoor Air quality monitoring system
🞂 Soil moisture monitoring system
🞂 Survelliance systems
🞂 Health monitoring
systems Protocols:
🞂 Zigbee

Fig 1.12: wireless Sensors.

2. Cloud Computing:
 Deliver applications and services over internet
 Provides computing, networking and storage resources on demand
 Cloud computing performs services such as Iaas, Paas and Saas
 Iaas : Rent Infrastructure
 Paas : supply an on-demand environment for developing, testing, delivering
and managing software applications.
 Saas : method for delivering software applications over the Internet, on
demand and typically on a subscription basis.

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Fig 1.13 Cloud Computing Physical Diagram

3. Big Data Analytics:
 Collection of data whose volume, velocity or variety is too large and difficult to
store, manage, process and analyze the data using traditional databases.
 It involves data cleansing, processing and visualization
 Lots of data is being collected and warehoused
 Web data, e-commerce
🞂 purchases at department/ grocery stores
🞂 Bank/Credit Card transactions
🞂 Social Network

Fig 1.14 Big Data Analytics Physical Diagram.

Variety Includes different types of data
🞂 Structured, Unstructured, SemiStructured, All of
above Velocity Refers to speed at which data is
processed
🞂 Batch, Real-time, STreams
Volume refers to the amount of data
🞂 Terabyte, Records, Transactions, Files, Tables

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4. Embedded Systems:

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An Embedded System is a computer system that has computer hardware and

software embedded toperform specific tasks. In constrast to general purpose computers
which can perform various typpes of asks, embedded systems are designed to pperform a
specific set of tasks. Key components of an embedded system include, microproceessor
or microcontroller, memory(RAM, ROM, Cache) and Input/Output Units.

Communication Protocols:
Communication protocols from the backbone of IoT systems and enabled network
connectivity and coupling to applications. Communication protocols allow devices to
exchange data over the network. In internet protocol session we discussed about various
Link, Network, Transport and Application Layer protocols.
IoT Levels and Deployment Templates:
An IoT system comprises the following components:
• Device: An IoT device allows identification, remote sensing, actuating and remote
monitoring capabilities.
• Resource: Resources are software components on the IoT device for accessing,
processing and storing sensor information, or for controlling actuators connected to the
device. Resources also include the software components that enable network access for
the device.
• Controller Service: Controller service is a native service that runs on the device and
interacts with the web services. Controller service sends data from the device to the web
service and receives commands from the application (via web services) for controlling
the device.
• Database: Database can be either local or in the cloud and stores the data generated by
the IoT device.
• Web Service: Web services serve as a link between the IoT device, application, database
and analysis components. Web service can be implemented using HTTP and REST
principles (REST service) or using the WebSocket protocol (WebSocket service).
• Analysis Component: This is responsible for analyzing the IoT data and generating
results in a form that is easy for the user to understand.
• Application: IoT applications provide an interface that the users can use to control and
monitor various aspects of the IoT system. Applications also allow users to view the
system status and the processed data.

IoT Level-1:
• A level-1 IoT system has a single node/device that performs sensing and/or
actuation, stores data, performs analysis and hosts the application.

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• Level-1 IoT systems are suitable for modelling low-cost and low-complexity solutions
where the data involved is not big and the analysis requirements are not computationally
intensive.

Example -Home Automation System:

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IoT Level-2:
• A level-2 IoT system has
a single node that
performs sensing and/or
actuation and local
analysis.
• Data is stored in the cloud and the application is usually cloud-based.
• Level-2 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where the data involved is big; however,
the primary analysis requirement is not computationally intensive and can be done
locally.

Example-Smart Irrigation:

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IoT Level-4:
• A level-4 IoT system has multiple nodes that perform local analysis. Data is stored in the
cloud and the application is cloud-based.
• Level-4 contains local and cloud-based observer nodes which can subscribe to and
receive information collected in the cloud from IoT devices.
• Level-4 IoT systems are suitable for solutions where multiple nodes are required, the data
involved is big and the analysis requirements are computationally intensive.

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Example-Noise Monitoring:

IoT Level-5:
• A level-5 IoT system has multiple end nodes and one coordinator node.

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• The end nodes perform sensing and/or actuation.

• The coordinator node collects data from the end nodes and sends it to the cloud.
• Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud and the application is cloud-based.
• Level-5 IoT systems are suitable for solutions based on wireless sensor networks, in
which the data involved is big and the analysis requirements are computationally
intensive.

IoT Level-6:
• A level-6 IoT system has multiple independent end nodes that perform sensing and/or
actuation and send data to the cloud.
• Data is stored in the cloud and the application is cloud-based.
• The analytics component analyzes the data and stores the results in the cloud database.
• The results are visualized with the cloud-based application.
• The centralized controller is aware of the status of all the end nodes and sends control
commands to the nodes.

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DOMAIN SPECIFIC IoTs

1) Home Automation:

a) Smart Lighting: helps in saving energy by adapting the lighting to the ambient conditions and
switching on/off or diming the light when needed.
b) Smart Appliances: make the management easier and also provide status information to the
users remotely.
c) Intrusion Detection: use security cameras and sensors (PIR sensors and door sensors) to detect
intrusion and raise alerts. Alerts can be in the form of SMS or email sent to the user.
d) Smoke/Gas Detectors: Smoke detectors are installed in homes and buildings to detect smoke
that is typically an early sign of fire. Alerts raised by smoke detectors can be in the form of
signals to a fire alarm system. Gas detectors can detect the presence of harmful gases such as
CO, LPG etc.,

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2) Cities:
a) Smart Parking: make the search for parking space easier and convenient for drivers. Smart
parking are powered by IoT systems that detect the no. of empty parking slots and send
information over internet to smart application back ends.
b) Smart Lighting: for roads, parks and buildings can help in saving energy.
c) Smart Roads: Equipped with sensors can provide information on driving condition, travel
time estimating and alert in case of poor driving conditions, traffic condition and accidents.
d) Structural Health Monitoring: uses a network of sensors to monitor the vibration levels in the
structures such as bridges and buildings.
e) Surveillance: The video feeds from surveillance cameras can be aggregated in cloud based
scalable storage solution.
f) Emergency Response: IoT systems for fire detection, gas and water leakage detection can help
in generating alerts and minimizing their effects on the critical infrastructures.

3) Environment:
a) Weather Monitoring: Systems collect data from a no. of sensors attached and send the data to
cloud based applications and storage back ends. The data collected in cloud can then be analyzed
and visualized by cloud based applications.
b) Air Pollution Monitoring: System can monitor emission of harmful gases (CO2, CO, NO,
NO2 etc.,) by factories and automobiles using gaseous and meteorological sensors. The collected
data can be analyzed to make informed decisions on pollutions control approaches.
c) Noise Pollution Monitoring: Due to growing urban development, noise levels in cities have
increased and even become alarmingly high in some cities. IoT based noise pollution monitoring
systems use a no. of noise monitoring systems that are deployed at different places in a city. The
data on noise levels from the station is collected on servers or in the cloud. The collected data is
then aggregated to generate noise maps.
d) Forest Fire Detection: Forest fire can cause damage to natural resources, property and human
life. Early detection of forest fire can help in minimizing damage.
e) River Flood Detection: River floods can cause damage to natural and human resources and
human life. Early warnings of floods can be given by monitoring the water level and flow rate.
IoT based river flood monitoring system uses a no. of sensor nodes that monitor the water level
and flow ratesensors.

4) Energy:
a) Smart Grids: is a data communication network integrated with the electrical grids that collects
and analyze data captured in near-real-time about power transmission, distribution and
consumption. Smart grid technology provides predictive information and recommendations to
utilities, their suppliers, and their customers on how best to manage power. By using IoT based

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sensing and measurement technologies, the health of equipment and integrity of the grid can be
evaluated.
b) Renewable Energy Systems: IoT based systems integrated with the transformers at the point
of interconnection measure the electrical variables and how much power is fed into the grid. For
wind energy systems, closed-loop controls can be used to regulate the voltage at point of
interconnection which coordinate wind turbine outputs and provides power support.
c) Prognostics: In systems such as power grids, real-time information is collected using
specialized electrical sensors called Phasor Measurment Units (PMUs) at the substations. The
information received from PMUs must be monitored in real-time for estimating the state of the
system and for predicting failures.

5) Retail:
a) Inventory Management: IoT systems enable remote monitoring of inventory using data
collected by RFID readers.
b) Smart Payments: Solutions such as contact-less payments powered by technologies such as
Near Field Communication (NFC) and Bluetooth.
c) Smart Vending Machines: Sensors in a smart vending machines monitors its operations and
send the data to cloud which can be used for predictive maintenance.

6) Logistics:
a) Route generation & scheduling: IoT based system backed by cloud can provide first response
to the route generation queries and can be scaled up to serve a large transportation network.
b) Fleet Tracking: Use GPS to track locations of vehicles in real-time.
c) Shipment Monitoring: IoT based shipment monitoring systems use sensors such as temp,
humidity, to monitor the conditions and send data to cloud, where it can be analyzed to detect
food spoilage.
d) Remote Vehicle Diagnostics: Systems use on-board IoT devices for collecting data on Vehicle
operations (speed, RPM etc.,) and status of various vehicle subsystems.

7) Agriculture:
a) Smart Irrigation: to determine moisture amount in soil.
b) Green House Control: to improve productivity.

8) Industry:
a) Machine diagnosis and prognosis
b) Indoor Air Quality Monitoring

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9) Health and Life Style:

a) Health & Fitness Monitoring
b) Wearable Electro

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UNIT - II
INTRODUCTION TO M2M:
Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines (or devices) for the purpose of
remote monitoring and control and data exchange.
 Term which is often synonymous with IoT is Machine-to-Machine (M2M).
 IoT and M2M are often used interchangeably.

Fig. Shows the end-to-end architecture of M2M systems comprises of M2M area networks,
communication networks and application fomain.

 An M2M area network comprises of machines ( or M2M nodes) which have embedded
network modules for sensing, actuation and communicating various communication
protocols can be used for M2M LAN such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, M-bus, Wireless M-Bus
etc., These protocols provide connectivity between M2M nodes within an M2M area
network.

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 The communication network provides connectivity to remote M2M area networks. The
communication network provides connectivity to remote M2M area network. The
communication network can use either wired or wireless network (IP based). While the
M2M are networks use either properitorary or non-IP based communication protocols,
the communication network uses IP-based network. Since non-IP based protocols are
used within M2M area network, the M2M nodes within one network cannot
communicate with nodes in an external network.
 To enable the communication between remote M2M are network, M2M gateways are
used.

Fig. Shows a block diagram of an M2M gateway.

The communication between M2M nodes and the M2M gateway is based on the communication
protocols which are naive to the M2M are network. M2M gateway performs protocol translations
to enable Ip-connectivity for M2M are networks. M2M gateway acts as a proxy performing
translations from/to native protocols to/from Internet Protocol(IP). With an M2M gateway, each
mode in an M2M area network appears as a virtualized node for external M2M area networks.
Differences between IoT and M2M
1) Communication Protocols:

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 Commonly uses M2M protocols include ZigBee, Bluetooth, ModBus, M-Bus,

WirelessM-Bus etc.,

 In IoT uses HTTP, CoAP, WebSocke

2) Machines in M2M Vs Things inIoT:

 Machines in M2M will be homogenous whereas Things in IoT will be heterogeneous.

3) Hardware Vs Software Emphasis:

 The emphasis of M2M is more on hardware with embedded modules, the emphasis of
IoT is more on software.

4) Data Collection &Analysis

 M2M data is collected in point solutions and often in on-premises storage infrastructure.
 The data in IoT is collected in the cloud (can be public, private or hybrid cloud).

5) Applications
 M2M data is collected in point solutions and can be accessed by on-premises applications
such as diagnosis applications, service management applications, and on- premisis
enterprise applications.
 IoT data is collected in the cloud and can be accessed by cloud applications such as
analytics applications, enterprise applications, remote diagnosis and management
applications, etc.

SDN and NVF for IoT

Software Defined Networking (SDN):
• Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is a networking architecture that separates the control
plane from the data plane and centralizes the network controller.
• Software-based SDN controllers maintain a unified view of the network

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• The underlying infrastructure in SDN uses simple packet forwarding hardware as opposed to
specialized hardware in conventional networks.

SDN Architectur e
Key elements of SDN:
1) Centralized Network Controller
With decoupled control and data planes and centralized network controller, the network
administrators can rapidly configure the network.
2) Programmable Open APIs

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SDN architecture supports programmable open APIs for interface between the SDN application
and control layers (Northbound interface).

3) Standard Communication Interface (Open Flow)

SDN architecture uses a standard communication interface between the control and infrastructure
layers (Southbound interface). Open Flow, which is defined by the Open Networking Foundation
(ONF) is the broadly accepted SDN protocol for the South bound interface.

Network Function Virtualization (NFV)

• Network Function Virtualization (NFV) is a technology that leverages virtualization to
consolidate the heterogeneous network devices onto industry standard high volume servers,
switches and storage.
• NFV is complementary to SDN as NFV can provide the infrastructure on which SDN can run.

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Key elements of NFV:

NFV Architecture
1) Virtualized Network Function (VNF):
VNF is a software implementation of a network function which is capable of running over the
NFV Infrastructure (NFVI).
2) NFV Infrastructure (NFVI):
NFVI includes compute, network and storage resources that are virtualized.
3) NFV Management and Orchestration:
NFV Management and Orchestration focuses on all virtualization-specific management tasks and
covers the orchestration and life-cycle management of physical and/or software resources that
support the infrastructure virtualization, and the life-cycle management of VNFs.

Need for IoT Systems Management

Managing multiple devices within a single system requires advanced management capabilities.
1) Automating Configuration: IoT system management capabilities can help in automating the
system configuration.
2) Monitoring Operational & Statistical Data: Management systems can help in monitoring
opeartional and statistical data of a system. This data can be used for fault diagnosis or
prognosis.
3) Improved Reliability: A management system that allows validating the system
configurations before they are put into effect can help in improving the system reliability.
4) System Wide Configurations: For IoT systems that consists of multiple devices or nodes,
ensuring system wide configuration can be critical for the correct functioning of the system.
5) Multiple System Configurations: For some systems it may be desirable to have multiple
valid configurations which are applied at different times or in certain conditions.
6) Retrieving & Reusing Configurations: Management systems which have the capability of
retrieving configurations from devices can help in reusing the configurations for other devices of
the same type.

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Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP):

🞂 SNMP is a well-known and widely used network management protocol that allows
monitoring and configuring network devices such as routers, switches, servers, printers,
etc.
🞂 SNMP component include
🞂 Network Management Station (NMS)
🞂 Managed Device
🞂 Management Information Base (MIB)
🞂 SNMP Agent that runs on the device

Limitations of SNMP:
🞂 SNMP is stateless in nature and each SNMP request contains all the information
to process the request. The application needs to be intelligent to manage the
device.
🞂 SNMP is a connectionless protocol which uses UDP as the transport protocol, making
it unreliable as there was no support for acknowledgement of requests.
🞂 MIBs often lack writable objects without which device configuration is not possible

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using SNMP.

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🞂 It is difficult to differentiate between configuration and state data in MIBs.

🞂 Retrieving the current configuration from a device can be difficult with SNMP.
🞂 Earlier versions of SNMP did not have strong security features.

Network Operator Requirements:

🞂 Ease of use
🞂 Distinction between configuration and state data
🞂 Fetch configuration and state data separately
🞂 Configuration of the network as a whole
🞂 Configuration transactions across devices
🞂 Configuration deltas
🞂 Dump and restore configurations
🞂 Configuration validation
🞂 Configuration database schemas
🞂 Comparing configurations
🞂 Role-based access control
🞂 Consistency of access control lists:
🞂 Multiple configuration sets
🞂 Support for both data-oriented and task-oriented access control

NETCONF:
🞂 Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a session-based network management
protocol. NETCONF allows retrieving state or configuration data and manipulating
configuration data on network devices

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🞂 NETCONF works on SSH transport protocol.

🞂 Transport layer provides end-to-end connectivity and ensure reliable delivery
of messages.
🞂 NETCONF uses XML-encoded Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) for framing request
and response messages.
🞂 The RPC layer provides mechanism for encoding of RPC calls and notifications.
🞂 NETCONF provides various operations to retrieve and edit configuration data
from network devices.
🞂 The Content Layer consists of configuration and state data which is XML-encoded.
🞂 The schema of the configuration and state data is defined in a data modeling
language called YANG.
🞂 NETCONF provides a clear separation of the configuration and state data.
🞂 The configuration data resides within a NETCONF configuration data store on the server.

YANG:
🞂 YANG is a data modeling language used to model configuration and state
data manipulated by the NETCONF protocol
🞂 YANG modules contain the definitions of the configuration data, state data, RPC
calls that can be issued and the format of the notifications.

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🞂 YANG modules defines the data exchanged between the NETCONF client and server.
🞂 A module comprises of a number of 'leaf' nodes which are organized into a
hierarchical tree structure.
🞂 The 'leaf' nodes are specified using the 'leaf' or 'leaf-list' constructs.
🞂 Leaf nodes are organized using 'container' or 'list' constructs.
🞂 A YANG module can import definitions from other modules.
🞂 Constraints can be defined on the data nodes, e.g. allowed values.
🞂 YANG can model both configuration data and state data using the 'config' statement.
YANG Module Example:
🞂 This YANG module is a YANG version of the toaster MIB
🞂 The toaster YANG module begins with the header information followed by
identity declarations which define various bread types.
🞂 The leaf nodes (‘toaster Manufacturer’, ‘toaster Model Number’ and ‘toaster Status’)
are defined in the ‘toaster’ container.
🞂 Each leaf node definition has a type and optionally a description and default value.
🞂 The module has two RPC definitions (‘make-toast’ and ‘cancel-toast’).

IoT Systems Management with NETCONF-YANG

YANG is a data modeling language used to model configuration and state data manipulated by
the NETCONF protocol.
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The generic approach of IoT device management with NETCONF-YANG. Roles of various
components are:
1) Management System
2) Management API
3) Transaction Manager
4) Rollback Manager
5) Data Model Manager
6) Configuration Validator
7) Configuration Database
8) Configuration API
9) Data Provider API

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Management System: The operator uses a management system to send NETCONF messages to
configure the IoT device and receives state information and notifications from the device as
NETCONF messages.
2) Management API: allows management application to start NETCONF sessions.
3) Transaction Manager: executes all the NETCONF transactions and ensures that ACID
properties hold true for the transactions.
4) Rollback Manager: is responsible for generating all the transactions necessary to rollback a
current configuration to its original state.

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5) Data Model Manager: Keeps track of all the YANG data models and the corresponding
managed objects. Also keeps track of the applications which provide data for each part of a
datam, odel.
6) Configuration Validator: checks if the resulting configuration after applying a transaction
would be a valid configuration.
7) Configuration Database: contains both configuration and operational data.
8) Configuration API: Using the configuration API the application on the IoT device can be
read configuration data from the configuration data store and write operational data to the
operational data store.
9) Data Provider API: Applications on the IoT device can register for callbacks for various
events using the Data Provider API. Through the Data Provider API, the applications can report
statistics and operational data.

Steps for IoT device Management with NETCONF-YANG

1) Create a YANG model of the system that defines the configuration and state data of the
system.
2) Complete the YANG model with the ‗Inc tool‘ which comes with Libnetconf.

3) Fill in the IoT device management code in the Trans API module.

4) Build the callbacks C file to generate the library file.

5) Load the YANG module and the TransAPI module into the Netopeer server using Netopeer
manager tool.

6) The operator can now connect from the management system to the Netopeer server using the
NetopeerCLI.

7) Operator can issue NETCONF commands from the Netopeer CLI. Command can be issued to
change the configuration data, get operational data or execute an RPC on the IoT device.

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UNIT - III

INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON:

Python is one of the most dynamic and versatile programming languages available in the
industry today. Since its inception in the 1990s, Python has become hugely popular and even
today there are thousands who are learning this Object-Oriented Programming language. If you
are new to the world of programming, you have already heard the buzz it has created in recent
times because of the features of Python and must be wondering what makes this programming
language special.
Python is an object-oriented programming language that is designed in C. By nature, it is
a high-level programming language that allows for the creation of both simple as well as
complex operations. Along with this Python comes inbuilt with a wide array of modules as well
as libraries which allows it to support many different programming languages like Java, C, C++,
and JSON.
Python is a general-purpose high level programming language and suitable for providing
a solid foundation to the reader in the area of cloud computing.
The main characteristics of Python are:
1) Multi-paradigm programming language.
2) Python supports more than one programming paradigms including object- oriented
programming and structured programming.
3) Interpreted Language.
4) Python is an interpreted language and does not require an explicit compilation step.
5) The Python interpreter executes the program source code directly, statement by statement, as a
processor or scripting engine does.
6) Interactive Language
7) Python provides an interactive mode in which the user can submit commands at the Python
prompt and interact with the interpreter directly.

Features of Python

As a programming language, the features of Python brought to the table are many. Some of the
most significant features of Python are:

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Easy to Code: Python is a very developer-friendly language which means that anyone and
everyone can learn to code it in a couple of hours or days. As compared to other object-oriented
programming languages like Java, C, C++, and C#, Python is one of the easiest to learn.

Open Source and Free: Python is an open-source programming language which means that
anyone can create and contribute to its development. Python has an online forum where
thousands of coders gather daily to improve this language further. Along with this Python is free
to download and use in any operating system, be it Windows, Mac or Linux.

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Support for GUI: GUI or Graphical User Interface is one of the key aspects of any
programming language because it has the ability to add flair to code and make the results more
visual. Python has support for a wide array of GUIs which can easily be imported to the
interpreter, thus making this one of the most favorite languages for developers.

Object-Oriented Approach: One of the key aspects of Python is its object-oriented approach.
This basically means that Python recognizes the concept of class and object encapsulation thus
allowing programs to be efficient in the long run.

High-Level Language: Python has been designed to be a high-level programming language,

which means that when you code in Python you don’t need to be aware of the coding structure,
architecture as well as memory management.

Integrated by Nature: Python is an integrated language by nature. This means that the python
interpreter executes codes one line at a time. Unlike other object-oriented programming
languages, we don’t need to compile Python code thus making the debugging process much
easier and efficient. Another advantage of this is, that upon execution the Python code is
immediately converted into an intermediate form also known as byte-code which makes it easier
to execute and also saves runtime in the long run.

Highly Portable: Suppose you are running Python on Windows and you need to shift the same
to either a Mac or a Linux system, then you can easily achieve the same in Python without
having to worry about changing the code. This is not possible in other programming languages,
thus making Python one of the most portable languages available in the industry.

Highly Dynamic: As mentioned in an earlier paragraph, Python is one of the most dynamic
languages available in the industry today. What this basically means is that the type of a variable
is decided at the run time and not in advance. Due to the presence of this feature, we do not need
to specify the type of the variable during coding, thus saving time and increasing efficiency.

Extensive Array of Library: Out of the box, Python comes inbuilt with a large number of
libraries that can be imported at any instance and be used in a specific program. The presence of
libraries also makes sure that you don’t need to write all the code yourself and can import the
same from those that already exist in the libraries.

Support for Other Languages: Being coded in C, Python by default supports the execution of
code written in other programming languages such as Java, C, and C#, thus making it one of the
versatile in the industry.

Python Data Types:

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Data types are the classification or categorization of data items. Data types represent a kind of
value which determines what operations can be performed on that data. Numeric, non-numeric
and Boolean (true/false) data are the most used data types. However, each programming
language has its own classification largely reflecting its programming philosophy.

Python has the following standard or built-in data types: Built-in Data Types

In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different things.

Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex
Sequence Types: list, tuple, range
Mapping Type: Dict
Set Types: set, frozenset
Boolean Type: Bool
Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

Numeric

A numeric value is any representation of data which has a numeric value. Python identifies three
types of numbers:

 Integer: Positive or negative whole numbers (without a fractional part)

 Float: Any real number with a floating point representation in which a fractional
component is denoted by a decimal symbol or scientific notation
 Complex number: A number with a real and imaginary component represented as x+yj.
x and y are floats and j is -1(square root of -1 called an imaginary number)

Boolean

Data with one of two built-in values True or False. Notice that 'T' and 'F' are capital. true
and false are not valid booleans and Python will throw an error for them.

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Sequence Type

A sequence is an ordered collection of similar or different data types. Python has the following
built-in sequence data types:

 String: A string value is a collection of one or more characters put in single, double or
triple quotes.
 List : A list object is an ordered collection of one or more data items, not necessarily of
the same type, put in square brackets.
 Tuple: A Tuple object is an ordered collection of one or more data items, not necessarily
of the same type, put in parentheses.

Dictionary

A dictionary object is an unordered collection of data in a key:value pair form. A collection of

such pairs is enclosed in curly brackets. For example: {1:"Steve", 2:"Bill",
3:"Ram", 4: "Farha"}

type() function

Python has an in-built function type() to ascertain the data type of a certain value. For example,
enter type(1234) in Python shell and it will return <class 'int'>, which means 1234 is
an integer value. Try and verify the data type of different values in Python shell, as shown below.

Mutable and Immutable Objects

Data objects of the above types are stored in a computer's memory for processing. Some of these
values can be modified during processing, but contents of others can't be altered once they are
created in the memory.

Number values, strings, and tuple are immutable, which means their contents can't be altered
after creation.

On the other hand, collection of items in a List or Dictionary object can be modified. It is
possible to add, delete, insert, and rearrange items in a list or dictionary. Hence, they are mutable
objects.

types of Data Structures in Python

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Python has implicit support for Data Structures which enable you to store and access data. These
structures are called List, Dictionary, Tuple and Set.

Python allows its users to create their own Data Structures enabling them to have full control
over their functionality. The most prominent Data Structures are Stack, Queue, Tree, Linked List
and so on which are also available to you in other programming languages. So now that you
know what are the types available to you, why don’t we move ahead to the Data Structures and
implement them using Python.

Built-in Data Structures

As the name suggests, these Data Structures are built-in with Python which makes programming
easier and helps programmers use them to obtain solutions faster. Let’s discuss each of them in
detail.

Lists

Lists are used to store data of different data types in a sequential manner. There are addresses
assigned to every element of the list, which is called as Index. The index value starts from 0 and
goes on until the last element called the positive index. There is also negative indexing which
starts from -1 enabling you to access elements from the last to first. Let us now understand lists
better with the help of an example program.

Creating a list

To create a list, you use the square brackets and add elements into it accordingly. If you do not
pass any elements inside the square brackets, you get an empty list as the output.

1my_list = [] #create empty list

2print(my_list)
3my_list = [1, 2, 3, 'example', 3.132] #creating list with data
4print(my_list)

Output:
[]
[1, 2, 3, ‘example’, 3.132]

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Dictionary

Dictionaries are used to store key-value pairs. To understand better, think of a phone directory
where hundreds and thousands of names and their corresponding numbers have been added. Now
the constant values here are Name and the Phone Numbers which are called as the keys. And the
various names and phone numbers are the values that have been fed to the keys. If you access the
values of the keys, you will obtain all the names and phone numbers. So that is what a key-value
pair is. And in Python, this structure is stored using Dictionaries. Let us understand this better
with an example program.

Creating a Dictionary

Dictionaries can be created using the flower braces or using the dict() function. You need to add
the key-value pairs whenever you work with dictionaries.

1my_dict = {} #empty dictionary

2print(my_dict)
3my_dict = {1: 'Python', 2: 'Java'} #dictionary with elements
4print(my_dict)

Output:
{}
{1: ‘Python’, 2: ‘Java’}

Tuple

Tuples are the same as lists are with the exception that the data once entered into the tuple cannot
be changed no matter what. The only exception is when the data inside the tuple is mutable, only
then the tuple data can be changed. The example program will help you understand better.

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Creating a Tuple

You create a tuple using parenthesis or using the tuple() function.

1my_tuple = (1, 2, 3) #create tuple

2print(my_tuple)

Output:
(1, 2, 3)

Sets

Sets are a collection of unordered elements that are unique. Meaning that even if the data is
repeated more than one time, it would be entered into the set only once. It resembles the sets that
you have learnt in arithmetic. The operations also are the same as is with the arithmetic sets. An
example program would help you understand better.

Creating a set

Sets are created using the flower braces but instead of adding key-value pairs, you just pass
values to it.

1my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5} #create set

2print(my_set)

Output:
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

User-Defined Data Structures

Arrays vs. Lists

Arrays and lists are the same structure with one difference. Lists allow heterogeneous data
element storage whereas Arrays allow only homogenous elements to be stored within them.

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Stack

Stacks are linear Data Structures which are based on the principle of Last-In-First-Out (LIFO)
where data which is entered last will be the first to get accessed. It is built using the array
structure and has operations namely, pushing (adding) elements, popping (deleting) elements and
accessing elements only from one point in the stack called as the TOP. This TOP is the pointer to
the current position of the stack. Stacks are prominently used in applications such as Recursive
Programming, reversing words, undo mechanisms in word editors and so forth.

Queue

A queue is also a linear data structure which is based on the principle of First-In-First-Out
(FIFO) where the data entered first will be accessed first. It is built using the array structure and
has operations which can be performed from both ends of the Queue, that is, head-tail or front-
back. Operations such as adding and deleting elements are called En-Queue and De-Queue and
accessing the elements can be performed. Queues are used as Network Buffers for traffic
congestion management, used in Operating Systems for Job Scheduling and many more.

Tree

Trees are non-linear Data Structures which have root and nodes. The root is the node from where
the data originates and the nodes are the other data points that are available to us. The node that
precedes is the parent and the node after is called the child. There are levels a tree has to show
the depth of information. The last nodes are called the leaves. Trees create a hierarchy which can
be used in a lot of real-world applications such as the HTML pages use trees to distinguish which
tag comes under which block. It is also efficient in searching purposes and much more.

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Linked List

Linked lists are linear Data Structures which are not stored consequently but are linked with each
other using pointers. The node of a linked list is composed of data and a pointer called next.
These structures are most widely used in image viewing applications, music player applications
and so forth.

Graph

Graphs are used to store data collection of points called vertices (nodes) and edges (edges).
Graphs can be called as the most accurate representation of a real-world map. They are used to
find the various cost-to-distance between the various data points called as the nodes and hence
find the least path. Many applications such as Google Maps, Uber, and many more use Graphs to
find the least distance and increase profits in the best ways.

HashMaps

HashMaps are the same as what dictionaries are in Python. They can be used to implement
applications such as phonebooks, populate data according to the lists and much more.

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Control Flow Tools:

Besides the while statement just introduced, Python uses the usual flow control statements
known from other languages, with some twists.

1. if Statements

Perhaps the most well-known statement type is the if statement. For example:

>>>

>>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))

Please enter an integer: 42
>>> if x < 0:
... x = 0
... print('Negative changed to zero')
... elif x == 0:
... print('Zero')
... elif x == 1:
... print('Single')
... else:
... print('More')
...
More

There can be zero or more elif parts, and the else part is optional. The keyword ‘elif’ is short for
‘else if’, and is useful to avoid excessive indentation. An if … elif … elif … sequence is a
substitute for the switch or case statements found in other languages.

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2. for Statements

The for statement in Python differs a bit from what you may be used to in C or Pascal. Rather
than always iterating over an arithmetic progression of numbers (like in Pascal), or giving the
user the ability to define both the iteration step and halting condition (as C), Python’s for
statement iterates over the items of any sequence (a list or a string), in the order that they appear
in the sequence. For example (no pun intended):

>>>

>>> # Measure some strings:

... words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
>>> for w in words:
... print(w, len(w))
...
cat 3
window 6
defenestrate 12

Code that modifies a collection while iterating over that same collection can be tricky to get
right. Instead, it is usually more straight-forward to loop over a copy of the collection or to create
a new collection:

# Strategy: Iterate over a copy

for user, status in users.copy().items():
if status == 'inactive':
del users[user]

# Strategy: Create a new collection

active_users = {}
for user, status in users.items():
if status == 'active':
active_users[user] = status

3. The range() Function

If you do need to iterate over a sequence of numbers, the built-in function range() comes in
handy. It generates arithmetic progressions:

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>>>

>>> for i in range(5):

... print(i)
...
0
1
2
3
4

The given end point is never part of the generated sequence; range(10) generates 10 values, the
legal indices for items of a sequence of length 10. It is possible to let the range start at another
number, or to specify a different increment (even negative; sometimes this is called the ‘step’):

range(5, 10)
5, 6, 7, 8, 9

range(0, 10, 3)
0, 3, 6, 9

range(-10, -100, -30)

-10, -40, -70

To iterate over the indices of a sequence, you can combine range() and len() as follows:

>>>

>>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']

>>> for i in range(len(a)):
... print(i, a[i])
...
0 Mary
1 had
2a
3 little
4 lamb

In most such cases, however, it is convenient to use the enumerate() function, see Looping
Techniques.
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A strange thing happens if you just print a range:

>>>

>>> print(range(10))
range(0, 10)

In many ways the object returned by range() behaves as if it is a list, but in fact it isn’t. It is an
object which returns the successive items of the desired sequence when you iterate over it, but it
doesn’t really make the list, thus saving space.

We say such an object is iterable, that is, suitable as a target for functions and constructs that
expect something from which they can obtain successive items until the supply is exhausted. We
have seen that the for statement is such a construct, while an example of a function that takes an
iterable is sum():

>>>

>>> sum(range(4)) # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
6

Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take iterables as arguments. Lastly,
maybe you are curious about how to get a list from a range. Here is the solution:

>>>

>>> list(range(4))
[0, 1, 2, 3]

In chapter Data Structures, we will discuss in more detail about list().

4. break and continue Statements, and else Clauses on Loops

The break statement, like in C, breaks out of the innermost enclosing for or while loop.

Loop statements may have an else clause; it is executed when the loop terminates through
exhaustion of the iterable (with for) or when the condition becomes false (with while), but not
when the loop is terminated by a break statement. This is exemplified by the following loop,
which searches for prime numbers:

>>>
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>>> for n in range(2, 10):

... for x in range(2, n):
... if n % x == 0:
... print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
... break
... else:
... # loop fell through without finding a factor
... print(n, 'is a prime number')
...
2 is a prime number
3 is a prime number
4 equals 2 * 2
5 is a prime number
6 equals 2 * 3
7 is a prime number
8 equals 2 * 4
9 equals 3 * 3

(Yes, this is the correct code. Look closely: the else clause belongs to the for loop, not the if
statement.)

When used with a loop, the else clause has more in common with the else clause of a try
statement than it does with that of if statements: a try statement’s else clause runs when no
exception occurs, and a loop’s else clause runs when no break occurs. For more on the try
statement and exceptions, see Handling Exceptions.

The continue statement, also borrowed from C, continues with the next iteration of the loop:

>>>

>>> for num in range(2, 10):

... if num % 2 == 0:
... print("Found an even number", num)
... continue
... print("Found an odd number",
num) Found an even number 2
Found an odd number 3
Found an even number 4
Found an odd number 5

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Found an even number 6

Found an odd number 7
Found an even number 8
Found an odd number 9

5. pass Statements

The pass statement does nothing. It can be used when a statement is required syntactically but
the program requires no action. For example:

>>>

>>> while True:

... pass # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
...

This is commonly used for creating minimal classes:

>>>

>>> class MyEmptyClass:

... pass
...

Another place pass can be used is as a place-holder for a function or conditional body when you
are working on new code, allowing you to keep thinking at a more abstract level. The pass is
silently ignored:

>>>

>>> def initlog(*args):

... pass # Remember to implement this!
...

Functions:

We can create a function that writes the Fibonacci series to an arbitrary boundary:

>>>

>>> def fib(n): # write Fibonacci series up to n

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... """Print a Fibonacci series up to n."""

... a, b = 0, 1
... while a < n:
... print(a, end=' ')
... a, b = b, a+b
... print()
...
>>> # Now call the function we just defined:
... fib(2000)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

The keyword def introduces a function definition. It must be followed by the function name and
the parenthesized list of formal parameters. The statements that form the body of the function
start at the next line, and must be indented.

The first statement of the function body can optionally be a string literal; this string literal is the
function’s documentation string, or docstring. (More about docstrings can be found in the section
Documentation Strings) There are tools which use docstrings to automatically produce online or
printed documentation, or to let the user interactively browse through code; it’s good practice to
include docstrings in code that you write, so make a habit of it.

The execution of a function introduces a new symbol table used for the local variables of the
function. More precisely, all variable assignments in a function store the value in the local
symbol table; whereas variable references first look in the local symbol table, then in the local
symbol tables of enclosing functions, then in the global symbol table, and finally in the table of
built-in names. Thus, global variables and variables of enclosing functions cannot be directly
assigned a value within a function (unless, for global variables, named in a global statement, or,
for variables of enclosing functions, named in a nonlocal statement), although they may be
referenced.

The actual parameters (arguments) to a function call are introduced in the local symbol table of
the called function when it is called; thus, arguments are passed using call by value (where the
value is always an object reference, not the value of the object). When a function calls another
function, a new local symbol table is created for that call.

A function definition associates the function name with the function object in the current symbol
table. The interpreter recognizes the object pointed to by that name as a user-defined function.
Other names can also point to that same function object and can also be used to access the
function:

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>>> fib
<function fib at 10042ed0>
>>> f = fib
>>> f(100)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

Coming from other languages, you might object that fib is not a function but a procedure since it
doesn’t return a value. In fact, even functions without a return statement do return a value, albeit
a rather boring one. This value is called None (it’s a built-in name). Writing the value None is
normally suppressed by the interpreter if it would be the only value written. You can see it if you
really want to using print():

>>>

>>> fib(0)
>>> print(fib(0))
None

It is simple to write a function that returns a list of the numbers of the Fibonacci series, instead of
printing it:

>>>

>>> def fib2(n): # return Fibonacci series up to n

... """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
... result = []
... a, b = 0, 1
... while a < n:
... result.append(a) # see below
... a, b = b, a+b
... return result
...
>>> f100 = fib2(100) # call it
>>> f100 # write the result
[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

This example, as usual, demonstrates some new Python features:

 The return statement returns with a value from a function. return without an expression
argument returns None. Falling off the end of a function also returns None.
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 The statement result.append(a) calls a method of the list object result. A method is a
function that ‘belongs’ to an object and is named obj.methodname, where obj is some
object (this may be an expression), and methodname is the name of a method that is
defined by the object’s type. Different types define different methods. Methods of
different types may have the same name without causing ambiguity. (It is possible to
define your own object types and methods, using classes, see Classes) The method
append() shown in the example is defined for list objects; it adds a new element at the
end of the list. In this example it is equivalent to result = result + [a], but more
efficient.

4.7. More on Defining Functions

It is also possible to define functions with a variable number of arguments. There are three
forms, which can be combined.

4.7.1. Default Argument Values

The most useful form is to specify a default value for one or more arguments. This creates a
function that can be called with fewer arguments than it is defined to allow. For example:

def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):

while True:
ok = input(prompt)
if ok in ('y', 'ye', 'yes'):
return True
if ok in ('n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'):
return False
retries = retries - 1
if retries < 0:
raise ValueError('invalid user response')
print(reminder)

This function can be called in several ways:

 giving only the mandatory argument: ask_ok('Do you really want to quit?')
 giving one of the optional arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2)
 or even giving all arguments: ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2, 'Come on, only
yes or no!')

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This example also introduces the in keyword. This tests whether or not a sequence contains a
certain value.

The default values are evaluated at the point of function definition in the defining scope, so that

i=5

def f(arg=i):
print(arg)

i=6
f()

will print 5.

Important warning: The default value is evaluated only once. This makes a difference when
the default is a mutable object such as a list, dictionary, or instances of most classes. For
example, the following function accumulates the arguments passed to it on subsequent calls:

def f(a, L=[]):

L.append(a)
return L

print(f(1))
print(f(2))
print(f(3))

This will

print

[1]
[1, 2]
[1, 2, 3]

If you don’t want the default to be shared between subsequent calls, you can write the function
like this instead:

def f(a, L=None):

if L is None:
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L = []

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L.append(a)
return L

2. Keyword Arguments

Functions can also be called using keyword arguments of the form kwarg=value. For instance,
the following function:

def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):

print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
print("if you put", voltage, "volts through
it.") print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
print("-- It's", state, "!")

accepts one required argument (voltage) and three optional arguments (state, action, and type).
This function can be called in any of the following ways:

parrot(1000) # 1 positional argument

parrot(voltage=1000) # 1 keyword argument
parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM') # 2 keyword
arguments parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000) # 2 keyword
arguments parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump') # 3 positional
arguments
parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies') # 1 positional, 1 keyword

but all the following calls would be invalid:

parrot() # required argument missing

parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead') # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
parrot(110, voltage=220) # duplicate value for the same argument
parrot(actor='John Cleese') # unknown keyword argument

In a function call, keyword arguments must follow positional arguments. All the keyword
arguments passed must match one of the arguments accepted by the function (e.g. actor is not a
valid argument for the parrot function), and their order is not important. This also includes non-
optional arguments (e.g. parrot(voltage=1000) is valid too). No argument may receive a value
more than once. Here’s an example that fails due to this restriction:

>>>

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>>> def function(a):

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... pass
...
>>> function(0, a=0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: function() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'

When a final formal parameter of the form **name is present, it receives a dictionary (see
Mapping Types — dict) containing all keyword arguments except for those corresponding to a
formal parameter. This may be combined with a formal parameter of the form *name (described
in the next subsection) which receives a tuple containing the positional arguments beyond the
formal parameter list. (*name must occur before **name.) For example, if we define a function
like this:

def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):

print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
for arg in arguments:
print(arg)
print("-" * 40)
for kw in keywords:
print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

It could be called like this:

cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",

"It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
client="John Cleese",
sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

and of course it would print:

-- Do you have any Limburger ?

-- I'm sorry, we're all out of
Limburger It's very runny, sir.
It's really very, VERY runny, sir.

shopkeeper : Michael Palin

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client : John Cleese

sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

Note that the order in which the keyword arguments are printed is guaranteed to match the order
in which they were provided in the function call.

3. Special parameters

By default, arguments may be passed to a Python function either by position or explicitly by

keyword. For readability and performance, it makes sense to restrict the way arguments can be
passed so that a developer need only look at the function definition to determine if items are
passed by position, by position or keyword, or by keyword.

A function definition may look like:

def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

| | |
| Positional or keyword |
| - Keyword only
-- Positional only

where / and * are optional. If used, these symbols indicate the kind of parameter by how the
arguments may be passed to the function: positional-only, positional-or-keyword, and keyword-
only. Keyword parameters are also referred to as named parameters.

3.1. Positional-or-Keyword Arguments

If / and * are not present in the function definition, arguments may be passed to a function by
position or by keyword.

3.2. Positional-Only Parameters

Looking at this in a bit more detail, it is possible to mark certain parameters as positional-only. If
positional-only, the parameters’ order matters, and the parameters cannot be passed by keyword.
Positional-only parameters are placed before a / (forward-slash). The / is used to logically
separate the positional-only parameters from the rest of the parameters. If there is no / in the
function definition, there are no positional-only parameters.

Parameters following the / may be positional-or-keyword or keyword-only.

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3.3. Keyword-Only Arguments

To mark parameters as keyword-only, indicating the parameters must be passed by keyword

argument, place an * in the arguments list just before the first keyword-only parameter.

3.4. Function Examples

Consider the following example function definitions paying close attention to the markers / and
*:

>>>

>>> def standard_arg(arg):

... print(arg)
...
>>> def pos_only_arg(arg, /):
... print(arg)
...
>>> def kwd_only_arg(*, arg):
... print(arg)
...
>>> def combined_example(pos_only, /, standard, *, kwd_only):
... print(pos_only, standard, kwd_only)

The first function definition, standard_arg, the most familiar form, places no restrictions on the
calling convention and arguments may be passed by position or keyword:

>>>

>>> standard_arg(2)
2

>>> standard_arg(arg=2)

Modules and Packages:

In programming, a module is a piece of software that has a specific functionality. For

example, when building a ping pong game, one module would be responsible for the game logic,

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and another module would be responsible for drawing the game on the screen. Each module is a
different file, which can be edited separately.

Writing modules

Modules in Python are simply Python files with a .py extension. The name of the module will be
the name of the file. A Python module can have a set of functions, classes or variables defined
and implemented.

The Python script game.py will implement the game. It will use the function draw_game
from the file draw.py, or in other words, thedraw module, that implements the logic for
drawing the game on the screen.

Importing module objects to the current namespace

You may have noticed that in this example, draw_game does not precede with the
name of the module it is imported from, because we've specified the module name in the
import command.

The advantages of using this notation is that it is easier to use the functions inside the
current module because you don't need to specify which module the function comes from.
However, any namespace cannot have two objects with the exact same name, so the import
command may replace an existing object in the namespace.

Importing all objects from a module

This might be a bit risky as changes in the module might affect the module which imports
it, but it is shorter and also does not require you to specify which objects you wish to import
from the module.

Custom import name

We may also load modules under any name we want. This is useful when we want to
import a module conditionally to use the same name in the rest of the code.

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Module initialization

The first time a module is loaded into a running Python script, it is initialized by
executing the code in the module once. If another module in your code imports the same module
again, it will not be loaded twice but once only - so local variables inside the module act as a
"singleton" - they are initialized only once.

This is useful to know, because this means that you can rely on this behavior for initializing
objects.

Extending module load path

There are a couple of ways we could tell the Python interpreter where to look for
modules, aside from the default, which is the local directory and the built-in modules. You could
either use the environment variable PYTHONPATH to specify additional directories to look for
modules.

This will execute game.py, and will enable the script to load modules from the foo
directory as well as the local directory.

Another method is the sys.path.append function.

Exploring built-in modules

Check out the full list of built-in modules in the Python standard library here.

Two very important functions come in handy when exploring modules in Python - the dir and
help functions.

If we want to import the module urllib, which enables us to create read data from
URLs.

When we find the function in the module we want to use, we can read about it more using the
help function, inside the Python interpreter:

 script.py

 IPython Shell

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Writing packages:

Packages are namespaces which contain multiple packages and modules themselves.
They are simply directories, but with a twist.

Each package in Python is a directory which MUST contain a special file called
init .py. This file can be empty, and it indicates that the directory it contains is a Python
package, so it can be imported the same way a module can be imported.

If we create a directory called foo, which marks the package name, we can then create a
module inside that package called bar. We also must not forget to add the init .py file
inside the foo directory.

To use the module bar, we can import it in two ways:

 script.py

 IPython Shell.

UNIT – IV
IoT Physical Devices and Endpoints

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IoT Device
A "Thing" in Internet of Things (IoT) can be any object that has a unique identifier and which
can send/receive data (including user data) over a network (e.g., smart phone, smart TV,
computer, refrigerator, car, etc.).
• IoT devices are connected to the Internet and send information about themselves or about their
surroundings (e.g. information sensed by the connected sensors) over a network (to other devices
or servers/storage) or allow actuation upon the physical entities/environment around them
remotely.

IoT Device Examples

A home automation device that allows remotely monitoring the status of appliances and
controlling the appliances.
• An industrial machine which sends information a bouts its operation and health monitoring data
to a server.
• A car which sends information about its location to a cloud-based service.
• A wireless-enabled wearable device that measures data about a person such as the number of steps
walked and sends the data to a cloud-based service.
Basic building blocks of an IoT Device
1. Sensing: Sensors can be either on-board the IoT device or attached to thedevice.
2. Actuation: IoT devices can have various types of actuators attached that allow taking actions
upon the physical entities in the vicinity of thedevice.
3. Communication: Communication modules are responsible for sending collected data to other
devices or cloud-based servers/storage and receiving data from other devices and commands
from remote applications.
4. Analysis & Processing: Analysis and processing modules are responsible for making sense of
the collecteddata.

Block diagram of an IoT Device

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Exemplary Device: Raspberry Pi

Raspberry Pi is a low-cost mini-computer with the physical size of a credit card.
Raspberry Pi runs various flavors of Linux and can perform almost all tasks that a normal
desktop computer can do. Raspberry Pi also allows interfacing sensors and actuators through the
general purpose I/O pins. Since Raspberry Pi runs Linux operating system, it supports Python
"out of the box". Raspberry Pi is a low-cost mini-computer with the physical size of a credit
card. Raspberry Pi runs various flavors of Linux and can perform almost all tasks that a normal
desktop computer can do. Raspberry Pi also allows interfacing sensors and actuators through the
general purpose I/O pins. Since Raspberry Pi runs Linux operating system, it supports Python
"out of the box".

Raspberry Pi

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Linux on Raspberry Pi
1. Raspbian: Raspbian Linux is a Debian Wheezy port optimized for RaspberryPi.
2. Arch: Arch is an Arch Linux port for AMDdevices.
3. Pidora: Pidora Linux is a Fedora Linux optimized for RaspberryPi.
4. RaspBMC: RaspBMC is an XBMC media-center distribution for RaspberryPi.
5. OpenELEC: OpenELEC is a fast and user-friendly XBMC media-centerdistribution.
6. RISC OS: RISC OS is a very fast and compact operatingsystem.

Raspberry Pi GPIO

Raspberry Pi Interfaces

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1. Serial: The serial interface on Raspberry Pi has receive (Rx) and transmit (Tx) pins for
communication with serialperipherals.
2. SPI: Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a synchronous serial data protocol used for
communicating with one or more peripheraldevices.
3. I2C: The I2C interface pins on Raspberry Pi allow you to connect hardware modules. I2C
interface allows synchronous data transfer with just two pins - SDA (data line) and SCL
(clockline).

Raspberry Pi Example: Interfacing LED and switch with Raspberry Pi

from time import sleeP import RPi.GPIO asGPIO GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)

#Switch Pin GPIO.setup(25,GPIO.IN) #LEDPin
GPIO.setup(18,GPIO.OUT)
state=false
deftoggleLED(pin):
state = not state GPIO.output(pin,state)
whileTrue:
try:
if (GPIO.input(25) ==True):
toggleLED(pin)
sleep(.01)
exceptKeyboardInterrupt:
exit()
Other Devices
1. pcDuino
2. BeagleBoneBlack
3. Cubieboard

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UNIT
IV

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Case Study in IoT: Smart Cities

The Internet-of-Things (IoT) is the novel cutting-edge technology which proffers to connect
plethora of digital devices endowed with several sensing, actuation and computing capabilities
with the Internet, thus offers manifold new services in the context of a smart city. The appealing
IoT services and big data analytics are enabling smart city initiatives all over the world. These
services are transforming cities by improving infrastructure, transportation systems, reduced
traffic congestion, waste management and the quality of human life. In this paper, we devise a
taxonomy to best bring forth a generic overview of IoT paradigm for smart cities, integrated
information and communication technologies (ICT), network types, possible opportunities and
major requirements. Moreover, an overview of the up-to-date efforts from standard bodies is
presented. Later, we give an overview of existing open source IoT platforms for realizing smart
city applications followed by several exemplary case studies. In addition, we summarize the
latest synergies and initiatives worldwide taken to promote IoT in the context of smart cities.
Finally, we highlight several challenges in order to give future research directions

An illustration of IoT based smart city

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A representation of IoT based smart city taxonomy

IOT BASED SMART CITY TAXONOMY
This section presents a taxonomy of IoT based smart cities which categorizes the
literature on the basis of existing communication protocols, major service providers, network
types, standardization efforts, offered services, and crucial requirements.
Communication Protocols
IoT based smart city realization significantly relies on numerous short and wide range
communication protocols to transport data between devices and backend servers. Most
prominent short range wireless technologies include Zig-Bee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Wireless
Metropolitan Area Network (WiMAX) and IEEE 802.11p which are primarily used in smart
metering, e-healthcare and vehicular communication. Wide range technologies such as Global
System for Mobile communication (GSM) and GPRS, Long-Term Evolution (LTE), LTE-
Advanced are commonly utilized in ITS such as vehicle-to infrastructure (V2I), mobile e-
healthcare, smart grid and infotainment services. Additionally, LTE-M is considered as an
evolution for cellular IoT (C-IoT). In Release 13, 3GPP plans to further improve coverage,
battery lifetime as well as device complexity [7]. Besides well-known existing protocols, LoRa
alliance standardizes the LoRaWAN protocol to support smart city applications to primarily
ensure interoperability between several operators. Moreover, SIGFOX is an ultra narrowband
radio technology with full star-based infrastructure offers a high scalable global network for

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realizing smart city applications with extremely low power consumption. A comparative
summary2 of the major communicationprotocols.
Service Providers
Pike Research on smart cities estimated this market will grow to hundreds of billion dollars by
2020, with an annual growth of nearly 16 billion. IoT is recognized as a potential source to
increase revenue of service providers. Thus, well-known worldwide service providers have
already started exploring this novel cutting edge communication paradigm. Major service
providers include Telefonica, SK telecom, Nokia, Ericsson, Vodafone, NTT Docomo, Orange,
Telenor group and AT&T which offer variety of services and platforms for smart city
applications such as ITS and logistics, smart metering, home automation and e-healthcare.
Network Types
IoT based smart city applications rely on numerous network topologies to accomplish a
fully autonomous environment. The capillary IoT networks offer services over a short range.
Examples include wireless local area networks (WLANs), BANs and wireless personal area
networks (WPANs). The application areas include indoor e-healthcare services, home
automation, street lighting. On the other hand, applications such as ITS, mobile e-healthcare and
waste management use wide area networks (WANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs),and
mobile communication networks. The above networks pose distinct features in terms of data,
size, coverage, latency requirements, and capacity.
Case Study in IoT: Smart Environment
The rapid advancements in communication technologies and the explosive growth of
Internet of Things (IoT) have enabled the physical world to invisibly interweave with actuators,
sensors, and other computational elements while maintaining continuous network connectivity.
The continuously connected physical world with computational elements forms a smart
environment. A smart environment aims to support and enhance the abilities of its dwellers in
executing their tasks, such as navigating through unfamiliar space and moving heavy objects for
the elderly, to name a few. Researchers have conducted a number of efforts to use IoT to
facilitate our lives and to investigate the effect of IoTbased smart environments on human life.
This paper surveys the state-of-the-art research efforts to enable the IoT-based smart
environments. We categorize and classify the literature by devising a taxonomy based on
communication enablers, network types, technologies, local area wireless standards, objectives,
and characteristics. Moreover, the paper highlights the unprecedented opportunities brought
about by IoT-based smart environments and their effect on human life. Some reported case
studies from different enterprises are also presented. Finally, we discuss open research
challenges for enabling IoT-based smart environments. Immense developments and increasing
miniaturization of computer technology have enabled tiny sensors and processors to be
integrated into everyday objects. This advancement is further supported by tremendous
developments in areas such as portable appliances and devices, pervasive computing, wireless

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sensor networking, wireless mobile communications, machine learning-based decision making,

IPv6 support, human computer interfaces, and agent technologies to make the dream of smart
environment a reality. A smart environment is a connected small world where sensor-enabled
connected devices work collaboratively to make the lives of dwellers comfortable. The term
smart refers to the ability to autonomouslyobtain and applies knowledge; and the term
environment refers to the surroundings. Therefore, a smart environment is one that is capable of
obtaining knowledge and applying it to adapt according to its inhabitants‘ needs to ameliorate
their experience of that environment.
The functional capabilities of smart objects are further enhanced by interconnecting them
with other objects using different wireless technologies. In this context, IPv6 plays a vital role
because of several features, including better security mechanisms, scalability in case of billion of
connected devices, and the elimination of NAT barriers1. This concept of connecting smart
objects with the Internet was first coined by Kevin Ashton as ―Internet of Things‖ (IoT).
Nowadays, IoT is receiving attention in a number of fields such as healthcare, transport, and
industry, among others. Several research efforts have been conducted to integrate IoT with smart
environments. The integration of IoT with a smart environment extends the capabilities of smart
objects by enabling the user to monitor the environment from remote sites. IoT can be integrated
with different smart environments based on the application requirements. The work on IoT-based
smart environments can generally be classified into the following areas: a) smart cities, b) smart
homes, c) smart grid, d) smart buildings, e) smart transportation, f) smart health, and g) smart
industry. illustrates the IoT-based smart environments. The taxonomy of the IoT based smart
environment. The devised taxonomy is based on the following parameters: communication
enablers, network types, technologies, wireless standards, objectives, and characteristics
Communication Enablers
Communication enablers refer to wireless technologies used to communicate across the Internet.
The key wireless Internet technologies are WiFi, 3G, 4G, and satellite. WiFi is mainly used in
smart homes, smart cities, smart transportation, smart industries, and smart building
environments; whereas, 3G and 4G are mainly used in smart cities and smart grid environments.
Satellites are used in smart transportation, smart cities, and smart grid environments. Table
presents the comparative summary of the communication technologies used in IoT based smart
environments.
Network Types
IoT-based smart environments rely on different types of networks to perform the collaborative
tasks for making the lives of inhabitants more comfortable. The main networks are wireless local
area networks (WLANs), wireless personal area networks (WPANs), wide area networks
(WANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wireless regional area networks (WRANs).
These networks have different characteristics in terms of size, data transfer, and supported reach
ability.

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Technologies
IoT-based smart environments leverage various technologies to form a comfortable and suitable
ecosystem. These technologies are include sensing, communication, data fusion, emerging
computing, and information security. Sensing technologies are commonly used to acquire data
from various locations and transmit it using communication technologies to a central location.
The emerging computing technologies, such as cloud computing and fog computing, deployed in
the central location, leverage the data fusion technologies for integrating the data coming from
heterogeneous resources. In addition, smart environments also use information security
technologies to ensure data integrity and user privacy.
Local Area Wireless Standards
The commonly used local area wireless standards in IoT-based smart environments are IEEE
802.11, IEEE 802.15.1, and IEEE 802.15.4. These standard technologies are used inside the
smart environment to transfer the collected data among different devices. IEEE 802.11 is used in
smart homes, smart buildings, and smart cities. IEEE 802.15.1 and IEEE 802.15.4 have relatively
shorter coverage than IEEE 802.11 and are used mainly in sensors and other objects deployed in
the smart environments.

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