APPROACH, METHOD, AND

TECHNIQUE OF TEFL

NAMA : AFRIO R.G. PASARIBU

NPM : 1801030106

DOSEN PENGAMPUH : Anita Sitanggang, S.Pd M.Pd/DBM

FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN PRODI

PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS

UNIVERSITAS HKBP NOMMENSEN PEMATANGSIANTAR

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 PREFACE

I extend my praise and thanks to God Almighty who until now still allows me and all of
us to enjoy His love and grace so that I can finish this paper on time.

I am also very grateful to the caregiver lecturer who helped me in preparing this paper,
through the explanation of the material to compile any explanations that I understood based on
my understanding during the approach, methods, and technique of TEFL course.

I am also from the author realizing that this paper is not entirely perfect. For this reason,
I ask all parties, especially readers or listeners, to give criticism and suggestions that will build
the progress of this article in the future.

Hopefully this paper useful for us all. Thank you for your attention.

Pematangsiantar, July 21, 2020

(Writer)

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ………………………………………………………………………. 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………. 3

CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION ………………..……………………………. 4

CHAPTER II : DISCUSSION ……………………………………………….... 5

A. COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING ………………...5

B. COMMUNICATIVE-LANGUAGE TEACHING…………………….12
C. COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING…………………21

D. TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING…………………………….26

E. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH-BASED LEARNING STRATEGY……..32

CHAPTER III : CONCLUSION ……………………………………………….39

REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………42

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 INTRODUCTION

The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a
method which is consist with an approach. An approach is a set of correlative assumptions
dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes
the nature of the subject matter to be taught. Method is an overall plan for the orderly
presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon,
the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method procedural. Within one approach,
there can be many methods. A technique is implementational – that which actually takes place in
a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate
objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an
approach as well. (Anthony 1963, p. 63-7 apud Richards and Rodgers, 1999, p.15)”

We see approach and method treated at that level of design, that level in which
objectives, syllabus, and content are determined, and in which the roles of teachers, learners, and
instructional materials are specified. The implementation phase we refer to by the slightly more
comprehensive term procedure. Thus, a method is theoretically related to an approach, is
organizationally determined by a design, and is practically realized in procedure” (ibid, p. 16)

The first level, approach, defines those assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature
of language and the nature of language learning which operate as axiomatic constructs or
reference points and provide a theoretical foundation for what language teachers ultimately do
with learners in classrooms. The second level in the system, design, specifies the relationship of
theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials and
activities in instructional settings. The third level, procedure comprises the classroom techniques
and practices which are consequences of particular approaches and designs.” (Richards, &
Rodgers, 1986, p. 154 apud Kumaravadivelu, 2006, p. 86)

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 DISCUSSION

1. Competency-Based Language Teaching

A. Fundamental Concept
I. Background
Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) is an application of the
principles of competency-based education. It concerns accountability, management and
quantification. CBLT focuses on the competencies and outputs. If teaching competencies
becomes an end in itself, stakeholders become the object rather that the subjects of the
educational process. On the other hand, if competencies are seen as tools to enable
learners to act for change in their lives, critical thinking will be promoted. After a brief
history, this article introduces competency-based language teaching. Then it will be
followed by how it will be evaluated. Finally the pros and cons of this kind of instruction
are elaborated in details.
Competency-based education can be traced back to the philosophy of
experimentalism and to the work of John Dewey in early 1900’s. Its antecedents include
vocational education and progressive education (Flowers 1990; Stoffle & Pryor 1980).
Nunan (2007) reviews ESL instruction over the last twenty years and states that
standard-based approaches to instructional design developed within a behavioral
paradigm. These approaches include the objective movement, competency-based
education and the standards movement. In the objectives movement, objectives were
defined in terms of performance by which output were emphasized rather than input.
Behavioral or performance objectives describe what the learner rather than the teacher is
to do . They also specify observable learner behavior. According to Nunan (1988)
performance objectives include three elements. First, there is a performance component
which states what the learner is to be able to do. Second, a condition component specifies
the circumstances and conditions under which learners are to perform the task. The third
element is a standards component which indicates how well the task is to be performed.

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 In the 1970’s objectives-driven curricula were criticized. Critics assert that the
important outcomes of education were under-emphasized. Furthermore, they believe
specification of objectives a prior prevents teachers from taking advantages of
opportunities occurring unexpectedly in the classroom. In addition, it was argued that
outcomes rather than behavior change are important in education. Another problem was
that there were hundreds of details to be taken into account in curriculum development.

II. Theories
Before considering competency-based language teaching, it is necessary to clarify
what is meant by competency. Mrowicki (1986, as citied in Weddle, 2006) defines
competencies as follows:
Competencies consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes,
and behaviors required for effective performance of a real-world task or activity. These
activities may be related to any domain of life, though have typically been linked to the
field of work and to social survival in a new environment. (p. 2)
Richards and Rodgers (2001) cite Docking (1994) who defines competency as
An element of competency can be defined as any attribute of an individual that
contributes to the successful performance of a task, job, function, or activity in a
academic setting and/or a work setting. This includes specific knowledge, thinking
processes, attitudes, and perceptual and physical skills. (p. 145)
Therefore, competency might be a task, a role, a function which changes over time, and
will vary from context to context. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001),
competency-based language teaching (CBLT) focuses on outcomes of learning. CBLT
addresses what the learners are expected to do rather than what they are expected to learn
about. This approach originates from competency-based education (CBE), an educational
movement emerging in the United States in the 1970’s. CBLT advocates defining
educational goals in terms of precise measurable descriptions of knowledge, skills, and
behaviors students should possesses at the end of a course of study. Nunan (2007) adds
that standards are important to CBLT. Competency-based language teaching lies within

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behavioral tradition and competencies have a strong resemblance to performance
objectives in that it focuses on what learners should be able to do.

III.Objectives
However, one difference between competencies and performance objectives is the
level of generality. That is, objectives are more specific than competencies. The
following are some required competencies for the area of retaining job provide by
Mrowicki (1986 as citied in Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
 Follow instructions to carry out a task.
 Respond appropriately to supervisor’s comments.
 Request supervisor to check work.
 Request supplies.
 State problem and ask for help if necessary.

B. Teacher’s and Learners’ Role & Learning Activities

According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), the most recent manifestation of
competency perspectives is the standards movement. It is the current trend in
performance-based curriculum development which has dominated educational
discussions since the 1990s. The term standard refers to “what students should know and
be able to do” (Nunan, 2007, p. 428). Other terms may be used for standards such as
benchmarks, bandscales or profiles (McKay, 2007). Nunan (2007) asserts that again the
major difference between competencies and standards is the level of generality. McKay
(2007) states that standards are divided into substandard such as content standards and
performance standards. Content standards specify curriculum goal, whereas performance
standards specify what ought to be learned at one level or another. In addition, a standard
is divided into different components. The following example is from the ESL standards
for grade pre K-3
Goal:
 To use English to communicate in social settings.

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Standard:
 Students will use English to participate in social interactions

Descriptors:
 Sharing and requesting information
 Expressing needs, feelings and ideas
 Using nonverbal communication in social interactions
 Getting personal needs met
 Engaging in conversation
 Conducting transactions

Sample Progress Indicators:

 Engage listener’s attention verbally non-verbally
 Volunteer information and respond to request about self and family
 Elicit information and ask clarification questions
 Clarify and restate information as needed
 Describe feelings and emotions after watching a movie
 Indicate interests, opinions, or preferences related to class projects
 Give and ask for permission
 Offer and respond to greetings, compliments, invitations, instructions, and
farewells
 Negotiate solutions to problems, interpersonal misunderstandings, and disputes
 Read and write invitiations and thank you letters
 Use the telephone (Short et al. 1997 as citied in Nunan, 2007)

C. Language Area and Skills

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 The above example is taken from ESL Standards for pre K -12 Standards which are
specified by the Association of TESOL in the United States. The standards are organized
around three goals and nine standards. Furthermore, each standard is explained by
descriptors, sample progress indicators, and classroom vignettes with discussions.
Aurebach (1986) refers to six key features as a framework for CBE programs in ESL.
The factors are as follows:
1. A focuses on successful functioning in society. The goal is to enable students to
become autonomous individuals capable of coping with the demands of the world.
2. A focus on life skills: Rather than teaching language in isolation. CBAE/ESL
teaches language as a function of communication about concrete tasks. Students
are taught just those language forms/skills required by the situations in which they
will function. These forms are determined by “empirical assessment of language
required” (Findley & Nathan, 1980, p. 224).
3. Task - or performance – centered orientation: What counts is what students can do
as a result of instruction. The emphasis is on overt behaviors rather than on
knowledge or the ability to talk about language and skills.
4. Modularized instruction: “Language learning is broken down into manageable
and immediately meaningful chunks” (Center for Applied Linguistics, 1983, p. 2).
Objectives are broken into narrowly focused sub-objectives so that both teachers
and students can get a clear sense of progress.
5. Outcomes which are made explicit a priori: Outcomes are public knowledge,
known and agreed upon by both learner and teacher. They are specified in terms
of behavioral objectives so that students know exactly what behaviors are
expected of them.
6. Continuous and ongoing assessment: Student are pretested to determine what
skills they lack and post-tested after instruction in that skill. If they do not achieve
the desired level of mastery, they continue to work on the objective and are
retested. Program evaluation is based on test result and, as such, is considered
objectively quantifiable.

D. Evaluation

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 As mentioned earlier CBLT focuses on outcomes or competencies. Stoffle and Pryor
(1980) assert that assessment of the students’ performance is best accomplished under
actual conditions. However, this approach is very expensive and usually not feasible.
Most learners are assessed using multiple-choice tests, simulations, games, etc. Council
on Education for Public Health (2006) adds that CBE often requires more complex
assessment including portofolios and role-playing. In CBLT programs, assessment is
criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced. It criterion-referenced assessment,
scores are interpreted with respect to a specific level or domain of ability, while in norm-
referenced assessment, scores are interpreted in relation to the performance of a particular
group of individuals (Backman, 1990). Criterion-referenced testing in diagnostic.
“Learners are able to obtain useful diagnostic feedback on their progress and achievement
since explicit criteria are provided against which they can compare their performance”
(Nunan, 2007, p. 425) Criterion-based assessment procedures measure how well learners
can perform on specific learing tasks (Docking, 1994 as citied in Richards and Rodgers,
2001).

E. Strength and Weakness

There are several advantages of a CBLT. First of all, CBLT focuses “on language as a
tool for communication rather than on language knowledge as and end itself” (Nunan,
2007, p. 425). It promotes responsible and accountable teaching (Findley & Nathan
1980). Referring to benefits of CBE, Norton (1987, as citied in Sullivan, 1995) states that
in CBE learners’ confidence is enhanced because they can achieve competencies required
in the performance in real life. Another benefit is that, the instructor in CBE is a
facilitator and more training time is devoted to working with learners individually or in
small groups rather than presenting lectures. Richards and Rodgers (2001) mentions four
advantages of a competencies approach:
1. The competencies are specific and practical and can be seen to relate to the
learners’ needs and interests
2. The learner can judge whether the competencies seem relevant and useful
3. The competencies that will be taught and tested are specific and public - hence
the learner knows exactly what need to be learned

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 4. Competencies can be mastered one at a time so the learner can see what has been
learned and what still remains to be learned. (pp. 146-147)
CBE establishes standards which must be defined and tested against reality. It also
increases productivity of educational instructions (Corcoran, 1976 as citied in Stoffle
& Pryor, 1980).
Taking disadvantages of CBLT into account, Auerbach (1986) points that critics
of CBLT argue this approach carries hidden assumptions about reality and social
order. It is value governed in that it imposes it own norms. Therefore, it is
determinist prescribing social roles for students and reinforcing the power structure.
In addition, teaching overt behaviors seems mechanical, inhibiting critical thinking,
CBLT is also considered within reductinist approach by its critics. That is, the sum of
the discrete objectives does not equal the essence of the complexity of the whole
language. CBLT advocates bottom-up processing which make students not to see the
forest for the trees. CBLT emphasizes observable outcomes. However, much
learning can not be observed. Only focusing son results obscures the complexity and
dynamism of language and teaching process, therefore, creativity and innovation may
be suppressed. The nature of language is creative and unpredictable. It does not
include successive acquisition of discrete forms. Another critique is that although
CBLT claims to be student-centered, it takes control of learning out of students hand
by extensive information gathering process prior to instruction as well as pre-
specifying standardized competency lists. For CBLT to be learner centered, needs
have to be identified collaboratively as a result of trust and experience rather than as
a precondition for instruction. Corder (1967 as citied in Aurebach, 1986) believes
that only through classroom interaction a learner-based-syllabus can be determined.
Taking cultural differences into account, CBLT begins with only one pre-supposed
culture. McKay (2007) state that critics of standards believe that they are both
administrative and political. Moreover, since standards underpin individualism and
competition, they are considered as intrusive by many teachers.

2. Communicative Language Teaching

A. Fundamental Concept

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I. Background
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been accepted as one of the
teaching methods by numerous language teachers due to its major focus on
developing learners’ communicative competence. This paper aims to describe
communicative language teaching, misinterpretations about its practice and the
factors leading to teachers’ misconceptions. It shows four misinterpreted
beliefs of the implementation of communicative language teaching:
communicative skills, teacher’s role in communicative activities, fluency and
accuracy as the main goals and teaching techniques. It then presents three reasons
that might lead to teachers’ misinterpretations concerning the practice of CLT.
Teachers do not have enough training and adequate resources.

The recognition of English in the world has impacted English language

teaching worldwide. Various teaching methods have come into the current trend
and then disappeared. Without doubt, the more people want to learn English,
the more variety of needs come into view. The more variety of needs come out,
the more new approach or method in English language teaching required.
In other words, learners have different purposes in learning English. Therefore,
English language teaching should move forward in order to keeping up with
the change. As can be seen, in the past fifty years alone, English language
teaching has gone through a rapid change of transitions in its methodology,
from grammar translation method to direct method, to audiolingualism, and to
other variations (Leung, 2005). In other words, this change takes places in
order to accommodate various needs of learners. Additionally, the most
important transition in English language teaching has taken place through a
collection of practices, materials, and belief about teaching and learning that
are known by many different names, for instance, communicative
methodology, communicative language teaching, and communicative
approach (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Thus, concerning to
accommodating learners’ needs many language experts and English educators
have been working seriously in finding the best way to teach English. That is

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why until now English teaching methodology is still going through another
transition.

Above all, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been accepted as

an effective approach by many language educators due to the major
focus on developing learner ability to use the language appropriately in
context. Among all methods used and practiced so far, CLT has been considered
as the best practice in English language teaching (ELT) because it offers
‘communication’ means enabling learners to develop their communicative
ability (Power, 2003). Similarly, according to Nunan (1999) “Communicative
language teaching has brought the most significant change into the practice
of English language teaching”. Therefore, many educational and language
institutions have adopted this approach into their ELT practices. However,
according to Thomson (1996) there are still a number of
misinterpretations among language teachers about the practice of CLT in
English Language Teaching. He also mentioned that these misconceptions
still keep on surviving; as a result, many teachers are difficult to see
obviously the innovation that CLT has brought. Hence, this essay will discuss
the four misconceptions about CLT in ELT. Then, it will discuss also the factors
leading to teachers’ misconceptions of such principles in ELT. There are four
main beliefs of teaching in CLT that have been misinterpreted by teachers in
ELT

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B. Language Area and Skills
1. Communicative Competence

The first belief is learners are taught to be able to communicate in

target language (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). Based on this first belief, students
should be accommodated with five components of communicative language
ability, that is, grammatical competence, discourse competence,
sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence. Grammatical
competence includes learners’ ability in spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary,
word formation, and grammatical structure. Discourse competence requires
learners to have the knowledge in dealing with the structure of longer texts
in speech and a piece of writing. Sociolinguistic competence is the
ability that learners should have in choosing the appropriate words or
expressions in spoken or written context of situation. For instance when learn
how to write formal or informal ways of writing a letter and greeting someone.
Strategic competence is the strategy of learners to keep the communication
going on, even the language production is not perfect, for example, when
learners unable to express what they want to say or they want to clarify
misunderstanding (Beale, 2002; Brown, 2000; Leung, 2005; Richards and
Rodgers, 1986). Generally speaking, this principle suggests that in teaching,
teachers should not teach learners with one competence only, for instance, to
master grammatical competence but also to apply the competence to
communicate in the real context of life. However, in the
implementation of CLT in the real teaching, teachers incorrectly adopt this
principle by avoiding teaching grammar. Prabhu (1987) emphasized that “…
grammar teaching is impossible because the knowledge that a speaker needs
in order to use a language is simply too complex (cited in Thomson, 1996,
p.10). This avoidance of teaching such competence is due to several factors.
One of possible factors is teachers’ lack of communicative competence in
English. As a result, for teachers who do not have adequate communicative
competence, there are two options offered. The first option is excluding teaching
grammar in their lesson plan. In other words, teachers only emphasize
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on communicative activities without touching grammar at all. Another option
is teaching grammar as separate part of lesson; for example, teaching imperative
sentence then continues teaching the function of giving instruction
such as making recipe. In this case, teachers can modify the imperative
sentence with its function to give instruction in making recipe in meaning-
based approach if only they had sufficient communicative competence and
eagerness to put more effort in designing the lesson plan. Another reason is
the lack of adequate teacher preparation. In this point, teachers do not want
to spend more time to prepare the strategies or appropriate methods in
teaching that competence. Sato and Kleinsasser (1999) stated that most
teachers agree that communicative language teaching should be taught in
a fun way and the preparation to make it fun is really time- consuming. In other
words, teaching grammar in communicative way needs to be prepared and
requires lots of efforts. It is therefore, it is hard for school or language
institutions that only has one teacher but has to teach many classes,
because the teacher might think that this can be additional burden for
him/her.

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C. Teacher’s and Learners’ Role
The second belief is the role of teacher in communicative activities. In
CLT, teacher is facilitator and guide, not the one who knows everything
in classroom. This principle has replaced the traditional role of teacher as an
information provider. Learners not only receive the knowledge transmitted by
teachers but they should construct their own knowledge facilitated by teachers.
The construction of meaning in getting knowledge is done through linguistic
interaction with others (Brown, 2001). Additionally, the role of teacher
sometimes could be partners for communication in the class with students
(Littlewood, 1981, cited in Larsen- Freeman, 2000). Similarly, according
to Richards and Rodgers (1986) the role of teacher can be an independent
member in the learning-teaching group. In the practice of CLT, this principle leads to
two negative perceptions in classroom. The first negative perception is that teachers’
inattention in monitoring learners’ performance and activity in classroom.
Some teachers think that after designing a lesson plan, which can facilitate and
encourage learners practice their communicative skills in classroom, learners
can construct their own meaning naturally and automatically. However,
teachers forget that learners sometimes come from different
background, which can create diversity in classroom. For example, some learners
may feel comfortable and okay engage in activities without teacher
supervision, but there are also learners who still need intense guidance from teachers,
especially for the class that mixes abilities inside. Thus, despite of facilitating
and guiding students, teacher’s role also has to supervise or monitor her/his
students’ activities in class. Furthermore, some teachers also believe that they
succeed in designing activities if students participate cheerfully and happily in
completing all activities. Consequently, they use the noise in class as an indicator
for the success of their activities they have created. The fact that if learners
are interested in the activities they will engage in activities and leads to the
achievement of the purpose of giving the opportunity to practice the
communicative skills in classroom. In this case, teachers should eliminate

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their belief that the more noisy the class, the more interesting the activities.
However, teachers have to ensure whether the noise is still in the right track that
is participating and enjoying the activities in accomplishing the lesson objective.
The other negative perspective is that the idea that learners should construct the
meaning through their own understanding through interaction has made teachers
believe that teaching explicitly is against the principle of CLT. Hence, teachers
do not use the handouts, worksheets or other forms of practice, as they are
afraid of making the lessons are not contextual and therefore not meaningful. On the
other hand, teaching in fully implicit way also will not be advantageous for all
learners for the reason that some of them may come from different cultural and
linguistic background. These differences would lead to learners’ different responses
towards the pedagogical practice, which has been adopted by CLT in ELT. For
instance, learners who come from the cultural background that believe teachers
are the one who knows everything or fountain of knowledge will not
be accustomed to the idea that learners should be independent and be able to
construct their own meaning through linguistics interaction with others

D. Learning Activities Procedures and Materials

I. Techniques of Teaching to Support and Encourages Learners to Engage
in Communicative Activities

The fourth belief is the techniques of teaching are designed to give

students opportunities to involve in the pragmatic, authentic and functional use
of language for meaningful purposes. Language forms are not the aim of study,
but the components required to achieve those purposes (Brown, 2000; Brown,
2001). Therefore, teachers who claim themselves CLT followers should
provide materials that include the four skills, that is, speaking, listening,
reading, and writing to support and encourage learners to engage
in communicative activities, not the skills in knowing the rules of grammar,
memorizing patterns and meaning of words. Richards and Rodgers (1986) said
“practitioners of CLT view materials as a way of influencing the quality of

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classroom interaction and language use. Materials thus have the primary
role of promoting communicative language use”(p.79). Additionally, the use of
authentic language materials is expected in order to solve the typical problem
that learners are unable to transmit what they learn in traditional classes to
the real situation outside the class. Also, using authentic materials can
expose students to natural language in a variety of situation (Larsen-Freeman,
2000). Moreover, authentic language materials are potentially more
interesting than texts, which have been specially contrived for language
teaching purposes (Nunan, 1999).

Relating to supporting communication in classroom, there are two types of

communicative activities that is ‘functional communicative activity’ and
‘social interaction activity’ (Littlewood, 1981). Functional communication
activity means the completion of task such as comparing sets of pictures
and finding similarities and differences etc. Social interaction activity refers
to a social context that takes in conversation and discussion, dialogues, role-
plays etc. So, in classroom, for example, teachers use an activity that can be
done in pairs such as transactional task where there is information gap
between two learners and they have to fill in that information gap. Liao
(1996) asserted, “Information gap is the essence of communication” (p.15).
Another activity can be used is group work. Learners can work together to
solve a problem, to analyze the new language structures in a text, and to
give them a chosen topic from the authentic material for instance,
newspaper article to be discussed. It is believed that using pair work and
group work to promote communicative activities in class are more useful and
flexible for learners (Thomson, 1996). In addition, concerning to
communicative activities, there are four purposes of giving learners
communicative activities according to Littlewood (1981). The first purpose
is to give them ‘whole task practice’ where learners can practice all the skills
they learn in one communicative activity. The second purpose is to improve their
motivation. This motivation is usually related to learners’ purpose in learning
English and most of them learn English in order to communicate English so
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it is hoped that the communicative activity they are engaged would
motivate them to use the language. The third purpose is exposing them to
natural learning. Unquestionably, communication is the natural
process of language learning. Thus, the communicative activity
whether inside or outside the classroom is an essential part of learning process.
The last purpose is helping learners to create a context that supports
learning. Communicative activity would help to enhance the relationship
among learners and between learners and teachers. The reciprocal
relationship established would support the learning process.

However, there are several interesting findings associated to

the implementation of this principle in ELT. The vision that CLT focuses on
aspects of language that enable learners to accomplish their purpose to
communicate gives teachers understanding that speaking and listening are
the most important skills that learners have to communicate. This leads to
undesirable implications on CLT in classroom. On one hand
teachers feel reluctant to teach reading and writing because these two
skills are assumed difficult to be taught in communicative ways. On the
other hand learners also feel that they do not really need to have reading and
writing skills for the simple reason that their teachers seldom teach them
those skills. In other words, teachers only put more emphasis on speaking
and listening abilities and seldom introduce the importance of reading
and writing abilities in the form of communicative activities. Equally, the
activities that should promote communicative abilities such as pair work and
group work in the forms of dialogue, discussion and games are seemed to
be monotonous and tedious by learners. It is not because of the principle
of CLT supporting the use of these communicative activities. Indeed, it is
because teachers do not familiarize in designing a variety of activities can
be used in class. In other words, those activities have no variation and for
that reason learners are easily bored to be involved in the activities. Conversely,
the blame cannot be put only into teachers because there several reasons might
cause this problem. The first reason is teachers do not get enough training, so

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they do not have sufficient knowledge to be more creative in designing the tasks.
The second reason is teachers do not have adequate resources to create various
kinds of activities. The last reason and the most important one is most of
developing countries have low standard salary for teachers so most of them try
to find side jobs in order to fulfill their daily needs. Consequently, teachers
always lack of preparation for teaching as they have limited time to prepare
everything before coming to class. Undoubtedly, teachers’ lack of
preparation will result in low quality of teaching.

II. Evaluation
To sum up, it is true that there are several misconceptions about the practice
of CLT by teachers in the classroom. It is also believed that those
misconceptions are caused by internal and external factors. The internal factors
that are from the teachers themselves, for instance, some teachers are reluctant
to improve their professional skills in teaching and also teachers’ lack of
communicative competence, whereas the external factors may be in the
forms of insufficient training given to teachers, inadequate resources for
teaching, and the low salary from teaching. On the whole, the implementation of
CLT in ELT needed to be improved in an inclusive way that requires the
support and involvement of all people in the school or institutions where CLT
approach has been applied.

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3. Computer-Assisted Language Learning
A. Fundamental Concept
As computers have become widespread in schools, homes and business, a need for
language learning has become urgent and the necessity of computer literacy has
become very obvious, language teachers have started to use new technologies as a new
pedagogical tool in foreign language teaching. Introduction of new pedagogical tools
does not reject, but includes programs and methods of the previous phase, representing
inevitable innovation that gains acceptance slowly and unevenly.
Multimedia computing, the Internet, and the World Wide Web have provided an
incredible boost to Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) applications,
offering a wide variety of educational, programs, resources, software, journals,
organizations, software tutorials including all types of exercises for grammar drills,
vocabulary, listening and pronunciation exercises, games, etc.

While the first CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning) programs were

mostly used for manipulating texts and sentences, in the 90s the emergence of CD-
ROMs storing complete encyclopedias or language courses with text, graphics,
animations, audio and video elements entered the classrooms.

CALL has been used since the 1960s and 1970s, but it still lacks a clear
research methods. CALL development can be divided into tree phases (Moras, 2001):

a) Behaviorist: CALL was implemented in the 1960’s and 70’s when the
audio-lingual method was widely used. This provided students with
drills and practice. In this phase, the computer is used as a tutor, presenting
drill exercises without feed-back component, i.e. not including interactive
components.

b) The Communicative approach focuses more on using forms than on the forms
themselves. These programs provide skill practice in a non- drill format (e.g.
language games, reading, and text reconstruction). In this phase the computer
is still used as a tutor, but it gives students choices, control and interaction.

21
 Other CALL models use the computer as stimulus (e.g. to stimulate writing,
discussions) or as a tool (e.g. programs that do not offer language material,
but are used for creating or understanding the language, such as word
processors, spelling and grammar checkers
c) The current integrative CALL approach is based on multimedia
computers and the Internet that combine text, graphics, sound, animation
and video. The mentioned hypermedia resources can be accessed from a PC,
using CD-ROMS or the Internet. Integrative CALL and its research
methods are still under development.

B. Teacher’s and Learners’ Role

Since students see a computer as a trendy and useful tool, which enables them to
be close to the world, the Internet and WWW are very motivating, offering a wide
range of authentic material and promoting development of new learning strategies.
Students can also create their own web sites or projects, according to their individual
needs, inside and outside the classroom; using e-mails, chat- rooms, articles, class-
conferencing, etc. All these allow the learner to participate in the target
language culture. Besides these positive effects, negative ones such as technical and
financial problems, lack of training, inappropriate material, and the huge quantity
of information requiring skills and judgment on the Internet should be also
mentioned.
The crucial problem is how teachers use these resources. According to S. Moras
(2001), the use of computers does not constitute a method, but
“rather, it is a medium in which variety of methods, approaches and pedagogical
philosophies may be implemented”.
In the Guidelines for Teachers, M. Warschauer and P. W. Whittaker (1997)
suggest that in order to make effective use of new technologies, teachers must take a
step back and focus on some basic pedagogical requirements. They propose five
guidelines designed to help teachers in implementing computer-networked activities
in language acquisition:

22
 Consider your goals
Since reasons for using the Internet range from motivation or
distraction to improvements in computer skills, the teacher should
have self-defined goals in order to use it successfully in the classroom.
Some of the reasons could also be that the Internet creates perfect
conditions for writing because it provides authentic materials, or raises
students’ motivation. Besides computer literacy is essential for future work
and success.
If one of the teacher’s goals is to teach computer skills, than they can
choose Internet applications that will be useful outside the classroom. If
the goal is mainly linguistic, the teacher will probably choose suitable
exercises for grammar practice or vocabulary acquisition (using maps,
quizzes, articles about certain topics, e-journals, advertisements, shows,
poems, songs, etc.). On the other hand if the goal is to teach writing, then
they can ask students to write essays, announcements, CVs, applications,
etc.
 Think Integration
Internet gives opportunities to communicate by e-mail and to have pen
pals, but that is not enough. The teacher should be deeply involved in
activities and integrate them into the learning process, by including e-
books, e-journals, joint work on seminars and by supplying other students
with information. In this case, the teacher will probably do it by consulting
students. The possibility to integrate online connections in the class would
probably be motivating, trendy and enjoyable.
 Do not underestimate the complexity
It is possible that a number of students lack basic computer skills, which
may be very time-consuming for training. But the teacher should also be
aware of possible difficulties, such as depending on laboratory schedules,
malfunctioning hardware or software, missing partner students, delays,

23
 differences in background, language and experience. Therefore, to begin
with the teacher should not depend too much on Internet activities, but
include them for specific purposes and integrate them into classroom
goals.
 Provide Necessary Support
The teacher should prevent students from being overwhelmed by
difficulties, by creating handouts, by including technology training lessons
into classroom activities, assure log-on systems and work inside and
outside classroom, assigning task in pairs or in groups specially in
problem-solving task, advising when and where to ask for assistance, learn
search criteria, etc.
 Involve Students in Decisions
Network-based teaching is part of the learner centered approach. Network-
based teaching supposes decentralized type of teaching, so the teacher
should learn to become a “coach”. Their role is to coordinate, to support,
to help, to bring students’ attention, to gain awareness of the language
learning process.

C. Language Area, Skill and Activities (Procedure and Materials)

A. Call Projects
Communicative approaches to language teaching and learning recognize
the importance of linking language learning, practice and use of computer
technologies. The classroom should be a place where students engage in the
learning process, sparked by activities that motivate them. Well chosen goals and
good teaching organization make students feel that their training will result quite
quickly in the ability to use language, computers and in communication activities.
Two examples of such research projects were conducted at the Faculty of
Arts, University of Melbourne, Australia:
 PrOCALL (Project-Oriented Computer Assisted Language Learning
Project)

24
  “Integrating Multimedia Tools into Project-driven Foreign Language
Learning”
The projects involved seven language programs and were based on
existing topic-based curricula used in the department. The contracts were planned
in the following steps: 1) Introduction of a topic through the reading of authentic
materials, 2) discussion with a native speaker, 3) computer-based communication
about the topic (e-mail, video conferencing), 4) construction of the class web page
in group sessions. The computer-based components would be taught through
essays written for the teacher and group discussions in the classroom among
students (role-plays).
In that way the use of communication and multimedia technology enables
students to interact with native speakers of their own age and immerses them in
the target language culture. Creation of the Web site was based on a real-life goal
with a final product which would be of value to learners as well as outside parties.
Through qualitative research methods, the aim of the study was to
investigate current approaches and attitudes regarding computer-aided language
learning in a university setting. Outcomes of such projects would feed into the
development of new curricula with integrated computer activities in the course
curriculum, at intermediate level.

D. Evaluation
There are three basic elements in successful Internet activities: integration in the
course, teacher’s and students’ computer competence, and active teacher involvement in
explaining, helping and giving directions.
Despite an increased use of computers in teaching, fundamental changes yet have to
occur within educational perspectives, here language teaching. Social dimensions
and authentic activities still favor an emphasis on individual computer use. Computer-
assisted language learning should be integrated step by step from the beginner’s to the
advanced level, and then included as computer activities in the curriculum according to
well- defined goals.

25
 Although the software is still limited, it should integrate wisdom of educators and
programmers, so each teacher should find their own way of integrating online activities
into the classroom, respecting the goals, student needs, materials and available technology
4. Task-Based Language Teaching
A. Fundamental Concept
Task-based language teaching (TBLT) has become a significant topic in the
field of second language acquisition in terms of fostering process-focused syllabi
and devising communicative tasks to enhance learners’ real language use via the
emergence of the communicative language teaching approach in the early 1980s and
much stress on learners’ communicative abilities during the past twenty years (Jeon
and Hahn, 2000). Little was written about tasks before Prabhu’s (1987) work. Since
then, the deployment of tasks has become crucial not only as a tool of gathering data
from participants but also as an object of study in and of itself. The number of
books published on this topic since 2000 (containing Bygate, Skehan, and Swain
2001; Ellis 2003; Johnson 2003; Nunan 2004; Leaver and Willis 2005; Van den
Branden 2006; Van den Branden, Bygate, and Norris 2009, among many others)
overtly displays the increasing importance of tasks in research (Adams, 2009).
Recent research studies indicate three major characteristics of task-based
language teaching relevant to classroom practice: TBLT is in line with a learner-
centered educational philosophy (Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Ellis, 2003; Nunan,
2005), it is made up of specific constituents such as goal, procedure, specific
outcome (Skehan, 1998; Murphy, 2003; Nunan, 2004), and it supports content-
oriented meaningful activities rather than linguistic forms (Beglar & Hunt, 2002;
Carless, 2002; Littlewood, 2004)

Through the proliferation of task-based language teaching and research, there

has become a wide diversity in the settings, methods, and theories paving the
way for comprehension of tasks and learning. Task-based language teaching
relies on a myriad of learning theories, covering theories of information processing
(cf. Levelt 1989), input processing (cf. VanPatten 1996), Neo-Vogotskian
sociocultural theory (cf. Lantolf 2000), the interactionist approach (cf. Mackey and
Gass 2006), among others. Tasks are employed widely in research on language

26
learning, together with a number of data collection and analysis techniques.
Nevertheless, while task-based language teaching is strongly based on theory and
on an increasing body of research, it is also an approach to teaching practice. The
interchange between theory, research, and pedagogy requires research on tasks that
takes into account aspects of all three areas (Adams, 2009).

The purpose of this paper is to provide background of task-based language

teaching, give a definition of a task, categorize three main approaches to task-
based language teaching, list common characteristics of task-based language
teaching, stress the role of task-based language teaching as a forceful approach for
furthering language learning and teaching, explain benefits and challenges of task-
based language teaching as well as teacher and learner roles in TBLT and make
recommendations for language teachers concerning effective implementation of
task-based pedagogy.

Based on the constructivist theory of learning and communicative language

teaching methodology, the task-based viewpoint of language teaching has
emerged in response to some constraints of the traditional PPP approach,
denoted by the process of presentation, practice, and performance (Ellis, 2003;
Long & Crookes, 1991). Hence, it has the significant meaning that language
learning is a developmental process enhancing communication and social
interaction rather than a product internalized by practicing language items, and that
learners master the target language more powerfully when being exposed to
meaningful task-based activities in a natural way. It was in the eighties that this
viewpoint of language learning gave rise to the flourishment of various task-based
approaches (Breen, 1987; Candlin & Murphy, 1987; Nunan, 1989; Prabhu, 1987).
Moreover, during the nineties, it developed into a comprehensive structure for the
communicative classroom where learners did task-based activities via cycles of
pre-task preparation, task performance, and post-task feedback via language focus
(Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996). Obviously, as Ellis (2003) states, task-based language
teaching has been re-investigated recently from a variety of perspectives covering
oral performance, writing performance, and performance assessment.

27
 Task-based approach in second language teaching was first performed by
Prabhu, who published the Bangolore research report in 1982 and advanced the
concept of task-based approach (Wei, 2004). Researchers involved in task- based
approach have internalized experience from language research, the research of
language learning and the research of foreign language acquisition, and it is getting
more and more mature together with them. Its functions and value in constructing
learner-centered classrooms and language learning contexts, giving learners the
chance to communicate and interact and enhancing learners’ ability to deploy the
target language and sort out communicative problems were highly appreciated and
recognized by researchers in the area of language teaching (Lin, 2009).

Task-based approach has attracted more and more attention in the foreign
language teaching field since the 1980s. Being a learner-centered approach, it views
language as a communicative tool. Task-based approach aims at presenting
opportunities for learners to master language both in speaking and writing via
learning activities designed to engage learners in the natural, practical and functional
use of language for meaningful purpose (Lin, 2009).

In spite of the widespread employment of tasks in language pedagogy,

some prominent challenges behind devising proper task-based syllabi and
designing natural task-based materials, both of which have been regarded as key
factors to detecting the powerfulness of TBLT in communicative classrooms,
still remain unresolved. Many SLA researchers, in response to these challenges,
are presently shifting their focus from conceptualizing tasks to arranging and
performing tasks relying on observation of the practical efficacy of TBLT
methodology in classroom practice (Jeon and Hahn, 2005).

28
B. Language Area and Skills
Task-based approach is a teaching approach employing tasks as its main
pedagogical tools to structure language teaching. Its proponents put forward the
viewpoint that task-based approach is the clear enhancement of Communication
Linguistics in that they have related principles in teaching. To illustrate, they both
admit that activities for real communication are of most prominence in language
learning; they both admit that utilizing language to perform meaningful tasks can
enhance language learning; they both admit that the language which is meaningful
to learners can pave the way for the learning process (Willis, 1996).
Task-based approach is a powerful and advancing learning method. It promotes
learning language knowledge and training skills in the process of performing
tasks. Teachers are both instructors and guides. Similarly, learners are both
receivers and main agents. It is via TBLT that learners will master how to
make full use of their own communicative abilities to shift from L1 to the target
language. It presents a chance for them to learn cooperatively and activates their
probable abilities to employ and deal with the target language in a professional
way (Lin, 2009). As Larsen-Freeman (2000) states, since language learners
make an effort to perform a task, they have rich opportunity to interact with
their peers. It is this interaction that is assumed to ease language acquisition in
that learners are to try to comprehend each other and to present their own meaning.
As a language teacher who teaches English as a foreign language to Turkish
EFL learners, I employ task-based approach to provide learners with a natural
context for language use, present a fruitful input of target language for learners,
increase their ability to communicate effectively, and to maximize their motivation
to the lesson.

29
30
C. Evaluation
Task-based language teaching provides many benefits to aid foreign language
learning. Ellis (2009) lists these benefits as follows:
 TBLT provides the opportunity for ‘natural’ learning within the classroom
context.
 It stresses meaning over form; however, it can also emphasize learning form.
 It offers learners a fertile input of target language.
 It is intrinsically motivating.
 It is consistent with a learner-focused
educational philosophy but also gives
permission for teacher input and guidance.
 It contributes to the improvement of communicative fluency while not
disregarding accuracy.
 It can be deployed together with a more traditional approach.

Although task-based approach presents many benefits to aid foreign language

learning, it is not without some obstacles and challenges. According to Hatip
(2005), some challenges of task-based approach are as follows:
¾ The drawbacks of task-based learning rely not so much on the potential
powerfulness of this type of instructional content but on problems of conducting the
instruction.

D. Teacher and Learner’s Role

The language teacher aiming at implementing task-based language teaching in
the foreign language classroom should perform three main roles: (1) selector and
sequencer of tasks; (2) preparing learners for tasks; and (3) consciousness-raising.
Relevant to the first teacher role, it can be stressed that the language teacher has
an active role in choosing, adapting and designing tasks and then building
these tasks in keeping with learner needs, expectations, interests and language
skill levels. Related to the second teacher role, it can be stated that some
training for pre-task is prominent for language learners. These training activities

31
may include topic introduction, specifying task instructions, assisting students in
learning or recalling beneficial words and phrases to make the task accomplishment
easy, and offering partial display of task process. As for the third teacher role, it can
be emphasized that the teacher deploys an amalgamation of form-focusing
techniques, covering attention-focusing pre-task activities, examining the given
text, guided exposure to similar tasks, and employment of highlighted material
(Richards and Rogers, 2001).
The language learner who is exposed to the implementation of task-based
language teaching in the foreign language classroom should carry out three major
roles: (1) group participant; (2) monitor; and (3) risk-taker and innovator.
Regarding the first learner role, it can be indicated that the learners perform a
number of tasks either in pairs or small groups. Pair or group work may involve
some adaptation for those learners who are more used to whole-class activities
and/or individual work. Related to the second learner role, it can be stressed that
tasks are employed as a tool for facilitating the learning process in task-based
learning. Classroom activities should be organized so that learners can have the
opportunity to observe how language is utilized in communication. Learners
themselves should “attend” both to the message in task work and to the form where
such messages typically come packed. Relevant to the third learner role, it can be
stated that many tasks will push learners to generate and expound messages for
which they do not have full linguistic resources and prior experience. In reality,
this is said to be the point of such tasks. The skills of making guesses from
linguistic and contextual clues, asking for explanation, and consulting with other
learners may need to be enhanced (Richards and Rogers, 2001).

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5. Scientific Approach – Based English Learning Strategy

A. Fundamental Concepts
1. History

The 2013 curriculum introduces a new atmosphere in Indonesian education.

Education is expected to produce the nation’s next generation, who has not only
knowledge, but also character and skills. One of the striking changes in the 2013
curriculum is the application of a scientific approach to the entire learning process.
Through a scientific approach, students are expected to be able to think critically and in a
skillful way. The steps of the scientific approach in the learning process according to the
Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture of Indonesia, Number 81A 2013
attachment IV, are observing, questioning, collecting information, associating, and
communicating. For certain subjects, materials, or situations, it is very likely that these
steps are not always appropriately applied. In conditions like this, the learning process
must still apply scientific values or traits and avoid non-scientific ones. As an integral
part of the 2013 curriculum, the scientific approach is certainly familiar to teachers in
schools. However, in reality, the scientific approach is still controversial, especially in
English learning. Several studies have been carried out to explore the application of this
scientific approach in English learning, such asBudianto (2014), Wahyudin & Sukyadi
(2015), Azizah (2015), and Zaim (2017).The relevance of their findings shows that the
concepts and strategies for applying the scientific approach are still unclear to many
English teachers.

2. Theory

Scientific Approach in the learning process includes digging through observation,

questioning, trial, and then process the data or information, presenting data or
information, followed by analyzing, reasoning, then concluded, and creates (Daryanto,
2014: 59). There are five steps on Scientific Approach, namely: observing, questioning,
collecting information or experimenting, associating or information processing, and
communicating (Fauziati, 2014: 157). Sani (2015: 50) explained that Scientific Approach
involves observation activities which are needed to formulate a hypothesis or collect data.

33
The scientific method is generally based on the exposure data obtained through
observation or experiment. Therefore, activity experiments can be replaced with an
activity to obtain information from various sources. Fauziati (2014: 157) explained that
scientific teaching approach is an approach of teaching which is designed with the same
rigor as science at its best; learners make observations, develop hypotheses about
phenomena, devise tests to investigate their hypotheses, and communicate their findings
to others. With this nature, scholars believe that Scientific Approach as a teaching method
could encourage learners to be curious toward science, to improve their oral
communication and critical thinking.

3. Objectives

On process of searching knowledge and students as subject of learning through

applying science principles. Since the students become the subject of learning, the
learning method promoted is ‘learning by doing’ which is largely promoted by an
American educator and philosopher John Dewey (1859-1952). Since learning is a search
for meaning, learning objectives should be established that connect to important issues
for the student. In addition, scientific approach in learning process means learning proces
which is organized to make learners actively construct concepts, laws, or principles
through activities of observing, hypothesizing, collecting data, analyzing data, drawing
conclusion, and communicating the concepts, laws, and principles found (Hosnan, 2014,
p.39; Saddhono, 2013, p.440). It is expected to encourage students searching knowledge
from multisources through observation and not to be given by teachers only. Scientific
approach also emphasizes on communicating skill as well as sceintific principles. As
discribed by McCollum (2009), A learning approach can be regarded as scientific
approach if it covers some criteria explained by Ministry of Education and Culture. They
are: (1) the teaching materials come from facts or phenomena that logically can be
explained, (2) teacher’s explanation, and teacher-student interaction are based on
objectivity, (3) teaching materials build students’ critical thinking and accuracy in
identifying, understanding, and resolving problems, (4) it encourages and inspires
students to think hypothetically in looking at difference, congruence and links to each
learning material given, (5) it fosters students to understand, apply, and develop pattern of

34
rationale and objective thinking towards learning materials, (6) it should be based on
concepts, theories, and empirical facts, and (7) learning objectives are composed in
simple, clear and attractive presentation way (Kemendikbud, 2013a).

A. Teacher’s and Student’s roles

4. Teacher’s Roles

The teacher and the researcher observation is the teacher’s ability in managing
learning-teaching process. Teachers’ ability is very important to ensure the success of
learning. Teacher has to play many roles, such as controller, director, manager, facilitator,
and resource. Teacher as controller is related to teacher’s ability to create climate in
which the students can do the learning activity. This role is very important to handle
several situations which might happen in classroom activities. The teacher had difficulties
to get students follow the directions and the activities. It is also related to the students
with low English proficiency. The teacher expected everyone participating in activity,
while in fact, some students had difficulties in following the teacher pace. The teacher has

35
strategy dealing with this condition. She tended to invite them first in the interaction and
let the interact actively in group discussion and to clap his hands and tell the students to
be quiet. Teacher as manager is related to the ability to plan the activities and execute the
plan. The teacher should have the ability in adjusting the plan with the time they have.
The activities are the prime part of the plan. The activities should be laid out in sequence
of their occurrence and the approximate time to complete the activity.

5. Student’s roles

Students, as the main actors of the learning process, should be encouraged to do 5

steps of learning. The first step is observing, where students will watch videos of learning
material. Guided questions should also be provided in this step, in order to maintain the
objective of using the media. In the next step, students will have a chance to pose some
questions related to what they have just watched from the media. At the beginning, it may
seem difficult for students to pose questions. In this case, the teacher may help them by
showing some examples of questions related to the material. Students should be trained
well in these steps since it will raise their curiosity to learn the topic. After that, they
work in group to collect information related to some tasks assigned. The use of the
internet is really needed in this step. This makes the teacher allow and monitor the use of
some gadgets. It is believed that the use of gadgets in the learning process will bring
excitement to students so that learning will be more interesting. Next is associating. This
step refers to the process of understanding and analyzing information, and also designing
the report of discussion. It may take a lot of time to accomplish this step. That is why the
teacher should not limit the use of SABELS only to one meeting since the nature of the
scientific process cannot be achieved instantly. The last step is students’ report of their
discussion results in the form of presentation. This will encourage students to be more
responsible for what they have just learnt. While presenting results, various responses and
arguments may come from other students. Here, the teacher is required to mediate the
issues arising. Students should be free to express their arguments as long as they are
relevant to the topic. This action will teach students to be critical.

36
 B. Language area and skills

The steps of the scientific approach in the learning process according to the
Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture of Indonesia, Number 81A 2013
attachment IV, are observing, questioning, collecting information, associating, and
communicating. For certain subjects, materials, or situations, it is very likely that these
steps are not always appropriately applied. In conditions like this, the learning process
must still apply scientific values or traits and avoid non-scientific ones. As an integral
part of the 2013 curriculum, the scientific approach is certainly familiar to teachers in
schools. However, in reality, the scientific approach is still controversial, especially in
English learning. Several studies have been carried out to explore the application of this
scientific approach in English learning, such as Budianto (2014), Wahyudin & Sukyadi
(2015), Azizah (2015), and Zaim (2017). The relevance of their findings shows that the
concepts and strategies for applying the scientific approach are still unclear to many
English teachers. Methods or approaches in language learning have different concepts
and techniques with a scientific approach. Some methods or approaches that have been
applied in learning English are as mentioned by Larsen-Freeman (2000), Richards and
Rodgers (2001), and Brown (2007), namely: Grammar-Translation Method, Direct
Method, Audio-Lingual Method, Silent Way, Desuggestopedia, Total Physical Response,
Community Language Learning, Communicative Language Teaching, Natural Approach,
Cooperative Language Learning, and Task-Based Language Teaching. Thus, that
scientific learning model is confusing for language teachers.

37
 C. Learning Activities – Procedures

1. Observing The first stage is observing. Observing is “a deliberate and systematic activity to study
a social phenomenon or real object through utilization of the five sense” (Hosnan, 2014, p.40)
and involving descriptive skill (Halonen, et al., 2003, cited in Mutaqqin, 2015). In this stage
teacher contextualizes learning activity for students in the classroom
2. The second stage is questioning. Questioning is the process of constructing knowledge in
form of concepts of social function in particular material, procedure of structure text
through group discussion or class discussion (Kemendikbud, 2013; Abidin, 2014;
Mulyasa, 2014). Based on the regulation of Ministry of Education and Culture
(Permendikbud No 81a, 2013) n this stage, students pose questions from what have been
observed in the previous stage for gaining more information and comprehension about
the material.
3. Experimenting The third stage is experimenting. In this stage, students get real or
authentic learning, for example they have to do experiments. As stated in the Regulation
of Indonesia Ministry of Education and Culture No. 81/2013, in doing the experiment, the
students have to read other sources or collect extra information by several ways such as,
doing experiment, observation, and interview, reading texts or books or other sources or
functional texts.
4. Associating The fourth stage is associating. In this stage, students and teacher are
engaged into learning activities, such as text analyzing, and categorizing.
5. Communicating/Networking The last stage is networking. In this stage, students
communicate, demonstrate, and publish their learning product as a form of collaborative
learning in which they face various changes. In collaborative learning, the learners
interact with empathy, mutual respect, and receive a deficiency or excess, respectively in
order to create social interaction to gain meaningful learning (Wahyudin, 2015). The
teacher gives feedback, suggestions or more information related to students’ work. There
are interactions between teacher and students and among the students.

38
 D. Assessment and Evaluation

The finding shows that all the five stages of scientific approach were completely
executed in four meetings of delivering one material or one Basic Competence (KD)
eventhough the five stages were not always conducted in every meeting. The activities in
every stage were various depended on the stage. Scientific approach implemented by the
teacher could engage students in active learning and develop various students’
contributions. How the teacher led the active learning activities and students’
contributions were varied depend on the stages. Scientific approach implemented
successfully developed students’ critical thinking and fostering high-thinking level of
students’ learning behavior. The difficulties encountered by the teacher during
implementing scientific approach are the problem on students, time allotment, and the
teaching management.

Scientific Approach in the learning process includes digging through observation,

questioning, trial, and then process the data or information, presenting data or
information, followed by analyzing, reasoning, then concluded, and creates (Daryanto,
2014: 59). There are five steps on Scientific Approach, namely: observing, questioning,
collecting information or experimenting, associating or information processing, and
communicating (Fauziati, 2014: 157). Sani (2015: 50) explained that Scientific Approach
involves observation activities which are needed to formulate a hypothesis or collect data.

39
 CONCLUSION

As mentioned earlier CBLT focuses on outcomes or competencies. Stoffle and Pryor

(1980) assert that assessment of the students’ performance is best accomplished under
actual conditions. However, this approach is very expensive and usually not feasible.
Most learners are assessed using multiple-choice tests, simulations, games, etc. Council
on Education for Public Health (2006) adds that CBE often requires more complex
assessment including portofolios and role-playing. In CBLT programs, assessment is
criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced. It criterion-referenced assessment,
scores are interpreted with respect to a specific level or domain of ability, while in norm-
referenced assessment, scores are interpreted in relation to the performance of a particular
group of individuals (Backman, 1990). Criterion-referenced testing in diagnostic.
“Learners are able to obtain useful diagnostic feedback on their progress and achievement
since explicit criteria are provided against which they can compare their performance”
(Nunan, 2007, p. 425) Criterion-based assessment procedures measure how well learners
can perform on specific learing tasks (Docking, 1994 as citied in Richards and Rodgers,
2001).
Richards and Rodgers (2001) mentions four advantages of a competencies approach:
1. The competencies are specific and practical and can be seen to relate to the
learners’ needs and interests
2. The learner can judge whether the competencies seem relevant and useful
3. The competencies that will be taught and tested are specific and public - hence
the learner knows exactly what need to be learned
4. Competencies can be mastered one at a time so the learner can see what has been
learned and what still remains to be learned. (pp. 146-147)

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been accepted as one of the

teaching methods by numerous language teachers due to its major focus on developing
learners’ communicative competence.

40
 The second belief is the role of teacher in communicative activities.
In CLT, teacher is facilitator and guide, not the one who knows everything
in classroom. This principle has replaced the traditional role of teacher as an
information provider. Learners not only receive the knowledge transmitted by
teachers but they should construct their own knowledge facilitated by teachers.
As computers have become widespread in schools, homes and business, a need for
language learning has become urgent and the necessity of computer literacy has
become very obvious, language teachers have started to use new technologies as a new
pedagogical tool in foreign language teaching. Introduction of new pedagogical tools
does not reject, but includes programs and methods of the previous phase, representing
inevitable innovation that gains acceptance slowly and unevenly.
Multimedia computing, the Internet, and the World Wide Web have provided an
incredible boost to Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) applications,
offering a wide variety of educational, programs, resources, software, journals,
organizations, software tutorials including all types of exercises for grammar drills,
vocabulary, listening and pronunciation exercises, games, etc.

While the first CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning) programs were

mostly used for manipulating texts and sentences, in the 90s the emergence of CD-
ROMs storing complete encyclopedias or language courses with text, graphics,
animations, audio and video elements entered the classrooms.

There are three basic elements in successful Internet activities: integration in the
course, teacher’s and students’ computer competence, and active teacher involvement in
explaining, helping and giving directions.
Despite an increased use of computers in teaching, fundamental changes yet have to
occur within educational perspectives, here language teaching. Social dimensions
and authentic activities still favor an emphasis on individual computer use. Computer-
assisted language learning should be integrated step by step from the beginner’s to the
advanced level, and then included as computer activities in the curriculum according to
well- defined goals.

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 Although the software is still limited, it should integrate wisdom of educators and
programmers, so each teacher should find their own way of integrating online activities
into the classroom, respecting the goals, student needs, materials and available technology

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) has become a significant topic in the field of
second language acquisition in terms of fostering process-focused syllabi and devising
communicative tasks to enhance learners’ real language use via the emergence of the
communicative language teaching approach in the early 1980s and much stress on
learners’ communicative abilities during the past twenty years (Jeon and Hahn, 2000).
Scientific Approach in the learning process includes digging through observation,
questioning, trial, and then process the data or information, presenting data or
information, followed by analyzing, reasoning, then concluded, and creates (Daryanto,
2014: 59). There are five steps on Scientific Approach, namely: observing, questioning,
collecting information or experimenting, associating or information processing, and
communicating (Fauziati, 2014: 157). Sani (2015: 50) explained that Scientific Approach
involves observation activities which are needed to formulate a hypothesis or collect data.

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 REFERENCES

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332268584_Computer-
Assisted_Language_Learning_CALL
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251713616_Task-
based_language_teaching_What_every_EFL_teacher_should_do
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330088979_Competency-Based_Language_Teaching
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
299601598_COMMUNICATIVE_LANGUAGE_TEACHING_AND_ITS_MISCONCEPTION
S_ABOUT_THE_PRACTICE_IN_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_TEACHING_ELT
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332268584_Computer-
Assisted_Language_Learning_CALL

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