PYTHON

UNIT II: Repetition Structures: Introduction, while loop, for loop, Nested Loops, Control statement:
Definite iteration for Loop Formatting Text for output, Selection if and if else statement, Conditional
Iteration the While Loop
Strings and Text Files: Accessing Character and Substring in Strings, Data Encryption, Strings and Number
Systems, String Methods, Text Files, string pattern matching. Understanding read functions, read(),
readline() and readlines(). Understanding write functions, write() and writelines(), Manipulating file pointer
using seek, Programming using file operations

Introduction:
In general, statements are executed sequentially, i.e The first statement is executed first, followed by the
second, and so on. There may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number of
times. In such situations we can use loop statements.
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times. The following
diagram illustrates a loop statement.

A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes FALSE. You must be cautious when using loops
because of the possibility that this condition never resolves to a FALSE value. This results in a loop that
never ends. Such a loop is called an infinite loop.
An infinite loop might be useful in client/server programming where the server needs to run continuously so
that client programs can communicate with it as and when required.

Python programming language provides the following types of loops to handle looping requirements.

Loop Type Description

while loop Repeats a statement or group of statements while

a given condition is TRUE. It tests the condition
before executing the loop body.

for loop Executes a sequence of statements multiple times

and abbreviates the code that manages the loop
variable.
 nested loops You can use one or more loop inside any another
while, or for loop.

While Loop:
A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly executes a target statement as long as a
given condition is true.
The syntax of a while loop in Python programming language is-
while condition:
statement(s)

Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements with uniform indent. The condition
may be any expression, and true is any non-zero value. The loop iterates while the condition is true.
When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately following the loop.
In Python, all the statements indented by the same number of character spaces after a programming construct
are considered to be part of a single block of code. Python uses indentation as its method of grouping
statements.
Flow Diagram:

Here, a key point of the while loop is that when the condition is tested and the result is false for the first time
itself, the loop body will be skipped and the first statement after the while loop will be executed.
Example:
count = 0 while (count < 9):
print ('The count is:', count)
count = count + 1

For Loop: The for statement in Python has the ability to iterate over the items of any sequence, such as a
list or a string.

Syntax

for iterating_var in sequence:

statements(s)
 If a sequence contains an expression list, it is evaluated first. Then, the first item in the sequence is assigned
to the iterating variable iterating_var. Next, the statements block is executed. Each item in the list is
assigned to iterating_var, and the statement(s) block is executed until the entire sequence is exhausted.

Flow Diagram:

The range() function

The built-in function range() is the right function to iterate over a sequence of numbers. It generates an
iterator of arithmetic progressions.
>>> range(5) range(0, 5)
>>> list(range(5))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

range() generates an iterator to progress integers starting with 0 upto n-1. To obtain a list object of the
sequence, it is typecasted to list(). Now this list can be iterated using the for statement.
>>> for var in list(range(5)): print (var) This
will produce the following output
0
1
2
3
4
Example:
fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango']
for fruit in fruits: # traversal of List sequence print
('Current fruit :', fruit)
Iterating by Sequence Index
An alternative way of iterating through each item is by index offset into the sequence itself. Following is a
simple example-
fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango'] for index in range(len(fruits)):
print ('Current fruit :', fruits[index])

Using else Statement with Loops

Python supports having an else statement associated with a loop statement.
• If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else statement is executed when the loop has exhausted
iterating the list.

•If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed when the condition
becomes false.
The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a while statement that prints a
number as long as it is less than 5, otherwise the else statement gets executed.

while count < 5:

print (count, " is less than 5") count = count + 1 else:
print (count, " is not less than
5")
The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a for statement that searches for
even number in given list.
numbers=[11,33,55,39,55,75,37,21,23,41,13]
for num in numbers: if num%2==0:
print ('the list contains an even number') break else:
print ('the list does not contain even number')

Nested Loops:
Python programming language allows the use of one loop inside another loop. The following section shows
a few examples to illustrate the concept.
Syntax:
The syntax for a nested while loop statement in Python programming language is as follows-
while expression:
while expression:
statement(s)
statement(s)

The syntax for a nested for loop statement in Python programming language is as follows
for iterating_var in sequence:
for iterating_var in sequence:
statements(s)
statements(s)

A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside any other type of loop. For example a
for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa.

break, continue and pass Statements:

The Loop control statements change the execution from its normal sequence by using these statements.
When the execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed.

Control Statement Description

 break statement Terminates the loop statement and
transfers execution to the statement
immediately following the loop.

continue statement Causes the loop to skip the

remainder of its body and
immediately retest its condition prior
to reiterating.

pass statement The pass statement in Python is used

when a statement is required
syntactically but you do not want any
command or code to execute.
For that purpose Python supports the following control statements.
Examples for break statement:
Example 1:
for letter in 'Python': if
letter == 'h':
break print ('Current
Letter :', letter)

Example 2:
var = 10
while var > 0:
print ('Current variable value :', var) var = var -1

if var == 5: break Example

3:
no=int(input('any number: '))
numbers=[11,33,55,39,55,75,37,21,23,41,13]
for num in numbers: if num==no:
print ('number found in list') break
else: print ('number not found
in list')
Output:
any number: 33

number found in list

any number: 5

number not found in list

Examples for continue statement: The continue statement can be used in both while and for loops.
Example 1:
for letter in 'Python': if
letter == 'h':
continue
 print ('Current Letter :', letter)

Example 2:
var = 10 while
var > 0:
var = var -1 if var == 5:
continue print ('Current variable
value :', var)

pass Statement:
The pass statement is a null operation; nothing happens when it executes. The pass statement is also useful
in places where your code will eventually go. It is used when a statement is required syntactically. Example:
for letter in 'Python':
if letter == 'h':
pass
print ('This is pass block') print ('Current Letter :', letter)
Output:
Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
This is pass block
Current Letter : h
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Data Encryption:

1. Data encryption to protect information transmitted on networks. Some application protocols have
been updated to include secure versions that use data encryption. Examples of such versions are FTPS
and HTTPS, which are secure versions of FTP and HTTP for file transfer and Web page transfer,
respectively.
2. Encryption techniques are as old as the practice of sending and receiving messages. The sender
encrypts a message by translating it to a secret code, called a cipher text.
3. At the other end, the receiver decrypts the cipher text back to its original plaintext form.
4. Both parties to this transaction must have at their disposal one or more keys that allow them to
encrypt and decrypt messages.
5. A very simple encryption method that has been in use for thousands of years is called a Caesar cipher.

6. The next two Python scripts implement Caesar cipher methods for any strings that contain lowercase
letters and for any distance values between 0 and 26.

7. Here we are using the ord function returns the ordinal position of a character value in the ASCII
sequence, whereas chr is the inverse function.
 Fig : Encryption and Decryption Using Symmetric Key
Example-1:
“””
File:encrypt.py
Encrypts an input string of lowercase letters and prints the result. The other input is the distance
value.
“””
Program:
plain_text=input('Enter Plain Text:') Output:

key=int(input('Enter KEY Value:')) Enter Plain Text: hello!(#

Cipher_Text="" Enter KEY Value: 2 jgnnq#*%
for i in plain_text:
ordvalue=ord(i)
ciphervalue=ordvalue+key
Cipher_Text+=chr(ciphervalue)
print(Cipher_Text)

Example-2:
“””
File: decrypt.py
Decrypts an input string of lowercase letters and prints the result. The other input is the distance
value.
“”” Output:
Program:
enter cipher text: jgnnq#*%
ciphertext=input("enter cipher text: ") key=int(input("enter key enter key value: 2 hello!(#
value: ")) plain=" "
for i in ciphertext:
ordvalue=ord(i)
plainvalue=ordvalue-key
 plain+=chr(plainvalue)
print(plain)

String Methods
• Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
• Note: All string methods returns new values. They do not change the original string.

S.No Method Description

1 capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

2 casefold() Converts string into lower case

3 center() Returns a centered string

4 count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a

string
5 encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

6 endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value

7 expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

8 find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the
position of where it was found

9 index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the
position of where it was found

10 isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are

alphanumeric
11 isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the
alphabet

12 isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals

13 isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits

14 isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier

15 islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case
16 isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric

17 isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable

18 isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces

19 istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title

20 isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case

21 join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string

22 ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string

23 lower() Converts a string into lower case

24 replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a

specified value

25 split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a

list
26 startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value

27 strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string

28 swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice
versa
29 title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case

30 upper() Converts a string into upper case

31 rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the
last position of where it was found

32 rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the
last position of where it was found

33 rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string

34 rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a

list
35 rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string

36 splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list

 37 translate() Returns a translated string

38 zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the

beginning

1. capitalize ():
• Converts the first character to upper case

Syntax: string.capitalize()
Example: 1
>>> str="python is a trending programming language"
>>> str.capitalize()
Output:'Python is a trending programming language'
 Example: 2
>>> txt='522616 is a pincode'
>>> txt.capitalize()
Output: '522616 is a pincode'

2. casefold ():
• Converts string into lower case
• This method is similar to the lower() method, but the casefold() method is stronger, more aggressive,
meaning that it will convert more characters into lower case, and will find more matches when comparing
two strings and both are converted using the casefold() method.
Syntax: string.casefold()
Example: 1
>>> str='PYTHON IS A TRENDING PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE'
>>> str.casefold()
Output: 'python is a trending programming language'

3. center ():
• The center() method will center align the string, using a specified character (space is default) as the fill
character.
Syntax: string.center(length, character) Here,
length = Required. The length of the returned string.
Character = Optional. The character to fill the missing space on each side. Default is " " (space)
Example-1: Print the word "Engineering", taking up the space of 128 characters, with "
Engineering " in the middle:
str1="Engineering"
>>> str1.center(128)
Output: ' Engineering '

>>> str1.center(28)
Output: ' Engineering '

Example-2: Using the letter "O" as the padding character:

>>>str1="Engineering"
>>>str1.center(28,'o')
Output: 'ooooooooEngineeringooooooooo'

4. count (): The count() method returns the number of times a specified value appears in the string.

Syntax: string.count (value, start, end)

Here
Value =Required. A String. The string to value to search for

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 Start = Optional. An Integer. The position to start the search. Default is 0
end = Optional. An Integer. The position to end the search.
Default is the end of the string
Example-1: Return the number of times the value "is" appears in the string:
>>> str2='my favourite subject is programming, python is a programming language'
>>> str2.count('is')
Output: 2

Example-2: Search from position 10 to 24:

>>> str2='my favourite subject is programming, python is a programming language'
>>>str2.count('is',20,40)
Output: 1

5. encode ():

• The encode() method encodes the string, using the specified encoding.
• If no encoding is specified, UTF-8 will be used.

Syntax: string.encode(encoding=encoding, errors=errors)

Here, encoding = Optional. A String specifying the

encoding to use.
Default is UTF-8 errors = Optional. A String specifying the error method.
Legal values are:
• 'backslashreplace' - uses a backslash instead of the character that could not be encoded
• 'ignore'- ignores the characters that cannot be encoded
• 'namereplace'- replaces the character with a text explaining the character
• 'strict' - Default, raises an error on failure
• 'replace'- replaces the character with a questionmark
• 'xmlcharrefreplace' - replaces the character with an xml character
Example-1:
txt = "My name is Ståle"
print(txt.encode(encoding="ascii",errors="backslashreplace"))
print(txt.encode(encoding="ascii",errors="ignore"))
print(txt.encode(encoding="ascii",errors="namereplace"))
print(txt.encode(encoding="ascii",errors="replace"))
print(txt.encode(encoding="ascii",errors="xmlcharrefreplace")) Output: b'My name is
St\\xe5le' b'My name is Stle'
b'My name is St\\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH RING ABOVE}le'
b'My name is St?le' b'My name is Ståle'

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 6. endswith():
 The endswith() method returns True if the string ends with the specified value, otherwise False.
Syntax: string.endswith(value, start, end)
Here, value Required. The value to check if the string ends with start Optional. An Integer specifying
at which position to start the search end Optional. An Integer specifying at which position to end the
search

Example-1: txt = "Hello, welcome to my

world." x = txt.endswith("my
world.") print(x)

Output: True

Example-2: txt = "Hello, welcome to my

world."
x = txt.endswith("my world.", 5, 11) print(x)
Output: False

7. expandtabs():
 The expandtabs() method sets the tab size to the specified number of whitespaces.
Syntax: string.expandtabs(tabsize)
Here, tabsize Optional. A number specifying the tabsize. Default tabsize is 8

Example-1: txt = "H\te\tl\tl\to"

x = txt.expandtabs(2)
print(x)
Output: H e l l o

Example-2:
txt = "H\te\tl\tl\to"
print(txt)
print(txt.expandtabs())
print(txt.expandtabs(2)) print(txt.expandtabs(4))
print(txt.expandtabs(10)) Output:
H e l l o
H e l l o
Hello
Hello
H e l l o

8. find():
• The find() method finds the first occurrence of the specified value.
• The find() method returns -1 if the value is not found.

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 • The find() method is almost the same as the index() method, the only difference is that the index() method
raises an exception if the value is not found. (See example below).
Syntax: string.find(value, start, end)
Here,
value Required. The value to search for start is Optional. Where to start the search. Default is 0 and
end is also an Optional. Where to end the search. Default is to the end of the string

Example-1: txt = "Hello, welcome to my

world." x = txt.find("welcome")
print(x)

Output: 7

Example-2: txt = "Hello, welcome to my

world." x =
txt.find("e", 5, 10)
print(x)

Output: 8
Example-3: txt = "Hello, welcome to my
world."
print(txt.find("q"))
print(txt.index("q"))

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "demo_ref_string_find_vs_index.py", line 4 in
<module> print(txt.index("q"))
ValueError: substring not found.
Output: -1

9. index()
• The index() method finds the first occurrence of the specified value.
• The index() method raises an exception if the value is not found.
• The index() method is almost the same as the find() method, the only difference is that the find()
method returns -1 if the value is not found. (See example below)
Syntax: string.index(value, start, end)
Here, value Required. The value to search for start Optional. Where to start the search. Default is 0, end
Optional. Where to end the search. Default is to the end of the string Example-1: txt = "Hello,
welcome to my world." x = txt.index("welcome")
print(x)
Output: 7
Example-2: txt = "Hello, welcome to my
world."

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 x = txt.index("e")
print(x)
Output: 1

10. isalnum():
• The isalnum() method returns True if all the characters are alphanumeric, meaning alphabet letter (a-
z) and numbers (0-9).
• Example of characters that are not alphanumeric: (space)!#%&? etc.

Syntax: string.isalnum()
Example-1:
txt = "Company12"
x = txt.isalnum()
print(x)
Output: True Example-2:
txt = "Company 12"
x = txt.isalnum()
print(x)
Output: False , because white space before 12.

11. isalpha():
• The isalpha() method returns True if all the characters are alphabet letters (a-z).
• Example of characters that are not alphabet letters: (space)!#%&? etc.

Syntax: string.isalpha()

Example-1:
txt =
"CompanyX" x =
txt.isalpha() print(x)
Output: True
Example-2:
txt =
"Company10" x =
txt.isalpha()
print(x)
Output: False

12. isdecimal():
• The isdecimal() method returns True if all the characters are decimals (0-9).
• This method is used on unicode objects.

Syntax: string.isdecimal()

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 Example-1: txt = "\u0033" #unicode for
3 x = txt.isdecimal() print(x)
Output: True
Example-2: a = "\u0030" #unicode
for 0 b = "\u0047"
#unicode for G
print(a.isdecimal())
print(b.isdecimal())

Output: True
False

13. isdigit():
• The isdigit() method returns True if all the characters are digits, otherwise False. 
Exponents, like ², are also considered to be a digit. Syntax: string.isdigit() Example-1:
txt = "50800"
x =
txt.isdigit()
print(x)
Output: True Example-2: a =
"\u0030" #unicode for 0 b = "\u00B2"
#unicode for ²
print(a.isdigit())
print(b.isdigit())

Output: True True

14. isidentifier():
• The isidentifier() method returns True if the string is a valid identifier, otherwise False.
• A string is considered a valid identifier if it only contains alphanumeric letters (a-z) and
(0-9), or underscores (_).
• A valid identifier cannot start with a number, or contain any spaces. Syntax:
string.isidentifier() Example-1:
txt = "Demo"
x = txt.isidentifier()
print(x)
Output: True Example-2:
a = "MyFolder" c =
"2bring"
print(a.isidentifier()
)

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 print(c.isidentifier()
)
Output: True
False

15. islower():
• The islower() method returns True if all the characters are in lower case, otherwise
False.
• Numbers, symbols and spaces are not checked, only alphabet characters.
Syntax: string.islower()
Example-1: txt = "hello
world!" x =
txt.islower()
print(x)
Output: True Example-
2: a = "Hello world!" b = "hello
123" c = "mynameisPeter"
print(a.islower()) print(b.islower())
print(c.islower()) Output:
False True False

16. isnumeric():
 The isnumeric() method returns True if all the characters are numeric (0-9), otherwise False.
 Exponents, like ² and ¾ are also considered to be numeric values. Syntax: string.isnumeric()
Example-1: txt = "565543" x = txt.isnumeric()
print(x) Output: True
Example-2: a = "\u0030" #unicode for 0
b = "\u00B2" #unicode for ²
c = "10km2"
print(a.isnumeric())
print(b.isnumeric())
print(c.isnumeric())
Output: True
True
False

17. isprintable():
• The isprintable() method returns True if all the characters are printable, otherwise False.
• Example of none printable character can be carriage return and line feed.
Syntax: string.isprintable()

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 Example-1: txt = "Hello! Are you
#1?" x = txt.isprintable()
print(x)
Output: True
Example-2:
txt = "Hello!\nAre you #1?"
x = txt.isprintable()
print(x)
Output: False

18. isspace():
 The isspace() method returns True if all the characters in a string are whitespaces, otherwise False.
Syntax: string.isspace()
Example-1: txt = " " x =
txt.isspace()
print(x)
Output: True Example-
2: txt = " s " x = txt.isspace()
print(x)
Output: False

19. istitle():

• The istitle() method returns True if all words in a text start with a upper
case letter, AND the rest of the word are lower case letters, otherwise
False.
• Symbols and numbers are ignored. Syntax: string.istitle()
Example-1:
txt = "Hello, And Welcome To My World!" x
= txt.istitle() print(x) Output: True Example-2:
a = "HELLO, AND WELCOME TO MY
WORLD" b = "Hello" c = "22 Names" d = "This Is
%'!?" print(a.istitle()) print(b.istitle())
print(c.istitle()) print(d.istitle())
Output: False True True True

20. isupper()
 The isupper() method returns True if all the characters are in upper case, otherwise False. 
Numbers, symbols and spaces are not checked, only alphabet characters.
Syntax: string.isupper()
Example-1:
txt = "THIS IS NOW!"
x = txt.isupper()

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 print(x)
Output: True
Example-2: a = "Hello
World!"
b = "hello 123"
c = "MY NAME IS PETER"
print(a.isupper())
print(b.isupper()) print(c.isupper())
Output: False False True

21. join():
 The join() method takes all items in an iterable and joins them into one string. 
A string must be specified as the separator.
Syntax: string.join(iterable)
Here, iterable is Required. Any iterable object where all the returned values are strings

Example-1: myTuple = ("John", "Peter",

"Vicky") x = "#".join(myTuple)
print(x)

Output: John#Peter#Vicky Example-2: myDict =

{"name": "John", "country": "Norway"} mySeparator = "TEST"
x = mySeparator.join(myDict)
print(x)
Output: name TEST country

22. ljust():
 The ljust() method will left align the string, using a specified character (space is default) as the fill
character.
Syntax: string.ljust(length, character)
Here, length Required. The length of the returned string character Optional. A character to fill the missing
space (to the right of the string). Default is " " (space).

Example-1:
txt = "banana"
x = txt.ljust(20)
print(x, "is my favorite fruit.")
Output: banana is my favorite fruit.
Example-2: txt = "banana" x = txt.ljust(20, "O")
print(x) Example-3: Output:
txt = "banana" x = txt.ljust(20, "so") print(x)
Output: bananaOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

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 nothingTraceback (most recent call last):
File "./prog.py", line 3, in <module>
TypeError: The fill character must be exactly one character long

23. lower():
• The lower() method returns a string where all characters are lower case.
• Symbols and Numbers are ignored.
Syntax: string.lower()
Example-1: txt = "Hello
my
FRIENDS" x = txt.lower()
print(x)
Output: hello my friends

24. replace():
• The replace() method replaces a specified phrase with another specified phrase.
• Note: All occurrences of the specified phrase will be replaced, if nothing else is specified.
Syntax: string.replace(oldvalue, newvalue, count)

Here, oldvalue Required. The string to search for newvalue Required. The string to replace the old value with
count Optional. A number specifying how many occurrences of the old value you want to replace. Default is
all occurrences.

Example-1:

txt = "I like bananas"

x = txt.replace("bananas", "apples")
print(x)
Output: I like apples Example-2: txt = "one one
was a race horse, two two was one too." x = txt.replace("one",
"three", 2) print(x)
Output: “three three was a race horse, two two was one too.”

25. split():
• The split() method splits a string into a list.
• You can specify the separator, default separator is any whitespace.
• Note: When maxsplit is specified, the list will contain the specified number of elements plus one.
Syntax: string.split(separator, maxsplit)
Here, separator Optional. Specifies the separator to use when splitting the string. By default any
whitespace is a separator maxsplit Optional. Specifies how many splits to do. Default value is -1, which is "all
occurrences" Example-1:
txt = "welcome to the jungle"
x = txt.split() print(x)

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 Output: ['welcome', 'to', 'the', 'jungle']
Example-2:
txt = "apple#banana#cherry#orange"
x = txt.split("#")
print(x)
Output: ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'orange'] 26.
startswith():
• The startswith() method returns True if the string starts with the specified value, otherwise False.
Syntax: string.startswith(value, start, end)
Here, value Required. The value to check if the string starts with start Optional. An Integer specifying
at which position to start the search end Optional. An Integer specifying at which position to end
the sear Example-1: txt = "Hello, welcome to my world."
x = txt.startswith("Hello")
print(x)
Output: True

Example-2: txt = "Hello, welcome to my

world." x = txt.startswith("wel", 7,
20) print(x)
Output: True

27. strip():
• The strip() method removes any leading (spaces at the beginning) and trailing (spaces at the end)
characters (space is the default leading character to remove)
Syntax: string.strip(characters)
Here, characters Optional. A set of characters to remove as leading/trailing characters.

Example-1:
txt = " banana "
x = txt.strip()
print("of all fruits", x, "is my favorite")

Output: of all fruits banana is my favorite

Example-2:

txt = ",,,,,rrttgg.....banana rrr"

x = txt.strip(",.grt") print(x)
Output: banana

28. swapcase():
• The swapcase() method returns a string where all the upper case letters are lower case and vice versa.
Syntax: string.swapcase() Example-1: txt = "Hello My Name Is Purple" x = txt.swapcase()
print(x)

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 Output: hELLO mY nAME iS pURPLE

29. title() :
• The title() method returns a string where the first character in every word is upper case. Like a
header, or a title.
• If the word contains a number or a symbol, the first letter after that will be converted to upper case.
Syntax: string.title()
Example-1:
txt = "Welcome to my world"
x = txt.title()
print(x)
Output: Welcome To My World

Example-2:
txt = "hello b2b2b2 and 3g3g3g"
x = txt.title()
print(x)
Output: Hello B2B2B2 And 3G3G3G

30. upper():
• The upper() method returns a string where all characters are in upper case.
• Symbols and Numbers are ignored. Syntax: string.upper() Example-1:
txt = "Hello my friends"
x = txt.upper()
print(x)
Output: HELLO MY FRIENDS
31. rfind():
• The rfind() method finds the last occurrence of the specified value.
• The rfind() method returns -1 if the value is not found.
• The rfind() method is almost the same as the rindex() method. See example below.
Syntax: string.rfind(value, start, end)
Here, value Required. The value to search for start Optional. Where to start the search. Default is 0
End is Optional. Where to end the search. Default is to the end of the string Example-1: txt = "Mi
casa, su casa." x = txt.rfind("casa")
print(x)
Output: 12
Example-2:
txt = "Hello, welcome to my world."
x = txt.rfind("e", 5, 10)
print(x)
Output: 8
Example-3: txt = "Hello, welcome to my
world."

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 print(txt.rfind("q"))
print(txt.rindex("q"))

nothingTraceback (most recent call last):

File "demo_ref_string_rfind_vs_rindex.py", line 4 in
<module> print(txt.rindex("q"))
ValueError: substring not found
Output: -1

32. rindex():
• The rindex() method finds the last occurrence of the specified value.
• The rindex() method raises an exception if the value is not found.
• The rindex() method is almost the same as the rfind() method. See example below.
Syntax: string.rindex(value, start, end)
Here, Value i s Required. The value to search for start
Optional. Where to start the search. Default is 0
end Optional. Where to end the search. Default is to the end of the string
Example-1: txt = "Mi casa, su
casa." x =
txt.rindex("casa")
print(x)
Output: 12
Example-2: txt = "Hello, welcome to my
world." x = txt.rindex("e", 5, 10)
print(x)
Output: 8
33. rjust():
 The rjust() method will right align the string, using a specified character (space is default) as the fill
character.
Syntax: string.rjust(length, character)
Here,
length Required. The length of the returned string
character Optional. A character to fill the missing space (to the left of the string). Default is " "
(space).
Example-1: txt = "banana"
x = txt.rjust(20)
print(x, "is my favorite fruit.")
Output: banana is my favorite fruit.

34. rsplit():
• The rsplit() method splits a string into a list, starting from the right.
• If no "max" is specified, this method will return the same as the split() method.
• Note: When maxsplit is specified, the list will contain the specified number of elements plus one.

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 Syntax: string.rsplit(separator, maxsplit) Here, separator Optional. Specifies the separator
to use when splitting the string. By default any whitespace is a separator
maxsplit Optional. Specifies how many splits to do. Default value is -1, which is "all
occurrences" Example-1: txt = "apple, banana, cherry"
# setting the maxsplit parameter to 1, will return a list with 2 elements!
x = txt.rsplit(", ", 1)
print(x)
# Note that the result has only 2 elements "apple, banana" is the first element, and "cherry" is the last.
Output: ['apple, banana', 'cherry']

35. rstrip():
 The rstrip() method removes any trailing characters (characters at the end a string), space is the
default trailing character to remove.
Syntax: string.rstrip(characters)
Here, characters Optional. A set of characters to remove as trailing
characters. Example-1:
txt = " banana "
x = txt.rstrip()
print("of all fruits", x, "is my favorite")
Output: of all fruits banana is my favorite
36. splitlines()
 The splitlines() method splits a string into a list. The splitting is done at line breaks.
Syntax: string.splitlines(keeplinebreaks) Example-1: txt = "Thank you for the music\
nWelcome to the jungle" x = txt.splitlines(True)
print(x)
Output: ['Thank you for the music\n', 'Welcome to the jungle']

37. translate():
• The translate() method returns a string where some specified characters are replaced with the
character described in a dictionary, or in a mapping table.
• Use the maketrans() method to create a mapping table.
• If a character is not specified in the dictionary/table, the character will not be replaced.  If you use
a dictionary, you must use ascii codes instead of characters.
Syntax: string.translate(table)
Here, table Required. Either a dictionary, or a mapping table describing how to perform the replace

Example-1: txt = "Hello Sam!"; mytable

= txt.maketrans("S", "P");
print(txt.translate(mytable));
Output: Hello Pam!

38. zfill():

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  The zfill() method adds zeros (0) at the beginning of the string, until it reaches the specified
length.
 If the value of the len parameter is less than the length of the string, no filling is done.

Syntax: string.zfill(len)
Here,
len Required. A number specifying the position of the element you want to remove.
Example-1:
txt = "50"
x = txt.zfill(10)
print(x)
Output: 0000000050

Example-2: a = "hello"
b = "welcome to the
jungle" c = "10.000"
print(a.zfill(10)) print(b.zfill(10))
print(c.zfill(10))
Output: 00000hello
welcome to the jungle
000010.000

Strings and Number Systems:

 When you perform arithmetic operations, you use the decimal number system. This system, also called
the base ten number system, uses the ten characters 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 as digits.
 The binary number system is used to represent all information in a digital computer. The two digits in
this base two number system are 0 and 1.Because binary numbers can be long strings of 0s and 1s.
 Computer scientists often use other number systems, such as octal (base eight) and hexadecimal (base
16) as shorthand for these numbers.

Example:

415 in binary notation 1100111112

415 in octal notation 6378

415 in decimal notation 41510

415 in hexadecimal notation 19F16

Converting Binary to Decimal

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 A binary number as a string of bits or a bit string. You determine the integer quantity that a string of bits
represents in the usual manner: multiply the value of each bit (0 or 1) by its positional value and add the
results.

Python Program to Converts a string of bits to a decimal integer.

bstring = input("Enter a string of bits: ")
decimal = 0 exponent =
len(bstring) – 1 for i in
bstring:
decimal = decimal + int(i) * 2 **
exponent = exponent - 1
print("The integer value is", decimal)

Output:

Enter a string of bits: 0101

The integer value is 5

Converting Decimal to Binary

• This algorithm repeatedly divides the decimal number by 2. After each division, the remainder (either a 0
or a 1) is placed at the beginning of a string of bits.
• The quotient becomes the next dividend in the process. The string of bits is initially empty, and the
process continues while the decimal number is greater than 0.

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 Python Program to Converts a decimal integer into binary .
decimal = int(input("Enter a decimal integer: ")) if
decimal == 0:
print (0)
else:
print("Quotient Remainder Binary")
bstring = ""
while decimal > 0:
remainder = decimal % 2
decimal = decimal // 2
bstring = str(remainder) + bstring
print("%5d%8d%12s" % (decimal, remainder, bstring))
print("The binary representation is", bstring) Output:
Enter a decimal integer: 10
Quotient Remainder Binary
5 0 0
2 1 10
1 0 010
0 1 1010
The binary representation is 1010

Text Files and Their Format

• Using a text editor such as Notepad or TextEdit, you can create, view, and save data in a text file. Your
Python programs can output data to a text file.
• The data in a text file can be viewed as characters, words, numbers, or lines of text, depending on the
text file’s format and on the purposes for which the data are used.
• Python supports file handling and allows users to handle files i.e., to read and write files, along with
many other file handling options, to operate on files.
• Python treats file differently as text or binary and this is important.
• Each line of code includes a sequence of characters and they form text file.

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 • Each line of a file is terminated with a special character, called the EOL or End of Line characters like
comma {,} or newline character.

• It ends the current line and tells the interpreter a new one has begun.
• The key function for working with files in Python is the open() function.
• The open() function takes two parameters; filename, and mode.There are four different methods (modes)
for opening a file:
1. "r" - Read - Default value. Opens a file for reading, error if the file does not exist
2. "a" - Append - Opens a file for appending, creates the file if it does not exist
3. "w" - Write - Opens a file for writing, creates the file if it does not exist
4. "x" - Create - Creates the specified file, returns an error if the file exists
• In addition you can specify if the file should be handled as binary or text mode
1. "t" - Text - Default value. Text mode
2. "b" - Binary - Binary mode (e.g. images)
Python File Open:
 To open the file, use the built-in open() function.
 The open() function returns a file object, which has a read() method for reading the content of the
file.

Syntax: f = open("filename",”mode”)
Example: f = open("demofile.txt", "rt")

Here , "r" for read, and "t" for text are the default values, you do not need to specify them.
Note: Make sure the file exists, or else you will get an error. To open a file for reading it is enough to
specify the name of the file:

Example: f = open("demofile.txt") print(f.read())

 If the file is located in a different location, you will have to specify the file path, like this:
Example: f= open("D:\\myfiles\welcome.txt", "r") print(f.read())
Read Only Parts of the File: By default the read() method returns the whole text, but you can also specify
how many characters you want to return. for example Return the 5 first characters of the file:
Example: f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read(5))
Example: Loop through the file line by line:
f = open("demofile.txt", "r") for x
in f:
print(x)

 Close Files: It is a good practice to always close the file when you are done with it. Example:
Close the file when you are finish with it: f = open("demofile.txt", "r") print(f.readline()) f.close()

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 Note: You should always close your files, in some cases, due to buffering, changes made to a file may not
show until you close the file.

 Python File Write: To write to an existing file, you must add a parameter to the open() function:
"a" - Append - will append to the end of the file "w" -
Write - will overwrite any existing content

Example:1 f = open("demofile.txt", "a")

# Write() =Writes the specified string into the file.
f.write("Now the file has more content!")
f.close()
#open and read the file after appending: f
= open("demofile.txt", "r") print(f.read())

Example:2 f = open("demofile3.txt", "w")

f.write("Woops! I have deleted the content!")
f.close() f = open("demofile3.txt", "r") print(f.read())

Note: The “w” mode will overwrite the entire file.

 Create a New File: To create a new file in Python, use the open() method, with "x" - Create - will
create a file, returns an error if the file exist Example: f = open("myfile.txt", "x")
Result: a new empty file is created!

 Python Delete File: To delete a file, you must import the OS module, and run its os.remove() function:
Example: Remove the file "demofile.txt":
import os
os.remove("demofile.txt")
Delete Folder: To delete an entire folder, use the os.rmdir()
method Example: Remove the folder "myfolder" import os
os.rmdir("myfolder")

Python file methods:

Method Description
detach() Returns the separated raw stream from the buffer

fileno() Returns a number that represents the stream, from the operating system's perspective

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 flush() Flushes the internal buffer
isatty() Returns whether the file stream is interactive or not

readable() Returns whether the file stream can be read or not

readline() Returns one line from the file

readlines() Returns a list of lines from the file

seek() Change the file position

seekable() Returns whether the file allows us to change the file position

tell() Returns the current file position

truncate() Resizes the file to a specified size

writable() Returns whether the file can be written to or not

writelines() Writes a list of strings to the file

readline() Method:
 The readline() method returns one line from the file.You can also specified how many bytes from the line
to return, by using the size parameter. Syntax: file.readline(size) Here,
size Optional. The number of bytes from the line to return. Default -1, which means the
whole line.
Example: 1 f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())
print(f.readline())

Example: 2 Return only the five first bytes from the first line: f
= open("demofile.txt", "r") print(f.readline(5))

readlines() Method:
 The readlines() method returns a list containing each line in the file as a list item.
 Use the hint parameter to limit the number of lines returned. If the total number of bytes returned exceeds
the specified number, no more lines are returned.
Syntax: file.readlines(hint)
Here,
hint Optional. If the number of bytes returned exceed the hint number, no more lines will be returned.
Default value is -1, which means all lines will be returned.

Example: f = open("demofile.txt", "r")

print(f.readlines())

Output:['Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt\n', 'This file is for testing purposes.\n', 'Good Luck!']

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 seek() Method:
 The seek() method sets the current file position in a file stream. It also returns the new postion.

Syntax: file.seek(offset) Here, offset Required. A number representing the position

to set the current file stream position.
Example: f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
f.seek(4)
print(f.readline())

Output: o! Welcome to demofile.txt

tell() Method:
 The tell() method returns the current file position in a file stream.

Syntax: file.tell()

Example: f = open("demofile.txt", "r")

print(f.readline()) print(f.tell())
Output: Hello! Welcome to demofile.txt
32
writelines() Method:
• The writelines() method writes the items of a list to the file.
• Where the texts will be inserted depends on the file mode and stream position.
• "a": The texts will be inserted at the current file stream position, default at the end of the file.
• "w": The file will be emptied before the texts will be inserted at the current file stream position, default
0.
Syntax: file.writelines(list)
Here, list The list of texts or byte objects that will be inserted.

Example: f = open("demofile3.txt", "a")

f.writelines(["\nSee you soon!", "\nOver and out."])
f.close()
#open and read the file after the appending:
f = open("demofile3.txt", "r")
print(f.read())
Output:
Hello! Welcome to demofile2.txt
This file is for testing purposes. Good Luck!See you soon! Over and out.
 Reading Numbers from a File
• The file input operation return data to the program as strings.
• If these strings represent other types of data, such as integers or floating-point numbers, the programmer
must convert them to the appropriate types before manipulating them further.

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 • Python, the string representations of integers and floating-point numbers can be converted to the numbers
themselves by using the functions int and float, respectively.
• During input, these data can be read with a simple for loop. This loop accesses a line of text on each
pass. To convert this line to the integer.
• The programmer runs the string method strip to remove the newline and then runs the int function to
obtain the integer value. Example: f=open("numbers.txt",'r') sum=0 for line in f:
wordlist=line.split()
for word in wordlist:
number=int(word)
sum+=number
print("The sum is",sum)

Output:
The sum is 55

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