Peripheral Nervous System

The nervous system is classified into two components,

the central nervous system (CNS)- which includes
the brain and spinal cord,
the peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes
nerves outside the central nervous system.
 The peripheral nervous system comprises all the nerves
branching out of the brain and spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system's nerves connect the body's
peripheral parts to the CNS by carrying information to and
from the brain and spinal cord.
 The PNS is formed almost entirely from nerves, and the
primary cell units of both the peripheral and central nervous
systems are neurons.
The two main types of nerves seen in the peripheral nervous
system are
1. the spinal nerves
2. the cranial nerves

Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

emerge from the cranium leave the vertebral column through an

(brain/brainstem) intervertebral foramen.
12 pairs of cranial nerves 31 pairs of the spinal nerve
 there is a total of 43 pairs of nerves forming the peripheral nervous system.
 The peripheral nervous system axons run together in bundles called fibers.
 Each nerve fiber is an extension of a neuron whose cell body is either within the
CNS's grey matter or the PNS's ganglia.
 The main functions of the PNS are voluntary movements such as chewing food,
walking, and facial expressions.
 The PNS also regulates autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and
digesting – the unconscious bodily behaviors.
 Nerves of the peripheral nervous system are classified according to the types of
neurons they contain and also based on the direction of the flow of information,
whether towards or away from the brain, such as
1. Sensory/afferent nerves - bring information to the central nervous
system
For instance, sensory neurons or afferent neurons communicate to the brain the
level of energy intake of various organs.

2. Motor/ efferent nerves - neurons that transmit the signals from the
central nervous system to the target organs
For instance, motor neurons or efferent neurons interact with the skeletal muscles to
execute the voluntary movements of the body.
 3. mixed nerves - nerves composed of sensory and motor fibers
simultaneously transmit messages in both directions.

Cranial nerves
 There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves
(CN) on either side performing sensory
and motor functions.
 Cranial nerves originate from specific
nuclei in the brain and leave the cranial
cavity through foramina.
 The numbering of the cranial nerves is
according to the order in which they
emerge from the brain front to back
(brainstem).

Cranial nerves - types and their

functions
1) Olfactory nerve (CN I): sensory neurons that transmit information -
regarding the sense of smell.
2) Optic nerve (CN II): sensory neurons that transmit visual information
from the retina of the eye to the brain.
3) Oculomotor nerve (CN III): motor neurons that help control the eyes’
muscular movements, constricting the pupil and maintaining an open eyelid.
4) Trochlear nerve (CN IV): motor neurons involved in the rotational
movement of the eye.
5) Trigeminal nerve (CN V): mixed neuron and is responsible for sensation
and motor function in the face and mouth.
6) Abducens nerve (CN VI): mainly motor neurons that help to regulate
lateral eye movements.
7) Facial nerve (CN VII): mixed neuron it controls the muscles involved in
facial expression and taste sensations
8) Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII):
The vestibulocochlear nerves are predominantly sensory and are involved in
transmitting sound and balance. two components;
 the vestibular nerve - helps the body change – the body maintains balance
 the cochlear nerve helps with hearing.
9) Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX): Mixed neuron receives sensory
information from the tonsils, pharynx, middle ear, and back of the
tongue.
10) Vagus nerve (CN X): Mixed and is the longest cranial nerve. It also helps in
muscle movements in the mouth, including speech, and keeping the larynx open for
breathing. Afferent vagus nerve fibers that supply the pharynx and back of the throat
are accountable for the gag reflex.
11) Accessory nerve (CN XI): the motor nerve that controls specific muscles in
the neck and shoulders that allow a person to rotate, extend and stretch the
neck and shoulders.
12) Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII): the motor nerve that innervates the tongue
muscles, the tongue movements of speech, management of food, and swallowing.

No. Cranial Nerves List Type Function

CN I. Olfactory Sensory Smell
CN II. Optic Sensory Vision
CN III. Oculomotor Motor Eye movement -MUSCULAR

CN IV. Trochlear Motor Eye movement - ROTATION

CN V. Trigeminal Mixed Facial sensation

CN VI. Abducens Motor Eye movement - LATERAL

CN VII. Facial Mixed Facial expression

CN VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerve Sensory Hearing and balance

CN IX. Glossopharyngeal Mixed Oral sensation and taste

CN X. Vagus Mixed Vagus nerve

CN XI. Accessory Motor
Shoulder elevation and head-
turning

CN XII. Hypoglossal Motor Tongue movement

Spinal nerves
Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord and pass out between the vertebrae through
the intervertebral foramen to each side. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, such as
a) 8 cervical
b) 12 thoracic
c) 5 lumbar
d) 5 sacral
e) 1 coccygeal
Each pair of spinal nerves connects the spinal cord to a specific body part. Adjacent to
the spinal cord, each spinal nerve branches into two roots;
 anterior root- is composed of motor fibers and leaves the spinal cord via the
ventral root. Its cell bodies are located in specific areas of the spinal cord itself.
 posterior root- is composed of sensory fibers and moves into the spinal cord
via the dorsal root. Its cell bodies are located in a spinal ganglion exterior to the
spinal cord.
Cranial nerves
1. Cervical nerves:
 the 8 pairs of spinal nerves arising from the
cervical vertebrae in the cervical segment of the
spinal cord.
 Although there are seven cervical vertebrae
(C1-C7), there are eight cervical nerves C1-C8.
2. Thoracic nerves:
 The thoracic nerves are the 12 pairs of spinal
nerves emerging from the thoracic vertebrae,
and each thoracic nerve T1-T12
 These nerves communicate with various parts of
the chest and abdomen.
3. Lumbar nerves:
 The lumbar nerves are the 5 pairs of spinal
nerves emerging from the lumbar vertebrae.
 It contributes to the movement of the hip, knee,
foot, and toe muscles.
4. Sacral nerves:
 The sacral nerves are the 5 pairs of spinal
nerves that leave the sacral vertebra at the
lower end of the vertebral column.
 These nerves innervate the skin and muscles of the pelvis and lower limb.
5. Coccygeal nerve: the pointed lower end of the spinal cord.

Structure of the peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system is divided into -

 The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control and transmits
signals from the brain to the target organs, such as skeletal muscles.
 The autonomic nervous system has an autonomous activity of its own,
hence is a self-regulating system.

Somatic nervous system:

 It consists of the sensory and somatic nerves - both cranial and spinal nerves.
 In the head and neck - cranial nerves
 The rest of the body - spinal nerves
 The sensory nervous system is accountable for processing sensory information.
 Sensory information is obligatory to perform various fundamental activities like
 to maintain equilibrium or homeostasis
 to form behaviors according to seasonal changes or synchronize activities
with those of conspecifics
 to locate resources and respond to threats.
 The sensory receptors are –
1. Chemoreceptors - detect various chemical stimuli and transduces the
signal into an electrical action potential. e.g., olfactory receptors and taste
buds.
2. Photoreceptors - capable of photo-transduction, a process that converts
light into other types of energy. e.g., rods and cones in the retina of the eye.
3. Mechanoreceptors - respond to mechanical forces such as pressure or
distortion. e.g., the receptors on the skin and hair cells.
4. Thermoreceptors - respond to varying temperatures. E.g., mucosa of
the oral cavity
5. Nociceptors - respond to harmful stimuli by sending signals to the spinal
cord and brain. This process is termed nociception and usually causes the
perception of pain. e.g., thermal nociceptors, mechanical nociceptors, and
chemical nociceptors.
 A somatosensory pathway typically has three neurons: first-order, second-order,
and third-order.
 The first-order neuron is a type of pseudounipolar neuron.
 The second-order neuron is located either in the spinal cord or the
brainstem.
 The third-order neuron has its cell body in the ventral posterior
nucleus of the thalamus.

Autonomic nervous system:

 The autonomic nervous system is also called the vegetative nervous system.
 It controls involuntary functions and modulates the activity of visceral organs.
 The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system and is mandatory for
cardiac function, respiration, and other reflexes such as vomiting, coughing,
sneezing, etc.

 The autonomic nervous system is classified into sympathetic and

parasympathetic nervous systems.
 The sympathetic portion usually functions in activities that require a quick
response.
 The parasympathetic part functions with activities that do not require
immediate reaction.
 These two systems together modulate the vital functions to achieve body
homeostasis.

Sympathetic Nervous System:

 responsible for the fight or flight response
 an acute response occurs during a dangerous situation or intense mental
distress.
 located in the lateral horns of the spinal cord.
 To activate the response, sympathetic fibers release large quantities of
epinephrine from the adrenal gland
 Accompanied by an elevated heart rate and cardiac output, increased
breathing, sweating, dryness of mouth, etc.
 The overall physiological events prepare the body for self-defense
Parasympathetic Nervous System:
 responsible for the body's “rest and digest” response
 when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding after a stressful situation.
 It diminishes respiration and heart rate and enhances digestion.
 It is organized to digest, assimilate, conserve energy, and promote rest.
 It comprises the cranial and sacral spinal nerves primarily.
 The anabolic functions include the metabolism of nutrients and numerous protective
reflexes, such as those that limit heat loss, reduce energy expenditure and decrease
the heart rate.

The enteric nervous system (ENS):

'the second brain' of the human body.
functions;
 control of gastrointestinal motility, the peristalsis, and muscle movements in the
small intestine, like mixing activities and propulsive reflexes.
 regulates the movement of water and electrolytes between the gut lumen and
fluid tissue compartments and the local blood flow.
 control of gastric secretion of HCl and pepsinogen in the stomach and the
excretion of pancreatic enzymes.
 regulates the endocrine cells of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT).
 performs several defense responses of the gut, such as diarrhea to dilute and
eliminate toxins, exaggerated propulsive activity of the colon if there are
pathogens in the gut and subsequent vomiting.
 regulating entero-enteric reflexes that control one region concerning others.