Module 1: The Communication Process

Meaning of Communication
• The word communication is derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ – which
means ‘to share, to impart or to commune’. Its literal meaning is ‘ giving or sharing
information’.
Definition
• Communication is any behaviour that results in an exchange of meaning. – The
American Management Association
• Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of
achieving common meaning. – Bartol and Martin
• Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more
persons. – William Newman and Charles Summer in “The Process of Management”
• Communication is a process of passing information and understanding from one
person to another. – Keith Davis

Postulates of Communication
Postulates refer to the truths or facts that is arrived on the basis of reasoning and
discussion.
Some of the postulates of Communication are:
1. One cannot not communicate.
2. Communication is interactive.
3. Communication is dynamic.
4. Communication is contextual.
5. Communication is grounded in perspective.
6. Communication is cyclic.

Hallmark or Characteristics of Communication:

The 7 C’s of Communication (Refer to notes )
1. Completeness
2. 2. Conciseness
3. Consideration
4. Concreteness
5. Clarity
6. Courtesy

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 7. Correctness

Process of communication
1. The Sender: The process of communication starts when the sender gets an idea or
thought which he/she wants to communicate.
2. Encoding: The idea in the mind of the sender is converted into symbols or
language, based on the purpose of communication.
• Selecting the right language or symbol is essential for effective encoding.
3. Message : The encoded idea of the source becomes the message. Message is
transmitted through a medium or channel.
• Medium/Channel can be oral, written or non-verbal.
• It could be a letter, a report, a memorandum, a book, a computer,
telephone, fax, email, newspaper, television, etc.
4. Decoding : Decoding is the process of converting a message into thoughts by
translating the received stimuli into an interpreted meaning in order to understand
the message communicated. Decoding involves interpretation and analysis of a
message.

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 5. Response / Feedback: the last stage of communication process. It is the action or
reaction of the receiver to the message.

 Feedback
• Feedback is the final link in the communication chain.
• When the receiver of a communication sends a response or reply to the message it is
called feedback.
• Types of feedback:
• Feedback can be positive or negative
• Complete or incomplete
• Feedback can be immediate or delayed.
• No feedback
• Importance of feedback:
• Necessary in all communication to indicate successful transmission of the
message.
One of the best ways of improving communication as it enables the sender to
identify the errors in the message.

 Objectives of communication:
1. Primary Objective:
 Information
 Environmental Information
 Internal Information
 External Information
 Competitive Information
 New Development Information
 Orders and Instructions
 Education and training
 Advice
 Persuasion
 Suggestion
 Warning
2. Secondary Objective
 Motivation
‘Man is not pulled in from the front, nor is he pushed from behind; rather he is
driven from within.’ – Paul Mayer.

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  Emotional Climate
 Setting Goals or Objectives
 Organisational Information
 Participation in Decision – making
 Using the Influence Motive
 Establishing Human Relations
 Raising morale

 Principles of effective communication

• Communicate for a purpose
 Are you trying to sell a product? Persuading someone? Creating a favourable
impression?
• Compose your message with care
 Using the right signs and symbols that are familiar to both sender and
receiver.
eg. Technician not using technical words while talking to an ordinary person.
• Compose your message to attract attention
 Intensity(be forceful, loud, clear as the occasion demands), change of
movements (avoid monotony), repetition, systematic arrangement
• Remove all barriers to effective communication
• Study the receiver of your message
• Keeping in mind the background and experience of the receiver
• Select your medium with care
• Messages should go across clearly and quickly
• Provide feedback
• Act promptly on receiving response
If there is a misunderstanding or doubt about the original message, clarify
immediately.

Organizational Communication
Formal (Upward, Downward and Horizontal) Informal (Grapevine)

• An organisation has well-ordered network of channels along which communication

flows.
• Formal communication move along the established channels.
• The direction of the flow of communication is described in terms of the formal
power and authority relationships among the members of the organization.

External and Internal Communication

Communication with those outside the organisation is external.
Communication within the organization, among its members is internal.

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• Organisation have office procedures and systems for handling external
communication.
• Both, the incoming and the outgoing messages are recorded and filed.

External communication: Outward communication

• Messages go out of an organisation to customers, suppliers, banks, insurance
companies, government departments, the mass media and the general public.
• They may be in the form of letters, faxes, telephones calls reports, advertisements,
press hand-outs, speeches, visits and so on.
• The style, format and tone of the company’s outgoing communication affect its
public image and public relations.
• Therefore, most organisations have a policy about the style and appearance of the
company’s messages that go out.
• Copies of outgoing written documents are filed for reference.
• A written note or summary of oral communication is also filed by many companies.
Internal Communication
Formal Channels:
• Formal channels are those which carry the official messages in the organisation.
• The efficiency of an organisation depends on a regular flow of messages.
• The flow of messages needs to be organised into a well-ordered network, to ensure
that communication flows easily and reaches the person who needs the information.
• Information has to go through proper channels.
• Messages that move up and down the authority line are called vertical
communication. (including Upward and Downward communication)
• Messages which move among persons of the same level are called horizontal or
lateral communication.
• Any by-pass in the communication channel can lead to gaps in information and
failure to take the required action or may lead to confusion.

Flow of Communication
• Downward communication: Communication from superior to subordinate is called
downward communication.
• Upward communication: Communication from subordinate to superior is called
upward communication.
• Horizontal or lateral communication: Communication between persons at the same
level is called horizontal or lateral communication.
• There are also various informal channels of communication in an organisation to
satisfy various human needs. E.g. Grapevine

Downward communication:
• Messages going from the higher authority levels to the lower levels may be written
or oral.

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 • Written messages are notes, circulars, notices, e-mails
• Oral messages may be face-to-face, or by telecom or telephone or announcements
over the public address system.
• Many organisations realise the importance of giving employees a general
understanding of their task’s relevance to the organisation’s work.
• Employees are also given feedback about how they are doing.
The common purpose of downward communication are to give:
I. Instruction about a specific task
II. Information about the practices and procedures followed by the organization
III. Information which creates understanding of the task in relation to other tasks of the
organization
IV. Feedback about subordinates’ performance
V. Information about the ideology and the goals of the organisation which would help
them to develop a sense of belonging to the organisation
Distortion
• A great deal of message is lost as messages move downwards.
• When a message is passed from a senior to a subordinate down the line of command
in a chain, it passes through many levels of authority.
• Each person along the line edits it, filters it, and simplifies it for the understanding
and needs of the next person who is to receive it.
• This may lead to much change and distortion in the message.
Points to remember during downward communication:
• Downward communication must be simple and carefully explained.
(Persons at lower level of the hierarchy may not have sufficient knowledge or understanding
of the organisation’s work)
• A great deal of information is lost as messages move downward.(messages get
changed and modified as each person edits it, thus leading to distortion)
• Information is also lost because sometimes, some members of the organisation may
misinterpret a message, or may not understand it properly or may neglect it.
• For effective downward communication, many organisation uses cluster as in a
meeting. Some organisation have linked and networked computers (LAN and WAN)
to send messages at once to all concerned persons.
Upward Communication
Messages which go from subordinates to supervisors and to higher levels of
authority are upward communication.
• These may be written or oral.

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• Written messages are in the form of reports, letters, representations, notes and e-
mail.
• Oral messages may be face-to-face, by intercom or telephonic.
• The common purpose of upward communication are:
• To give information to the management
• To enable the management to learn about and understand the concerns of the
subordinates
• To enable all employees to contribute ideas and make suggestions
• Communication does not move upward easily.
• Subordinates may be too shy or afraid to communicate their ideas to higher
authorities.
• Supervisors may be too impatient to listen to their subordinates.
• The resulting gap in communication can be harmful to the organisation.
• Messages passed upward through official channels, may lose information due to
editing and filtering at various levels.
• There may also be deliberate suppression of information because of self-interest and
jealousy.
• The resultant gap in information may be harmful as the higher levels may not get the
correct picture of the state of affairs until it is too late.
• Upward communication provides two main types of information:
• Feedback about official work which is necessary for the working of the organisation
• Personal information about staff’s performance, views, ideas, feelings which is vital
for employee relations and morale.
• To encourage and ensure effective upward communication, organisations have set
up special formal and informal channels like:
• Regular reporting system
• Periodical review meetings are held with individuals and groups of employees;
conducted in an informal style to provide employees to express their views,
grievance, opinions, etc.
• A well-organised, formal suggestion scheme, moving in an upwards direction.
• ‘Open door’ policy providing access to higher authorities
• Informal gatherings, picnics or weekly tea meetings or ‘happy hour’, bringing
together all members of the organisation.
• Standing committee (like grievance committee, welfare committee, counselling
committee) providing channel for problems, unhappy feelings, troubles, complaints
and grievances to be made known to the higher levels where they can be given
serious attention.
Horizontal or Lateral Channel
Messages that flow between persons of equal status or same level of authority in the
organisation is horizontal or lateral communication.
• Horizontal communication can be oral or written.
• Written communication may be in the form of letters, memoranda, notes, reports
and copies of documents.

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• Oral communication may be in the form of face-to-face talk, intercom, meetings,
committee work or conferences.
• Horizontal level of communication is more at higher levels of authority – section
heads and managers have closer contacts.
• Horizontal communication is needed for several purposes in an organisation – apart
from information and persuasion, it is also required for discussing plans, solving
problems, resolving conflicts, negotiating, and co-ordination of work.
• It also serves to provide emotional and social support to one another.
• Conference is a form of organised horizontal communication, where common
problems are discussed and ideas, information, knowledge and experience of several
persons are pooled for common benefit.
• Consensus is a method of decision making that reflects the ideas and thought of all
the team members.
• Reaching consensus ensures that decisions are explored thoroughly and strong
disagreements resolved.
• It is used by task forces, teams, departments, work groups, and so on.
• Consensus is a decision that is acceptable to everyone. It may not be unanimous nor
a majority vote.
• Decision making by consensus involves discussion and accountability of view points
rather than power struggles – the idea is to empower not to overpower.
• It requires:
• Time
• Communication skills : Listening, probing and conflict management.
• Considering disagreements and conflicts as part of the process
• Keeping an open mind and thinking creatively
Any decision reached by consensus must have some shared values like:
• Unity of purpose - the decision made in the best interest of the group or
organisation.
• Co-operation
• Mutual trust – each believing in fairness and mutual respect.
• Common ownership of ideas
• Equal power
• Time and process – the process is respected and given the time it needs
• Willingness to learn skills – skills of communication, participation, etc. are willingly
learnt by all concerned.

Informal Channels

Members of groups often work together to construct their own communication

networks, apart from the imposed organisational channels.
These informal networks have two basic purposes:
• They compensate for the inadequacies in the formal network by establishing new
links which bypass obstacles that come up in the formal structure.

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• They serve the needs of the individuals involved; these needs may or may not be the
same as the goals of the organisation.( linking people with similar interest or
experience)
• Informal networks serve a valuable organisational function: they protect the
individual from becoming isolated from professional colleagues by stimulating
him/her to more creative thinking and by supplying a psychological support group.
• In examining the advantages or problems of an organisational unit, informal
communication networks must be considered as carefully as formal communication
networks
• Grapevine is an informal channel of personal, unofficial communication which exists
in every organisation in addition to the formal organised channels.
• It has no definite pattern or direction though it is largely horizontal.
• It is a complex web of oral communication flow, linking all the members of the
organisation one way or another.
• It may sometimes move along in a chain, passing information from person to person;
and sometimes in clusters, that is, groups, at meal-times or other free time.
• There may be more than one grapevine channel in an organisation, and individuals
may be on more than one grapevine.
• This informal channel carries unofficial information about the management’s policies
and plans, individual manages, work programs, the company’s performance, etc.
• Grapevine is often coloured by the ideas, prejudices and feelings of the persons
involved in it.
• Grapevine can become quite powerful and influential though the stories and
information are not fully correct.
• It often carries more information than the formal official communication channels.
• It moves much faster because it is not hindered by the delays of the official channel.
•

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 Methods of Communication
Verbal and Non-verbal
• As messages and thoughts cannot be directly sent from the mind of the sender to
the mind of the receiver, some channel of communication has to be used.
We have to select the method of communication we wish to use that can be sent
along the channel of communication.
• Methods of communication can be Verbal or Non-Verbal
• Verbal
• Oral and Written
• Face-to-Face
• Non-verbal
• Facial expressions, gestures, body language, silence, signs and signals, graphs,
charts, maps, colour and posters.
• Media and Modes
• Mail, telephone, fax, posters, etc.

Verbal Communication
• Any communication that makes use of words, whether written or spoken, can be
said to be verbal communication.
• Verbal communication can be oral or written.
‘Verbal communication is the written or oral use of words to communicate.’ – Bartol
and Martin

• Oral Communication
When we communicate with the help of the spoken word, we call it oral
communication.
Conversation, meetings, conferences, interviews, training sessions, speeches,
telephone talk, announcements, radio speeches, public-address systems, public
speaking
How to make oral communication effective?
• Words should be clearly and properly pronounced
• Clarity and precision – good vocabulary and convey message without confusion of
meaning.
• Brevity
• A proper ‘tone’ and pitch
• The right register – right style and vocabulary to suit the situation and the listener.
• Paralanguage

Face to Face Communication

• Advantages:
• Gestures and facial expressions can be used to re-inforce an oral message.

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 • Feedback can be obtained not only by the ears but also by the eyes.
• The communicants can bring their personalities to bear on the
communication process – people with imposing or attractive personalities are
at their best in face to face communication.
• Disadvantages :
• Not possible to use this type of communication in a large business house
having many far flung branches and numerous departments.
• Distance acts as a barrier

Advantages of oral communication

1. Shades of meaning can be conveyed
– with the help of tone, pitch and intensity of voice, a speaker can put additional
meaning into the words and entirely change their sense.
1. It saves time
2. There is immediate feedback
3. The speaker can be persuasive and carry conviction
4. It saves money
5. There is less formality
6. It makes communication of confidential and secret information possible
7. Can be used to communicate with groups – public meetings, assemblies, gatherings,
etc.
8. It allows the emergence of spontaneous ideas.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

1. It can be misunderstood or misinterpreted more easily than written communication.
2. It has little value from legal point of view as there is no permanent record or proof of
what has been said.
3. Only a good speaker can communicate effectively.
4. It is not helpful for lengthy official or legal communication as vital points may be
missed out.
5. People cannot retain oral messages for a long time.
6. When messages are transmitted orally it is not possible to pinpoint responsibility.
7. For long distance communication, one has to depend on instruments like telephone
or radio.
8. For an advice, order or suggestion to be effective, it has often to be supplemented by
writing down the message.

Written Communication
• Written communication is also a type of verbal communication.
• Every business firm, educational institution, government office, and service
organisation is flooded with written material.

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 • The number of letters, reports, notices, bulletins and memorandums ensure the
relevance of written communication today.
• In spite of the fastest media available, business firms prefer to use written
communication for their various advantages.

Advantages of Written Communication

• Accuracy
• Efficiency
• Economical
• Record keeping

Disadvantages of Written Communication

• The writer cannot clarify or amplify what he has written.
• He cannot add or delete anything once he sends to the reader.
• The writer has to be competent enough to choose the right words and right phrases.
• Written communication is slow and time-consuming
• Feedback is slow or delayed.

Oral communication v/s written communication

Use oral communication when Use written communication when

Conveying emotions and feelings Conveying facts

The message need not become The message needs to become a part of the permanent file.
permanent

There is time urgency There is little time urgency

You need immediate feedback You do not need immediate feedback

Ideas are simple or can be made Ideas are complicated

simple with explanation

Non-verbal communication
1. Posture
2. Gesture
3. Facial Expressions

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 4. Eye contact (Oculesics)
5. Personal Appearance
6. Tactile communication or Haptics
7. Space Distancing or Proxemics
8. Chronemics
9. Paralanguage or Vocalic (tone, volume, pitch, speed, pronunciation, stress)
10. Silence
11. Olfactic

Visual and Audio Signs

1. Colours
2. Pictorial representation
3. Signs and signals

Performing and Visual Arts

1. Dance
2. Painting
3. Movies/cinema
4. Literature
5. Music

Modes and Media of Communication

• Audio Visual Aids
• Blackboard
• Overhead projector
• Movie/Film/ Slide Projector
• Audio/video Tape Recorder
• Charts and graphs
• Computer
• Facsimile
• Electronic mail
• Photocopying
• Pager / Cellular phone

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 Barriers of communication
• When the message of the sender does not go across to the receiver or goes across
only partially, we say that there is a communication gap.
• Communication gap is caused by barriers in communication.
There are several causes for barriers in communication. Some of them are:
• Physical barriers
• Mechanical Barrier
• Semantic and Language Barriers
• Socio-psychological barriers
• Cross-cultural barriers

• Physical Barriers
• Noise: Noise or disturbance act as a barrier to communication. We have all
experienced this when we have tried to carry on a conversation in a normal tone
and voice in a moving train or bus.
• Time: Time acts as a barrier when the two communicators cannot adjust their
time of communication. Eg. In different shifts or different places.
• Place/Distance: Distance too is a barrier when face-to-face conversation is
carried on between two persons seated far away from each other.
• Intricate lines of communication/Structure of organization

• Mechanical Barrier:
• Transmission interruption
• Choice of medium: When the instruments of communication have a
defect in them the communication process becomes difficult or
impossible. Eg. Defective telephones or computers, bad handwriting, etc.
• No access to vital machines/devices
• Power failure
• Poor maintenance/defects in machinery
Noisy machinery

• Semantic and Language barriers

• Semantic means pertaining to or arising from the different meanings of
words or other symbols.
• Eg. A person may be present at a function receive a present (stress on pre-)
and present ( stress on –sent) some thoughts on the budget.
• Words like ‘minute’ and ‘wind’ are pronounced in two different ways to mean
two entirely things.
• Similar sounding words like ‘access’ and ‘excess’; ‘flour’ and ‘flower’; ‘cite’
and ‘site’ can cause misunderstanding in speech.

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 • Faulty translation
• Use of jargon
• A language barrier could arise when persons belonging to two language
groups try to communicate without proper knowledge of each
other’s language.
• Even when two persons know the same language, there could be a
communication barrier if the message is badly expressed.

Socio-Psychological Barriers
• Problems of understanding, interpretation and a response to communication arise
partly from our socially-learnt attributes and partly from our personal attributes.
These are called socio-psychological barriers.
• A message is received at three levels:
a. Noticing at physical level. ( using our senses; when we become aware of the
message being directed at us)
b. Understanding at the level of intelligence.( the symbol, idea and concepts in
the message)
c. Acceptance at emotional level. (pleasure or dislike or indifference to the
message we receive)
d. Most socio-psychological barriers operate at emotional level:
• Emotional factors that impede a speaker’s ability to deliver a clear
message or a receiver’s ability to hear a message effectively, leads to
emotional barriers in communication.
• Common emotions, such as anger, love, joy, frustration,
disappointment and sadness can all create emotional barriers that
negatively affect communication.
Socio-Psychological Barriers:
• Self –centred attitudes
• Group identifications
• Self-Image
• Selective perception
• Defensiveness
• Filtering
• Status block
• Resistance to change
• Closed mind
• Poor communication skills
• State of health

Cultural barriers / Cross-cultural barriers

• Cultural differences between listeners and speakers can create barriers to effective
communication.

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 • Cultural differences can include speakers’ accent, vocabulary and assumptions about
shared information or role of the listener or speaker in the conversation.
• Language
• Values and norms of behaviour
• Social relationships
• Concept of time
• Concept of space
• Thinking process
• Non-verbal communication
• Perception

Psychological
• Status barrier
• Unjust assumptions
• Prejudice
• Closed mind
• Resistance to change
• Halo and horns effect
• Emotions
• Self-image
Linguistic/Semantic
• Different languages
• Faulty translation
• Use of jargon
• Multiple meanings
• Connotative & Denotative meanings
• Different accents
Cultural
• Language
• Dressing
• Body Language
• Food
• Use of space/time
• Attitude(Ethnocentrism)

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• Stereotypes

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