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Definition: The computer is an electronic device .It accepts the data from the input devices
process the given data and produce results on the output devices.
Input: The data which we are giving to the computer is known as Input.
Input Device: The device which is used to give the input to the computer(data or Value) is
known as input device. Ex. Mouse, Keyboard,etc.
Output: The data, which we are getting from the Computer, is known as Output.
Output Device : The device which is used to get the output from the Computer is known as
Output Device. Ex: Monitor, Printer,Etc.
Characteristics / Advantages of computer:
Computers are widely used because of their inherent characteristics computers are not just calculating
machine and are capable of doing complex activity and operations because of the followings characteristics
1. Speed: Computers can calculate at very high speed.A micro computer can execute million of calculations per
seconds without any mistake.The processing speed is generally measured in Nano seconds (10-9 Sec)
2.Accuracy: A Computer can perform the calculation and solve complex problems accurately. It will not commit
any mistakes. Errors in hardware can occur but can be rectified. All the errors that the computer produces in the out
put is due to negligence such as inaccurate data in proper procedures illegal technical flows .
3.Reliability: The computer give very accurate results with pre-determined value they correct & modify the
parameters automatically by giving suitable signals the computers give formulated results This result are highly
reliable.
4.Memory: The computers have large storage capacity in the memory. The computers can store large amount of
data. The storage capacity of the computers can be increased by Using secondary storage devices. The information
store in the memory can be retrieved and can be used later very quickly.
5.Diligence: Diligence means being constant human beings suffer from weakness and tiredness lack of
concentration. Computer being machines do not suffer from illness, lack of concentration & can work for hours
together & can perform limitless calculations without time limit.
6.Versatility: Computer are very versatile machine they can perform activities ranging from simple calculations to
complex problems .They are capable at performing any task.
7.Network Capacity: Computer can communicate with each other. Computers can receive and sent
data in various forms like text sound video and graphics. This ability of computer to communicate with one
another has led to the development of the computer net works, internet WWW.
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER OR DISADVANTAGES
1.Data correctness: All the data that is processed into information is usually correct. Some times the computer has
made mistake actually it is not the computer mistake the data that is entered contains the mistake.
2.Program correct ness : If data entered is correct and the program written to process this data has mistake the
information obtained will be incorrect.
3.Computer works with only electric power.
4. computers cannot think computers follow the instructions given by the user .
5. computer cannot learn from experience
6.Alternatives: human beings know how ton try out a new option when the alternative job fails computers lack this
ability

History of computers (or) Evolution of computers:

The first step towards the computing machine was started in 1000 B.C The first calculating device was
“ABACUS” . It is a mechanical device consists of a wooden frame with two compartments and beads sliding along
the steel wires for counting. Multiplications and divisions are done using repeated additions and subtractions.

Leiniz improved Pascal’s machine in 1671 so as to perform all the four mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplications and division .

In between 1812 and 1822, Charles Babbage invented the universal calculator in which the
concept of program storage, arithmetic unit, input and out put units were introduced.

In 1946, the first vacuum tube digital computer Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) was
developed by J.Presper Eckert and John W.Mauchly. ENIAC performs quick and accurate results.

In 1950’s revolutionary changes had taken place in programming languages.This was termed as “Formula
translator” (FORTRAN) .In 1959,Tohn Backus devekoped the Algorithamic language (ALGOL) for describing the
computation process.

Generations of computers
The term computers generation was initially used in connection with the hardware of the computers.
First Generation computers(1946-1958):
The first generation computers were made up of vacuum tubes. Each computers had as many as thousands of
vacuum tubes and hence the Ist generation computers were extremely large in size and required more space. To
enter the data into the computer ‘punched cards’ were used .
Characteristics of First generation computers:-
1.Vacuum tubes were used in electronic circuits
2.These computers used only machine language
3.These occupy large space
4.These were mainly used in scientific application
5. The processing speed is very slow

Drawbacks:
1.Input / output operation control is very poor.
2.Programming of non numeric and logical problems were difficult
3.Floating point arithmetic was not implemented
Second generation computers (1959-1964):
The vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors in this generation . Transistors were more reliable small in size and
required low power when compared with vacuum tubes. These generation computers were faster and had increase
storage capacity in addition to the main memory and external or auxiliary storage devices like magnetic tapes
magnetic disk were used. The second generation computers led to the development of high level languages like
FORTRAN, ALGOL, APL ETC.
Characteristics
1. Usage of high level programming languages
2. Use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
3. Input / output operations made faster
4. Batch processing made possible

Third Generation computers (1965-1970):

Integrated circuits (IC) were introduced in 1960’s in an IC hundreds of transistors were incorporated on a single
chip and Hence with IC’s computers could be made even small more reliable and less expensive .After few years of
introduction of IC’s they were used as main memory the magnetic disks replaced the magnetic tapes.
Characteristics
1. High storage capacity
2. Small in size
3. Simple input/output operations
4. Ability to handle with scientific and commercial application
5. High processing speed
Fourth Generation computers (1971 –1980):
In 1970’s Micro processors were developed very large scale integration (VLSI) and very high speed
integration circuits led to the development of micro computers. These computers occupy less space and require no
air conditioning with the advent of micro processors personal computers were developed, these are user friendly and
easy to operate .
Characteristics
1. These used the large scale and very large scale integrated circuits
2. These have increased storage capacity and high speed
3. Mini computers and Micro computers were extremely used.
4. These can be used for different application .
5. Processing speed increased.
Fifth Generation computers (1980 onwards)
 Computers with capabilities to think reasonably make judgments; take decisions with artificial intelligence have
the potential to change the world. These computers were classified as Fifth Generation computers. VLSI will have
millions of components on a single chip available at very low cost. Communication between user and system is very
easy.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:

Based on the data, the computers have to process, the computers can be classified
into three categories.
1)Analog computers
2)Digital computers
3) Hybrid computers.
1)ANALOG COMPUTERS:-
These computers take the input in the analog from give the output in the analog form. In these computers analog
voltages are used to represent the input and output signals. The results obtained by these analog computers may be
taken as accurate with in an errors limit 0.1%.
2) DIGITAL COMPUTERS :-
These computers take the input and gives the output in digital form . The most generally used notation in
computers is binary representation
the numbers in which a no. is represented in terms of 0’s and 1’s.
3) HYBRID COMPUTERS:-
These computers posses the characteristics of both the analog and digital computers.

Based on the size and memory, the computers can be classified into four types.
Personal computers (Micro computers)
Mini computers
Main frame computers
Super computers.
Micro Computers:- These are small and has relatively less computational power than its larger counter parts.
Micro computers are also referred as desk top computers. Micro computer consists a micro processor integrated
circuits as central processing unit (CPU), input/ out put circuits and small amount of memory to store the data. All
these are designed on a single silicon base called LSI chip(Large small integration).
Micro computers have a wide range of application and have a memory capacity of 128 KB to 1 MB.These
computers will have a word length of 8bits Or 16 bits
Micro computers are extensively used as personal computers these systems are used for personal use rather than
commercial purposes. These consists of main storage floppy disk drive and visual display unit (Monitor).Some high
level languages can be used in this personal computers. These are economically priced. Examples are banking
system word processing preparation of electronic spread sheet etc.
MINI COMPUTERS
These are similar to Micro computer but have additional added capabilities in terms of CPU speed, memory size,
programming and other operating characteristics. The Mini computer offers increased speed and power. Mini
computers are more efficient as these can be networked together. These networking has the advantage of sharing the
operating system by different users. These computers are slightly expensive than Micro computers. The main
memory of these computer range from 1MB to 8MB. These computers are widely used in computer aided design
(CAD) and commercial large scale data processing.
MAIN FRAME COMPUTERS
It is the largest type of computer. Main frame computers are distinguished by their capacity and function.
The main memory of these computers is as high as 256 MB. The speed of processing is very high. The word length
of these computers varies from 32 bits–96 bits. Main frame computers supports various complex problems involved
in engineering and scientific areas. These computers support a large number of user in time sharing mode. Example
are VAX-800 Series computers.
SUPER COMPUTERS:-
These are the fastest computer which can solve variety of problems. These are designed to perform scientific
application and are most powerful and more expensive. These can be considered as very large scale main frame
computers. These can process the operations in parallel. Very few Super computer are existing in the world today
Example are India’s PARAM.
ELEMENTS OF COMPUTERS
Elements of a computer are;
1.Hard ware
2.Soft ware
3.Data
Hardware:
The Physical devices or artifacts that are visible in computer are said to be Hardware.
Ex: Input devices, output devices, SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply), Memory devices, Motherboard
etc..
Software:
A single Program or group of programs that are used run the hardware is said to be Software. Software is two types.
1) System Software: The software which is used to run a system (Computer) is said to be System Software.
It is also called as Operating System.
Ex: Windows – Microsoft Company
Linux, UNIX - Freeware O.S.
Macintosh - Apple Company
 2) Application Software: The software which is used to run an application is said to be Application
Software.
Ex: MS-Office, Pagemaker, Photoshop, Audio Players, Video Players, Image Viewer etc..
Data: some facts that have meaning in the user’s environment.

INPUT DEVICES AND OUTPUT DEVICES

Input devices: Input devices allow the user to input data and instructions to the computer.
Input devices are
Keyboard: It is the most popular input device for direct entry of data and instructions into the computer. It is linked
to the CPU and is also linked to the computer screen so that the data entered into the memory can be seen by the
user as he types the data.
Mouse: A mouse is a small hand held point and click device that is connected to the CPU through a cable. It has a
track ball it can be rolled across a flat and smooth surface to control the position of the cursor on the screen. It is
easy for the user to control the computer without actually typing in the command by pointing and clicking on icons
and menu options displayed on the screen
Scanners: These are direct entry input devices as a data entry automatic the scanner ensure more accurate data entry
.
Light pen : This consist of stylus (pen shaped instrument ) connected by a cable to the computer terminal. When the
stylus is brought into contact with the screen a dot appears
On the screen by moving stylus on the screen line and curves can be drawn on the screen that can be stored and used
as input.
Track ball : This was originally built into the keyboard. Running a hand over a the track ball, made the cursor on
the screen to move. The cursor is used to make selection from a menu displayed on the computer screen .
Touch screen: Touch screens allow the user to point directly at the computer display usually to select from a menu
of choices on the screen. Touch screens have become common in department stores drugstores and super market.

OUT PUT DEVICES

Out put devices displayed the out put from the computer.
The popular output devices are
1) Monitors:
a) Cathode ray tube (CRT): These are also called as Monitors. These are television like screens that provide the
user interface in the form of displays of text number and images . The CRT’s may be monochrome or colour. The
support of monochrome or colour and clarity of display depend on the type of monitor installed in the Micro
computer.
b) L.C.D. Monitors: Liquid Crystal Display
 c) L.E.D. Monitors: Light Emitting Diode
2) Printers: These are purely out put devices. They produce hardcopy output. Computer printers vary widely in
their technologies and capabilities .
They can be classified into three groups
i) Dot Matrix Printers (Character printers )
ii) Ink Jet Printers (Line printers )
iii) Laser Jet Printers (Page printers)
The character printers print one character at a time . Dot matrix printers, daisy wheel printer, Thermal and inkjet
printer are the various types of Character printers.
Line printers print one line at a time Drum and Chain printers are the type of line printers
Page Printers print one page at a time Laser Printer, Magnetic Printers are the types of page Printers
Dot matrix, Inkjet and Laser Printers are very popular.
Dot Matrix Printer(DMP):DMP is the Cheapest in terms of price and operating cost. It prints one character at a
time as a set of dots produce by the pins on the print head. It uses 9or 24 pin print heads. The normal dot matrix
printers can produce out put from 50 to 600 characters per second. The popular DMPs are Epson, citizen and
Lexmark .

Inkjet Printers: These are high speed printers. These are as cheaper as dot matrix printers but the operating cost is
higher then the dot matrix printers. These printers give much better quality than DMPs. They are available in black
and white and colour.
Laser Printers: These are high speed printers. They are more expensive than inkjet printers. The
operating cost is higher than Inkjet printers. They used the same technology as the of Xerox machine and
can produce both character and graphic out put. These printers give the best quality out put.
3) Projectors: Projectors are the Out Put devices which show the output on the screen in big size.
4) Speakers: Speakers are the output devices which gives the sound signals as the output

Memory Unit
Memory is very important part of computer. It is used for storing information and also for storing the
particular solutions during the execution of the program. Memory is divided into two types
1) Primary Memory (OR) Main Memory
2) Secondary storage (OR) Mass Memory
3) Cache Memory
1) Primary Memory: These can be used as
1) To store the input data
2) To store the data which is under process
3) To store the final results
4) To store the program which is in current use
 Primary storage is divided into two categories RAM and ROM.
I) RAM (Randam access memory):It preserves (stores) the data temporarily. It is a volatile memory i,e as long as
the power is on for the system. As soon as the power is off the data stored in a Ram will be lost (erased). The
program can both store the data and access the data from the RAM when ever it is necessary. Hence the program can
be written or read from the RAM.
RAM is two types
a) Static RAM: In Static RAM the data is static. The data once entered into the RAM will be
deleted after the computer turnoff only
b) Dynamic RAM: In Dynamic RAM the data will change dynamically. The data will be replace
another data after it’s completion of execution.
II) ROM (Read Only Memory): This will hold the data permanently even when the power is not given to system.
The program cannot store the data in ROM. The data can be written into ROM only by some special equipments.
They are of four types.
1) Pure Rom: This is the Read only Memory written by the Manufacturing Companies. This memory containing the
details like company name, model etc.. this cannot be erasable.
2)PROM: Programmable read only memory can be programmed once. Special circuitry is used for programming it.
Once programmed, this becomes read only memory.
3)EPROM: Erasable programmable read only-memory can be erased repeatedly and reprogrammed by the user.
Erasing is done by exposing EPROM to ultraviolet light of a specific frequency. Reprogramming requires special
EPROM programmer kit.
4)EEPROM:Electrically Erasable programmable Read –Only –memory can be erased electrically and
reprogrammed repeatedly.

SECONDRY MEMORY:
Data can be retained on permanent basis in the Secondary Storage devices. The data that is store in the
secondary storage devices can be accessed in two methods
1. Serial method and
2. Direct method.
Data from a serial device can be read only in the sequence in which it was stored, Hence this stay longer time
to retrieve the required data from a serial device. But the data from a direct device can be read very quickly as a
information will be available at random for retrieve.
Secondary storage devices, generally made with magnetic material. For each number to be stored on the
device a magnetic code will be created. The numbers are recorded on the magnetic surface in sequential order
Magnetic Tape: It provides serial access and similar to tape that were used with audio tape recorders. Magnetic tape
has a Ferro magnetic coating on a plastic base a data will be store in the form of magnetized and un magnetized
spots the magnetized sports represent 1’s and un magnetized sports represent 0’s. The total width of the tape will be
divided into 7 or 9 tracks. The magnetic tapes are cheaper and this can transfer the information at a faster rate. The
Magnetic tapes are generally used as back-up storage devices to store data for sufficiently large time.
Magnetic disk:- It can be used both in serial and direct access modes. It consists group of smooth metal
plates generally made up of aluminum and coated with magnetic materials like ferric oxide and chromium
oxide. Each plate is known as disk and these disk are permanently fixed to a hub. Such a group of disks is
called as disk packs. The disk pack can be rotated at a constant speed each plate of the pack is divided
into number of concentric circles called tracks and each track is again divided into number of smaller
sections called sectors.Each sector has an address this address includes the track number and sector
number. The information from the disk will be obtained on the basis of track and sector address.

Floppy disk: It is a Random Access Device. The floppy dick is made up of thin sheet of plastic or Mylar
coated Magnetic Material and is sealed in a Plastic envelope. The general available sizes of the floppy
disks are 5 1/4 and 3 ½ . A floppy disk can store up to 1.44 megabytes (MB) of information . Floppy disk
can be both input and out put storage devices. The Floppy disk can also be used to transport the data from
one working place to another. The main disadvantage of the Floppy disk is that it can be easily damaged.
Hard Disk: It is random access secondary storage device. This is made up of aluminum plates coated with
magnetic material . This disk can be removable and fixed type . The Hard disk are available now a days up to a
storage capacity of few Giga Bytes (GB) in different sizes. They are highly reliable and quite inexpensive when
compared to floppy disk.
CD-ROM(Compact Disk Read only Memory ):- To read a CD we need a CD device. The main feature of CD-
Rom is its speed. Now a days the most popular CD- ROM titles is computer games and multi media works.
3) Cache Memory:
Cache is the small amount of memory that is normally less then 1MB that resides on the CPU so that the time to
access the main memory is reduced. Cache memory stores the copies of the most frequently used data and when the
user requests to access a certain portion of the maim memory, the computer will check cache memory first and load
it immediately if it is resent in the cache memory thereby reducing the access time. If it is not present in cache then
it will load from the main memory and this involves latency.
Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it
can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it finds the
data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from
larger memory.

OPERATING SYSTEM:
Logical architecture of a Computer System
Users
What is an operating System?
Other system software’s and Application program
Explain the functions of Operating systems.
Operating System
An Operating System is a Software with an
Computer Hardware
integrated set of programs that manages the resources like
(CPU, Memory, I/O devices, etc) of
a computer system, and controls the various activities of the
computer system.
The two major purposes of Operating System. Are to
enhance (Improve) productivity of computer resources and
provide user- friendly interface between the user and the computer System, so the every general purpose computer
must have an operating system to run other programs.
Functions of O.S:
The main Functions performed by most of the operating System (O/S).
The main Functions performed by operating System are

1) Process Management (program creation): - It takes care of the creation and deletion of process (job) in
execution of program. And scheduling of Various Systems resources to the different process requesting them. And it
also provides mechanism for Synchronization (Bringing together) and communication among process.
2) Memory management:- The memory Management module of an O/S takes care of the allocation (allotment)
and de allocation of memory space to the various programs in need of this resource.
3) File Management:- The file Management Module of an O/S takes care of file related activities such as Storing,
retrieval, naming, sharing and protection of files.
4) Security: - The Security module of an O/S protects the resources and information of a computer System against
destruction and from unauthorized access.
5) Command Interpretation:- The Command Interpretation Module of an O/S takes care of interpreting user
commands and directing the System resources to handle the requests.

6) Input/Output management: Supplies the input for programs and gives the output.

7. Error Detection: Errors in Processing, memory and programs will be detected.

8. Communication: the communication may be implemented by technique like shared memory (or) message
passing or moved by processes by the operating system.
Types of Operating System:

There are two types of Operating System (O/S)

1) Single User Operating System O/S
2) Multi User Operating System
1) Single User Operating System O/S
In this o/s only one user can use the resources of an o/s and it is divided in to two Types
i) Single User Single Tasking Operating System (or) Non-multiprogramming o.s
ii) Single User multitasking Operating System (or) Multiprogramming o.s
Single User Single Tasking Operating System: - In this O/S only one task can be performed, after completing of
the one task another task is issued to be completed. If the running program waiting for any I/O device, the CPU
become idle, so it will effect on the performance of CPU.
Example of this kind of o/s is MS-DOS.
Single User multitasking Operating System: - In this o/s more than one task can be performed at a given time
slice. Example of how two tasks can be performed, a user issues a document for printing and at the same time He
can typing on another document, and execute number of programs simultaneously by a single processor. Example
of this kind of o/s is Ms- Windows 98.
Advantages:
Can get efficient memory utilization.
CPU is never idle, so the performance of the CPU is increase.
Waiting time is limited.
2) Multi User Operating System: (or) Multi processing:- In this multi user o/s more than one user can be use the
resources of an o/s. the multi processing systems have two or more CPUs, which have the ability to execute two or
more jobs simultaneously. If one of the CPUs fail another takes over and carries on with the processing.
The processors in a multiprocessing system may have separate primary storage sections, they may share a
common primary storage unit or they may have access to both separate and common memories.
Example: - UNIX, Linux etc.
Advantages:
1. Parallel processing improves system efficiency.
2. More efficient to use hard ware resources other than the CPUs.
3. High reliability.
Limitations:
Large memory is required for multiprocessing.
The multiprocessing systems are very expensive.
Needs highly sophisticated operating system.
Time sharing: - Time sharing multitasking is logical extension of multiprogramming. Multiple jobs are executed by
the CPU switching between them. CPU scheduler selects jobs from ready queue and switching the CPU to that job.
When time is expired the CPU switches from this to another job. The CPU time was shared by different processors,
so it is called “Time Sharing System”.
Advantages:
It provides a mechanism for concurrent execution.
Many users to share the computer simultaneously.
Efficient use of CPU utilization.
Batch processing: - In Batch processing operating system all the jobs which are to be executed are collected
together and stored in a file. During the execution of the batch program, operating system takes the first program
from the batch programs and loads into the memory and executes. After the execution of the first program, operating
system load second program into main memory and executes. This process is repeated until all the programs in the
batch programs are executed.
Advantages:-
The user need not wait while the batch program is being executed.
We can issue a single command to execute batch program instead of executing every program repeatedly.