Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101)

Lecture 03

Waqas Ali

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 1 / 48
 Agenda
Get ready for an exciting journey into the world of discrete mathematics!

1 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

2 Organization and Contents of the Course

3 Reference Books
4 Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logics and Proofs — Predicate and
Quantifiers

5 Nested Quantifiers

6 Argument and Rules of Inference

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 2 / 48
 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

Agenda
Get ready for an exciting journey into the world of discrete mathematics!

1 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

2 Organization and Contents of the Course

3 Reference Books
4 Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logics and Proofs — Predicate and
Quantifiers

5 Nested Quantifiers

6 Argument and Rules of Inference

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 3 / 48
 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

Chapter 1: The Foundations

A discrete mathematics course has more than one purpose. Students

should learn a particular set of mathematical facts and how to apply them;
more importantly, such a course should teach students how to think
logically and mathematically.
To achieve these goals, this text stresses mathematical reasoning and
the different ways problems are solved.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 4 / 48
 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

Course Breakdown — Five Themes

Five important themes are interwoven in this text: mathematical
reasoning, discrete strutures, combinatorial analysis, algorithmic thinking,
and applications and modeling. A successful discrete mathematics course
should carefully blend and balance all five themes.
Mathematical Reasoning: Students must understand mathematical
reasoning in order to read, comprehend, and construct mathematical
arguments. This text starts with a discussion of mathematical logic,
which serves as the foundation for the subsequent discussions of
methods of proof.
Combinatorial Analysis An important problem-solving skill is the
ability to count or enumerate objects. The discussion of enumeration
in this book begins with the basic techniques of counting.
Discrete Structures The abstract mathematical structures used to
represent discrete objects and relationships between these objects.
These discrete structures include sets, permutations, relations,
graphs, trees, and finite-state machines.
Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 5 / 48
 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

Course Breakdown — Five Themes

Five important themes are interwoven in this text: mathematical
reasoning, discrete strutures, combinatorial analysis, algorithmic thinking,
and applications and modeling. A successful discrete mathematics course
should carefully blend and balance all five themes.
Mathematical Reasoning: Students must understand mathematical
reasoning in order to read, comprehend, and construct mathematical
arguments. This text starts with a discussion of mathematical logic,
which serves as the foundation for the subsequent discussions of
methods of proof.
Combinatorial Analysis An important problem-solving skill is the
ability to count or enumerate objects. The discussion of enumeration
in this book begins with the basic techniques of counting.
Discrete Structures The abstract mathematical structures used to
represent discrete objects and relationships between these objects.
These discrete structures include sets, permutations, relations,
graphs, trees, and finite-state machines.
Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 5 / 48
 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

Course Breakdown — Five Themes

Algorithmic Thinking Certain classes of problems are solved by the
specification of an algorithm. After an algorithm has been described,
a computer program can be constructed to implement it. The
mathematical portions of this activity, which include the specification
of the algorithm, the verification that it works properly, and the
analysis of the computer memory and time required to perform it, are
all covered in this text. Algorithms are described using both English
and an easily understood form of pseudocode.
Application and Modelling Discrete mathematics has applications
to almost every conceivable area of study. There are many
applications to computer science and data networking in this text, as
well as applications to such diverse areas as chemistry, biology,
linguistics, geography, business, and the Internet. Modeling with
discrete mathematics is an extremely important problem-solving skill,
which students have the opportunity to develop by constructing their
own models in some of the exercises.
Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 6 / 48
 Organization and Contents of the Course

Agenda
Get ready for an exciting journey into the world of discrete mathematics!

1 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

2 Organization and Contents of the Course

3 Reference Books
4 Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logics and Proofs — Predicate and
Quantifiers

5 Nested Quantifiers

6 Argument and Rules of Inference

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 7 / 48
 Organization and Contents of the Course

Major Topics

Logic
Set Theory
Algorithms
Number Theory
Counting Methods
Recursion
Introduction to Matrics
Mathematical Inductions
Graph Theory Applications
Introduction to Trees and their Applications

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 8 / 48
 Organization and Contents of the Course

Major Topics

Logic
Set Theory
Algorithms
Number Theory
Counting Methods
Recursion
Introduction to Matrics
Mathematical Inductions
Graph Theory Applications
Introduction to Trees and their Applications

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 8 / 48
 Organization and Contents of the Course

Major Topics

Logic
Set Theory
Algorithms
Number Theory
Counting Methods
Recursion
Introduction to Matrics
Mathematical Inductions
Graph Theory Applications
Introduction to Trees and their Applications

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 8 / 48
 Organization and Contents of the Course

Course Evaluation

Mid (30%)
Final (40%)
Quizzes 2-3 (10%) – Unannounced
Assignments (10%)
Mini-Project and Presentation (10%)
Minimum 80 percent attendance is MUST.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 9 / 48
 Reference Books

Agenda
Get ready for an exciting journey into the world of discrete mathematics!

1 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

2 Organization and Contents of the Course

3 Reference Books
4 Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logics and Proofs — Predicate and
Quantifiers

5 Nested Quantifiers

6 Argument and Rules of Inference

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 10 / 48
 Reference Books

Reference Books

Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications Eight Edition by Kenneth

H. Rosen Monmouth University (and formerly ATT Laboratories)
Discrete Mathematics With Applications Fourth Edition By
SUSANNA S. EPP Depaul University
MTH202 handouts 145

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 11 / 48
Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logics and Proofs — Predicate and
Quantifiers

Agenda
Get ready for an exciting journey into the world of discrete mathematics!

1 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

2 Organization and Contents of the Course

3 Reference Books
4 Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logics and Proofs — Predicate and
Quantifiers

5 Nested Quantifiers

6 Argument and Rules of Inference

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 12 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Agenda
Get ready for an exciting journey into the world of discrete mathematics!

1 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

2 Organization and Contents of the Course

3 Reference Books
4 Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logics and Proofs — Predicate and
Quantifiers

5 Nested Quantifiers

6 Argument and Rules of Inference

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 13 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Summary

Table: Truth Values for ∀ P(x) and ∃P(x)

Statement When True? When False?

∀ P(x) When P(x) is true for all x When there exists an x such
that P(x) is false
∃P(x) When there exists an x such When P(x) is false for all x
that P(x) is true

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 14 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Nested Quantifiers

Example:
Let the domain of x and y be people.
Let L(x, y ) be ”x likes y” (A statement with 2 free variables – not a
proposition).
Then ∃y L(x, y ) = ”There is someone whom x likes.” (A statement
with 1 free variable x – not a proposition).
Then ∀x(∃y L(x, y )) = ”Everyone has someone whom they like.” (A
statement with free variables.)

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 15 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Nested Quantifiers (Part 1)

Nested quantifiers are quantifiers that occur within the scope of other
quantifiers.
The order of the quantifiers is important unless all the quantifiers are
universal quantifiers or all are existential quantifiers.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 16 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Quantification of Two Variables

Table: Quantification of Two Variables

Statement When True When False
∀x∀y P(x, y ) For all x and y , There exists an x or y for
P(x, y ) is true which P(x, y ) is false
∀x∃y P(x, y ) For all x, there exists There exists an x such
a y such that P(x, y ) that no y satisfies
is true P(x, y )

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 17 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Nested Quantifiers (Part 2)

Table: Quantification of Two Variables (continued)

Statement When True When False

∃x∀y P(x, y ) There exists an x for For all x, there exists a y
which P(x, y ) is true such that P(x, y ) is false
for all y
∃x∃y P(x, y ) There exists an x and No x and y satisfy
a y such that P(x, y ) P(x, y )
is true

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 18 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Nested Quantifiers

Let the domain of x and y be R, and P(x, y ) be defined as xy = 0.

Find the truth value of the following propositions:
1 ∀x ∀y P(x, y ) (False)
2 ∀x ∃y P(x, y ) (True)
3 ∃x ∀y P(x, y ) (True)
4 ∃x ∃y P(x, y ) (True)
5 ∀x ∃y P(x, y ) ≡ ∃y ∀x P(x, y )
6 ”For every x, there exists y such that x + y = 0.” (True)
7 ”There exists y such that, for every x, x + y = 0.” (False)

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 19 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Equivalent Expression using Substitution

Let the domain D = {1, 2, 3}. Find an expression equivalent to

∀x ∃y P(x, y ) where the variables are bound by substitution instead:
Expand from inside out or outside in.
Outside in:
∀x ∃y P(x, y ) ≡ ∃y P(1, y ) ∧ ∃y P(2, y ) ∧ ∃y P(3, y )
≡ [P(1, 1) ∨ P(1, 2) ∨ P(1, 3)] ∧ [P(2, 1) ∨ P(2, 2) ∨ P(2, 3
∧ [P(3, 1) ∨ P(3, 2) ∨ P(3, 3)]

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 20 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Expressing Statements in Unambiguous English

If R(x, y ) = ”x relies upon y,” express the following in unambiguous

English when the domain is all people:
∀x(∃y R(x, y )) = Everyone has someone to rely on.
∃y (∀x R(x, y )) =
There’s a poor overburdened soul whom everyone relies upon
∃x(∀y R(x, y )) =
There’s some needy person who relies upon everybody
∀y (∃x R(x, y )) = Everyone has someone who relies upon them.
∀x(∀y R(x, y )) =
Everyone relies upon everybody (including themselves)!

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 21 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Negating Statements with Single Quantifiers

Successively apply the rules for negating statements involving a single

quantifier.
Example: Express the negation of the statement

∀x ∃y (P(x, y ) ∧ ∃z R(x, y , z))

so that all negation symbols immediately precede predicates.

Step 1: ¬∀x ∃y (P(x, y ) ∧ ∃z R(x, y , z))
Step 2: ≡ ∃x ¬∃y (P(x, y ) ∧ ∃z R(x, y , z))
Step 3: ≡ ∃x ∀y ¬(P(x, y ) ∧ ∃z R(x, y , z))
Step 4: ≡ ∃x ∀y ¬(P(x, y ) ∧ ∃z R(x, y , z))
Step 5: ≡ ∃x ∀y (¬P(x, y ) ∨ ¬(∃z R(x, y , z))
Step 6: ≡ ∃x ∀y (¬P(x, y ) ∨ (∀z ¬R(x, y , z))

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 22 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Equivalences with Quantifiers

∀x ∀y P(x, y ) ≡ ∀y ∀x P(x, y )
∃x ∃y P(x, y ) ≡ ∃y ∃x P(x, y )
∀x (P(x) ∧ Q(x)) ≡ (∀x P(x)) ∧ (∀x Q(x))
∃x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) ≡ (∃x P(x)) ∨ (∃x Q(x))
Exercise: See if you can prove these yourself.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 23 / 48
 Nested Quantifiers

Notational Conventions

Quantifiers have higher precedence than all logical operators from

propositional logic:
(∀x P(x)) ∧ Q(x)
Consecutive quantifiers of the same type can be combined:
∀x ∀y ∀z P(x, y , z) ≡ ∀x, y , z P(x, y , z)
or even
∀xyz P(x, y , z)

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 24 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Agenda
Get ready for an exciting journey into the world of discrete mathematics!

1 Goals of Discrete Mathematics Course

2 Organization and Contents of the Course

3 Reference Books
4 Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logics and Proofs — Predicate and
Quantifiers

5 Nested Quantifiers

6 Argument and Rules of Inference

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 25 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Rule of Inference

An argument is a list of statements called premises (or assumptions

or hypotheses) followed by a statement called the conclusion.
Some forms of argument (”valid”) never lead from correct statements
to an incorrect conclusion. Some other forms of argument
(”fallacies”) can lead from true statements to an incorrect conclusion.
A logical argument consists of a list of (possibly compound)
propositions called premises/hypotheses and a single proposition
called the conclusion.
Logical rules of inference are methods that depend on logic alone
for deriving a new statement from a set of other statements. These
serve as templates for constructing valid arguments.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 26 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Example: A Logical Argument

If I play all day, then I get tired. I play all day. Therefore, I got tired.
Logical representation of underlying variables:
p: I play all day. q: I get tired.
Logical analysis of the argument:
p → q Premise 1
p Premise 2
∴q Conclusion

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 27 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Valid Arguments

A form of logical argument is valid if whenever every premise is true, the

conclusion is also true. A form of argument that is not valid is called a
fallacy. ;

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 28 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Rules of Inference

An Inference Rule is a pattern establishing that if we know that a set of

premise statements of certain forms are all true, then we can validly
deduce that a certain related conclusion statement is true. ;

premise 1
premise 2
..
.
∴ conclusion

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 29 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Logical Inference Rules and Tautologies

Each valid logical inference rule corresponds to an implication that is

a tautology.
Inference Rule

Premises → Conclusion
Corresponding Tautology:
((premise 1) ∧ (premise 2) ∧ . . .) → conclusion ;

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 30 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Modus Ponens (Law of Detachment)

p
p→q
∴q
Rule of Modus Ponens (a.k.a. law of detachment)
((p ∧ (p → q)) → q) is a tautology
Truth Table:
p q p→q ((p ∧ (p → q)) → q)
True True True True
True False False True
False True True True
False False True True

Notice that the first row is the only one where premises are all true.
Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 31 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Modus Ponens Example

p → q: ”If it snows today, then we will go skiing.”

p: ”It is snowing today.”
∴ q: ”We will go skiing.”
p → q: ”If n is divisible by 3, then n2 is divisible by 3.”
p: ”n is divisible by 3.”
∴ q: ”n2 is divisible by 3.”

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 32 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Modus Tollens: The Mode of Denying

Modus Tollens is a valid deductive argument form.

It is often expressed as follows:

If p implies q, and
It is not the case that q,
Then we can conclude ¬p.
It’s like saying, ”If this condition is true, but the result is false, then
the initial condition must be false.”

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 33 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Example of Modus Tollens

Statement: p → q
Interpretation: ”If this jewel is really a diamond, then it will scratch
glass.”
Observation: ”The jewel does not scratch glass.”
Conclusion: ”Therefore, the jewel is not a diamond.”
Modus Tollens in action!

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 34 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Formal Representation

The formal representation of Modus Tollens is:

(¬q ∧ (p → q)) → ¬p
This formula is a tautology, meaning it is always true in classical logic.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 35 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Rule of Inference

The Rule of Inference is a fundamental concept in deductive logic.

It allows us to derive new conclusions from existing premises.
Today, we’ll explore three important rules: Addition, Simplification,
and Conjunction.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 36 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Rule of Addition

Rule of Addition allows us to add any statement p to a set of

premises.
If we have q as a premise, we can infer p ∨ q.
It’s like saying, ”If we know q is true, then p or q must be true.”
Formal Representation:
q
(Rule of Addition)
p∨q

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 37 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Rule of Simplification

Rule of Simplification allows us to simplify a conjunction.

If we have p ∧ q as a premise, we can infer both p and q separately.
It’s like saying, ”If we know both p and q are true together, then each
of them is true individually.”
Formal Representation:
p∧q
(Rule of Simplification)
p, q

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 38 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Rule of Conjunction

Rule of Conjunction allows us to assert a conjunction.

If we have both p and q as premises, we can infer p ∧ q.
It’s like saying, ”If we know both p and q are true, then they are true
together.”
Formal Representation:
p, q
(Rule of Conjunction)
p∧q

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 39 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Rules of Inference

Let’s examine the following arguments and identify the rule of

inference at play.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 40 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Argument 1

Statement: ”It is below freezing now. Therefore, it is either below

freezing or raining now.”
Rule of Inference: Rule of Addition
Explanation: We add the statement ”it is either below freezing or
raining now” (disjunction) based on the premise ”it is below freezing
now.”

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 41 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Argument 2

Statement: ”It is below freezing and raining now. Therefore, it is

below freezing now.”
Rule of Inference: Rule of Simplification
Explanation: We simplify the conjunction ”it is below freezing and
raining now” to ”it is below freezing now.”

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 42 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Argument 3

Premises: p: It is below freezing now. q: It is raining now.

Statement: p → (p ∨ q)
Rule of Inference: Rule of Addition
Explanation: This is the formal representation of the Rule of
Addition, where we add the disjunction ”it is either below freezing or
raining now” based on the premise ”it is below freezing now.”

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 43 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Argument 4

Statement: (p ∧ q) → p
Rule of Inference: Rule of Simplification
Explanation: We simplify the conjunction ”it is below freezing and
raining now” to ”it is below freezing now.”

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 44 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Hypothetical Syllogism
Rule of Hypothetical Syllogism

p→q
q→r
p→r
Tautology
[(p → q) ∧ (q → r )] → (p → r )
Example: State the rule of inference used in the argument: Let’s
represent it rains today as p and we will not have a barbecue today as
q.it rains today as r
If it rains today, then we will not have a barbecue today.
If we do not have a barbecue today, then
we will have a barbecue tomorrow. Therefore, if it rains today,
we will have a barbecue tomorrow.
Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 45 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Hypothetical Syllogism
Rule of Hypothetical Syllogism

p→q
q→r
p→r
Tautology
[(p → q) ∧ (q → r )] → (p → r )
Example: State the rule of inference used in the argument: Let’s
represent it rains today as p and we will not have a barbecue today as
q.it rains today as r
If it rains today, then we will not have a barbecue today.
If we do not have a barbecue today, then
we will have a barbecue tomorrow. Therefore, if it rains today,
we will have a barbecue tomorrow.
Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 45 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Disjunctive Syllogism
Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism

Rule: p ∨ q
Conclusion: ¬p → q or ¬q → p
Example: State the rule of inference used in the argument:
Either it’s sunny or it’s raining. It’s not raining. Therefore,
it must be sunny.
Let’s represent it’s sunny as p and it must be sunny as q.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 46 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Disjunctive Syllogism
Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism

Rule: p ∨ q
Conclusion: ¬p → q or ¬q → p
Example: State the rule of inference used in the argument:
Either it’s sunny or it’s raining. It’s not raining. Therefore,
it must be sunny.
Let’s represent it’s sunny as p and it must be sunny as q.

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 46 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Resolution
Rule of Resolution

The rule of resolution is a powerful technique used in logic to derive new

statements from existing ones. It works as follows:
1 Given two clauses, let’s call them Clause 1 and Clause 2.

2 In Clause 1, you have a statement, say p.

3 In Clause 2, you have the negation of that statement, ¬p.

4 By applying the rule of resolution, you can derive a new clause that

contains all the non-redundant statements from Clause 1 and Clause

2, except for the resolved statement p.
Example: Let’s use the rule of resolution in an argument:
Either it’s a cat or it’s a dog. It’s not a cat, or it’s a bird.
In this case, we can represent the statements as follows:
Clause 1: p∨q
Clause 2: ¬p ∨ r

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 47 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Resolution
Rule of Resolution

The rule of resolution is a powerful technique used in logic to derive new

statements from existing ones. It works as follows:
1 Given two clauses, let’s call them Clause 1 and Clause 2.

2 In Clause 1, you have a statement, say p.

3 In Clause 2, you have the negation of that statement, ¬p.

4 By applying the rule of resolution, you can derive a new clause that

contains all the non-redundant statements from Clause 1 and Clause

2, except for the resolved statement p.
Example: Let’s use the rule of resolution in an argument:
Either it’s a cat or it’s a dog. It’s not a cat, or it’s a bird.
In this case, we can represent the statements as follows:
Clause 1: p∨q
Clause 2: ¬p ∨ r

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 47 / 48
 Argument and Rules of Inference

Rules of Inference– Summary

Waqas Ali, Lecturer at DCS, UET, Lahore Discrete Mathematics (CSC-101) September 23, 2023 48 / 48