Environment

ENVIRONMENT SYLLABUS DISCUSSION (05:16 PM)

• Ecology
• Biodiversity
• Environmental Degradation
• Environmental Conservation
• Sustainable Development
• EIA & Environmental Ethics
• Sources
• Static -NCERTs 11 the 12 standard Chemistry, Biology, Class notes,
Reference material (Vision Ias Printed Materials).
• Current Affairs: Newspaper, PT 365, Internet ( Shortlist of channels -
Youtube, Twitter, etc.)
• The approach should focus on current affairs related to the
environment.
ECOLOGY (06:23 PM)
• Topics to be covered in Ecology
• Introduction
• Levels of organization
• Components of ecosystem
• Energy flow in the Ecosystem
• Functions of the ecosystem
• Biogeochemical cycles
• Types of ecosystem
• Definition -Environment is sum total of all conditions and influences
that affect the development and life of all organisms on the earth.
• It is once surrounding
• The Gaia hypothesis was proposed by James Lovelock in 1972.
• It proposes that the Earth's physicochemical properties are tightly
coupled to the activities of living organisms it supports.
• Ecosystem (06:40 PM)
• It is the complex relationship between living and nonliving components.
• It is the community with life forms in concurrence with non-living
components interacting with each other.
• Ecology ( 06:50 PM)
• It is the scientific study of interactions in an ecosystem.
• Two branches :
• Autecology is the study of the relationship of individual species with
the environment. It is also known as Population Ecology.
• Synecology is a group of organisms in its relationship with the
environment it is known as community ecology.
• Levels of Organisation (07:26 PM)
• Organism: It is an individual living thing.
• A population is a group of individuals of a particular species
• Community: A population that lives together in a defined area. It
includes biotic factors.
• Biosphere: The part of the earth that contains all ecosystems.
• Biomes: A larger group of ecosystems existing in the same biotic
factors.
• Abiotic and biotic factors are included in the ecosystem.
• Difference between Biome and Ecosystem
• Biome
• A biome is a large area of land with a distinct climate and plant and
animal species.
• It is a large geographical area.
• Greatly influenced by climatic factors such as snow, ice, rainfall,
temperature, etc.
 • It is a larger category of ecological units. It contains multiple
ecosystems within it.
• As a biome is a collection of species it has a great diversity of plant
and animal species.
• Some common examples of biomes include deserts, Tundra, Grasslands, and
tropical rainforests.
• Latitude has a great influence on a biome.
• All the animals of a biome may not interact with each other.
• Ecosystem
• It is the community with life forms in concurrence with non-living
components interacting with each other.
• It is a small geographical area.
• It is not much influenced by climatic factors like ice, snowfall, and
temperature.
• It is part of a biome made of biotic and abiotic factors.
• An ecosystem has less diversity of plant and animal species than that
of a biome as it is smaller in size.
• Some common examples include coral reefs, ponds, the Gulf of Mexico,
etc.
• An ecosystem is not affected by latitude.
• All the animals and organisms of an ecosystem interact with each other.
• Components of Ecosystem (07:41 PM)
• Abiotic and Biotic components
• Abiotic divided into Climatic and edaphic factors
• Climatic factors are divided into Rain, Light, Wind, and Temperature.
• Edaphic factors -Soil, PH, Minerals, Topography.
• Biotic components are divided into Producers (Autotrophs), Consumers
(Heterotrophs), Decompsers (Saprotrophs)
• Saprotrophs include small worms, vultures, and hyenas.
• Consumers are divided into Primary consumers, Secondary consumers,
Tertiary consumers, and Quaternary Consumers.
• ENERGY FLOW (07:47 PM)
• Food chain -It is a chain of organisms existing in any natural
community through which energy is transferred.
• There are two types of food chain grazing food chains which begin with
producers or autotrophs. Example food chain in grassland or forest.
• Detritus food chain -It begins with dead organic matter. For Ex Dead
organisms, Microorganisms, worms, and birds
• Food web -It is a network of interconnected food chains that form a
number of feeding relationships amongst different organisms of a common
• The complexity of the food web indicates the stability of the
ecosystem.
TOPIC OF THE NEXT CLASS ECOLOGY WILL BE CONTINUED.

THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS: (01:13 PM):
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS: (01:17 PM):
• An Ecological Pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship
between different organisms in the ecosystem.
• Each bar represents a trophic level and their order & flow of energy.
• Trophic Level: It is a position an organism occupies in a food chain.
The Trophic Level represents function level and not a species as such.
• Pyramid of Biomass:
• It shows the amount of Biomass present per unit area of each trophic
level with the producers at the base and the top carnivore at the top.
• Biomass is measured using the dry weight of an organism.
• The pyramid of biomass can be both upright as well as inverted e.g.
upright (grassland ecosystem), and inverted (aquatic ecosystem).
• Each trophic level has a certain mass of biomass at a particular time
called the standing crop.
 • Pyramid of Numbers:
• It represents the number of individuals per unit area of various tropic
levels.
• An Upright Pyramid of Numbers is found in the Grassland Ecosystem and
an Inverted Pyramid of Numbers is Tree Ecosystem.
• Spindle Shape of Pyramid of Number:
• Trees, small birds, carnivores birds, etc.
Pyramid of Energy:
• It represents the flow of energy through each tropic level of the
ecosystem.
• The Pyramid of Energy is always Upright.
• The amount of energy always decreases with the successive trophic level
and only 10% of the energy is transferred to the next trophic level (called the 10%
rule).
• The energy pyramid helps us understand the quantity of energy trapped,
the efficiency of energy transferred, limits on the number of trophic levels, and
the environmental impact on development.
ECOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY: (01:41 PM):
• Ecological Productivity:
• It indicates the efficiency of an ecosystem in capturing, storing, and
utilizing energy.
• It refers to the primary fixation of solar energy by plants and the
subsequent use of that foxed energy by plant-eating herbivores, carnivores, and
detrivores.
• It is measured as grams of organic matter per square meter per year.
Types of Ecological Productivity:
• a) Primary Productivity is the productivity at the producer level i.e.
by plants and phytoplanktons.
• b) Secondary Productivity is at the primary consumer level.
• c) Tertiary Productivity is at the secondary consumer level.
• d) Gross Primary Productivity is the total amount of energy i.e. fixed
by plants or by phytoplanktons.
• e) Net primary Productivity is adjusted for the energy loss due to
respiration it shows the energy available and energy consumption by herbivores.
• Ecological productivity determines the carrying capacity of an
ecosystem and its ability to sustain life.
Factors Affecting the Ecological Productivity:
• i) Insolation: Abundance, uniformity of sunlight.
• ii) Temperature: The ecological productivity depends on temperature
(high temp. high photosynthesis and metabolism and vice versa)
• iii) Water: The quantity of water also ascertains the ecological
productivity.
• iv) Nutrients: Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, etc.
• v) Biotic Interaction: Nitrogen Fixation, etc.
Regions of High Productivity: Rain Forests, Coral Reefs, Wet Lands, Mangroves, Kelp
Forest (temperate ecosystem), etc.
• Kelp is the largest algae and hosts many life forms in the ocean.
• Regions With Low Ecological Productivity: Deep oceans, open oceans,
polar oceans, etc.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: (02:28 PM):
• Ecological Succession:
• It is a process by which the structure of the biological community
evolves.
• The developmental stages of a community are known as Seral Stages.
• The series of communities that are characteristics of a given community
is Seres.
• Species in the first Seral stage are called Pioneer Species.
• The community at the Climax Stage is known as Climax Community.
Types of Succession:
 • a) Primary Succession: It occurs in a lifeless area with no existing
soil e.g. newly formed volcanic islands, newly emerged sandbars, region of glacial
moraines, etc.
• b) Secondary Succession: it occurs in areas where a community that
previously existed has been removed, it is faster than the Primary Succession e.g.
regions of forest fires, abandoned agricultural fields, etc.
• c) Autogenic Succession: It involves the succession of the community
itself as a reaction to its environment causing its replacement e.g. grasslands to
forest as herbivores decreased.
• d) Allogenic Succession: The succession of the existing community
caused by any external conditions e.g. the glacial retreat and plan reclaiming in
Siberia leading to the growth of vegetation due to global warming.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ECOSYSTEM: (03:18 PM):
• Ecological Niche: It is a role played by an organism in a community of
ecosystems.
• A species niche includes both the physical and environmental conditions
and its interactions with the other species.
• No two species can have the same niche.
• If it occurs one species will overcome the other and the other has to
adapt and change or become extinct.
• A species with a narrow or limited niche is known as a Specialist
Species e.g. Panda feeding on bamboo, Koala Bear feeding on Eucalyptus.
• Species with a broader niche are called Generalists Species which can
survive in a wide variety of conditions e.g. goats, rats, etc.
Different Types Of Species:
• a) Herbivores: Plant, grass-eating.
• b) Carnivores: Depends on other animals.
• c) Ominovre: Both animals and plants.
• d) Detrivore: Feeds on decomposing organic matter.
• e) Scavengers: Crab, lobsters, eagle, etc.
• f) Nectarivores: Honey bees, Humming Bird, etc.
• g) Frugivore: Monkeys. Bat, Parrots, etc.
• h) Gramnivore: Feeds on grass e.g. sparrows (state bird of Delhi).
i) Flagship Species:
• A species selected to act as an ambassador, icon, or symbol for a
defined habitat, issue, or campaign.
• They are relatively large and charismatic e.g. Tiger, Polar Bears
(Arctic Ecosystem), Gorilla (rainforest of Congo).
j) Keystone Species:
• It is a species that plays a role in the functioning or structure of an
ecosystem.
• Its disappearance causes a significant change. They have
disproportionately large impacts on the ecosystem compared to their abundance.
• For example, Honey Bees through pollination, and Elephants define the
nature of their habitat (Ecosystem Engineer).
k) Indicator Species:
• They indicate certain processes in the ecosystem and it is used to
assess the environmental conditions or quality of an ecosystem.
• For example, lichens (air pollution, Gangetic Dolphins (riverine
pollution), Coral (sedimentation, Black Buck (health of grassland ecosystem), and
Himalayan Monal (health of the Himalayan Ecosystem).
Umbrella Species:
• Prominent role to play in the ecosystem directly and indirectly.
• For example, Kelp in Kelp forest, etc.
Services of The Ecosystem:
• 1) Provisioning Services: The produce obtained for the ecosystems e.g.
food, fibers, ornaments, etc.
• 2) Regulating Services: Climate regulations, Flood Prevention, etc.
• 3) Cultural Services: Educational, Recreational, Sense of Place, etc.
 • 4) Supporting Services: Bio-diversity, Nutrient recycling, etc.
TOPICS OF THE NEXT CLASS: Different types of Interactions, Ecosystems, etc.

ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS- 1:27 PM

• Biotic interactions-
• Bioactic interactions are the relationships between living organisms in
a living system.
• The interactions can be positive, negative, or neutral.
• They play a vital role in shaping the structure and function of the
ecosystem.
• Mutualism- Both species benefit - Coral polyps, Honey bees, and
plants,
• Protocooperation- Both are benefits however the dependency is not
dependable- Sea Anemone, Ants, and aphids.
• Symbiosis- Too much dependence upon each other -Coral and Zooxanthalie.
• Commensalism- One species gets benefits other remains neutral - Dung
beetle and cow.
• Ammensalism- It is opposite of commensalism- Allelopathy, banyan tree
• Parasitism - Where one specy is at a loss- Leech
• Predation- Relation between predator and prey - lion and deer, tiger
and gazelle
• Cannibalism- Predation between the same species- Few human tribes like
head hunters of Papua New Guinea, king cobra
• Competition- It is very common just like predation- It is there for
area, reproduction- Lion and Cheetah, lion and hyena
BIO-GEO CHEMICAL CYCLES- 2:10 PM
• The flow of chemical elements and compounds between organisms and the
physical environment is called as Bio-Geo chemical cycle.
• There are two types of bi-geo chemical cycles.
• 1. Gaseous cycle- reservoir pool is in the atmosphere like the Water
cycle, carbon cycle, oxygen cycle, and nitrogen cycle.
• 2. Sedimentary cycle- In which the reservoir pool is in the earth's
crust or lithosphere like the Sulphur cycle and phosphorus cycle.
1. Water cycle-
• 
• Significance
• Rainfall on the earth - Agriculture, water recharge
• Solar energy or sunlight drives the water cycle
• It is an important climate regulator.
• An important mechanism of heat transfer across the earth.
• Distribution of fresh water on the earth
2. Carbon cycle-
• 
• Significance
• Maintaining the global temperature.
• Balance of heat budget.
• Important for the food chain, food web, and storage of energy.
• Forestry, agriculture.
3. Oxygen cycle-

• Significance
• Combustion (energy production).
• Cellular Respiration.
• Controls other cycles.
• Controls the productivity in the ecosystem.
• Required for decomposition.
NITROGEN CYCLE- 2:54 PM
• 
• Significance-
 • It is the building block for growth and development.
• Important for soil fertility, increases productivity, and ensures food
security.
• Controls the primary productivity.
• It is a greenhouse gas, ozone depletion.
PHOSPHORUS AND SULPHUR CYCLE-3:42 PM
• 
• Significance-
• Biological processes need phosphorus: photosynthesis, energy transfer,
etc.
• Support growth and development.
• It also results in Eutrophication.
Sulfur cycle-
• 
• Significance-
• It is also essential for growth and development.
• Acid rain which impacts the air quality as well as water quality
• Acts as a source of energy for microorganisms.
• Eutrophication.
• It also helps in climate regulation.
• It helps in the scattering of sunlight.
The topic for the next class- Types of ecosystems

A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:45 PM)

• Biogeochemical cycles
• Biotic Interactions
• Nitrogen Fixation
• Nitrification
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS (01:48 PM)
• 
• Terrestrial • Aquatic
◦ Less water ◦ Abundance of water
◦ No shortage of Oxygen ◦ Limited oxygen only till Epilimnion
◦ Abundant Sunlight may vary across the latitudes ◦ Relatively scarce
◦ No limitation of depth with respect to the presence of nutrients ◦
Nutrients are present at the bottom
◦ High range of temperature difference ◦ Less range of temperature
difference
• • Forest- Rainforest || Taiga
• Grassland- Savanna Temperate
• Mountain- Alpine || Tundra
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM (01:57 PM)
• Tundra Biome
• Snow covered- Antarctica
• "Treeless"
• Permafrost
• Lichens, Mosses, and Sedges
• Temperature- Below 0 degrees Celsius
• Alpine climate
• Fauna- Resident || Migrating
• Insects, Migratory Birds, Reindeer, Caribou, Wolves, Polar Bear, Lion
Seals, etc.
• Human Beings live in habitations called Igloo in the region.
• Penguins- Emperor Penguins survive the harsh conditions of Antarctica.
• Adaptations-
• Thick fur for insolation
• Large body size
• Hibernation
• Camouflage
 • Migration
• Ground Nesting
• Taiga Biome (02:29 PM)
• Siberian climate
• Podzol soil
• Primary productivity is higher than the Tundra biome.
• Coniferous trees- Spruce, Pine, etc
• Largest Biome by area
• Fauna-
• Siberian Tiger, Red Fox, Moose (largest Deer species on the Earth),
Snow Leopard
• Adaptations-
• Shallow roots
• Thick Barks
• Food storage during summer by squirrels
• Grassland Biome (02:42 PM)
• Tropical and Temperate Grasslands
• Temperate Grasslands-
• Temperature is lower than the Tropical Grasslands
• Experience snowfall during winter.
• Higher Rainfall than Tropical Grasslands.
• Grass- Small & Green grass that gets rejuvenated every year
• Fauna- Coyote, Bisons, Praire Dog (Ground Squirrel)
• Adaptations-
• Savanna is one of the most productive grasslands.
• Dry Season of at least 3-4 months
• Tall and yellow grass which is dry in nature- Savanna Grass
• 3 major controlling factors- Water, Fire and Grazing
• Scattered trees with hard resistant bark to avoid fire
• The largest number of Herbivores are found in the Savanna Grasslands.
• Fauna-
• Most of them are herbivores
• Zebra, Giraffe, Wildebeest, Elephants, Kangaroos, Ostrich, Hemu
• These animals are capable of running fast.
• Trees are tall and move away from the ground.
• Thick bark
• Trees store water inside the trunk and food below the ground.
• The grass is capable of faster regeneration.
• Camouflages
• Desert Biome (03:34 PM)
• Precipitation is less than 25cm per annum
• Reasons-
• Cold Ocean currents, Offshore Trade Winds, Sub-Tropical High-pressure
belt
• Hot Deserts cover nearly 1/5th of the entire Earth.
• The Sahara is the largest desert.
• Vegetation- Dates, Cactus, Baboon
• Animals- Camel, Reptiles, Lizards, Nocturnals, Snakes, Desert Oryx
• Adaptations-
• Waxy leaves
• Xerophytic plants are evident
• Thorns instead of leaves
• Green stems
• Short bushes
• Deep root
• Controlled opening of stomata
• Drought resistant
• Animals-
• Nocturnal
 • Camouflage
• Water storing
• Survival by burrowing
• Long Ears
• Rainforest Biome (03:48 PM)
• Temperate & Tropical Rainforest
• 
• Tallest growing trees on the surface of the Earth are found in the
Temperate Rainforest.
• Giant Sequoia- Tallest growing trees
• Tropical • Temperate
◦ High Temperature ◦ Low Temperature
◦ High diversity of vegetation ◦ Relatively low diversity of vegetation
◦ Very high precipitation-convection ◦ Moderate to high precipitation- On-
shore Westerlies
◦ Multilayered ◦ Absence of multilayers
• • Rainforests are the oldest living ecosystem on the Earth,
known for their rich biodiversity.
• It covers only 6% of the land.
• It accounts for more than 50% of the species of flora and fauna.
• High temperature
• High rainfall through convection
• Only 2% of the Sunlight reaches the floor, it becomes a limiting
factor.
• Flora-
• Evergreen, Densely growing, Epiphytes and Climbers, Low undergrowth
• Laterite soil due to heavy leaching and acidic
• Hardwood trees- Tapioca, Mahogany, Ebony
• Carnivorous Plants due to lack of nutrients in the soil.
• Fauna-
• A huge variety of Fauna due to the availability of food.
• Jaguar- Top Carnivore of the Biome
• Apes- Gorilla (Congo Rainforest), Chimpanzees, Orangutan (Southeast
Asia), Gibbons, Bonobo, etc
• Flying Squirrel, Bats, Pygmy Glider, Green Mamba
• Adaptations
• Multilayered
• Tall growing
• Epiphytes
• Drip Tips
• Camouflage
• Large tails and strong grips
• Birds display colorful and special behavior.
• Birds of Paradise- Papua New Guinea
TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN THE NEXT CLASS- WETLANDS, BIODIVERSITY

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM (01:11 PM)

• Classified into 3 types based on salinity.
• 1. Freshwater
• 2. Saline water
• 3. Brackish water
• Freshwater • Brackish • Saline
• < 5 PPT • 5-35 ppt • >35 PPT
• lakes, river • Estuaries, mangroves and swamps • coral Reef,
Saline lakes( dead sea)
◦ Lotic- Flowing water
◦ Lentic-Stationary water • - • -
• • Limitation factors of the Aquatic ecosystem :
• 1. Oxygen: which is added to the water through photosynthesis and
diffusion.
• 2. Sunlight: It penetrates only up to 200 meters.
• 3. Nutrient availability: on the floor of the water body.
• Based on the availability of sunlight any water can be divided into two
zones.
• 1. Photic Zone.
• - sunlight is Abundant, a Zone of Photosynthesis, and Rich in Oxygen.
• 2. Aphotic Zone.
• - Sunlight is limited with only respiration observed, Verticle mixing
of water helps in the continuous flow of oxygen in this region.
• Zones as per nearness to land.
• 1. Littoral Zone - Zone of water body Closer to coast and overall dept
is shallow, Rich in life.
• 2. Pelagic zone- Zone of water body away from the coast, Water is deep,
and Life is limited.
• 3. Benthic zone-It refers to the bottom zone.
• Types of organisms in the Aquatic ecosystem. (01:32 PM)
• 1. Planktons: Free floating microorganisms.
• Only present in the Photic Zone.
• There are 2 types of plankton: Phytoplantons ( capable of
photosynthesis) and Zooplankton
• 2. Nekton: Nekton comprises living organisms capable of swimming and
moving independently of currents
• Ex. fish, squid, octopus, sharks, and marine mammals.
• 3. Bentos: Bottom-level organism that lives in benthic zones.
• Ex.Sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, crabs, shrimp, oysters,
clams, mussels, lobster, and coral.
• 4. Neuston: Lives just above the water at the air-water interface.
• Ex. Insects, floating plants,
• 5. Hydrophytes: The plants in freshwater and they requires soil.
• Ex. Lotus
• 6. Periphyton: The small microorganisms that live on the stems and
leaves of submerged plants near the floor.
• Ex. abeotropheus trewavasae and Pseudotropheus zebra.
WETLANDS (01:42 PM)
• Ecocline: the changes in physical characteristics and nutrient
availability between two ecosystems is called ecocline.
• Ecotone: It refers to a transition zone between two ecosystems where a
specific type of ecosystem develops.'
• Ex. Wetlands or Grasslands
• Edge effect: Changes in population or community structure that occur at
the boundary between two habitats are called Edge effects.
• Edge Species: Species living in Ecotone are called edge species.
• Ex. Amphibians.
• Facts:
• Amphibians live near water bodies; Reptiles lay eggs on land (Olive
Riddley turtles) whereas amphibians lay eggs in water;
• Turtles are reptiles turned back to water.
• Falmingo, sarus crane is the waterbird.
• Wetlands: (02:14 PM)
• A wetland is a transitional zone between terrestrial and acquatic
ecosystems where the water depth does not exceed 6 meters.
• Characteristics of wetland:
• High primary productivity.
• Domoniated by hydrophytic plants.
• The soil in wetlands is called hydric soil( saturated with water and
has less oxygen).
• Difference between lakes and wetlands.
• Characteristic • Lakes • Wetlands
• Origin • Largest due to tectonic forces; Fluvial, Geomorphic
process, Increase in water table. • Mostly Fluvial, Residual lake
• Water Turnover • Permanent • Permanent or temporary ( Rice
fields)
• Water level changes • Relatively small • Relatively Large
• Thermal stratification • yes • no
• Vertical Mixing • Thermally regulated • Wind Regulated
• Dominant Producer • Phytoplankton • Mycrophytes
• Food chain • Grazing Pathway • Detritus Pathway
• Productivity • Low • High
• Trophic Status • Oligotrophic • mostly Eutrophic
• Flood control • Less Significant • Significant
• Waste treatment • No • Yes
• • Significance of wetlands (02:35 PM)
• 1. They are called as kidneys of the environment.
• It helps in filtring sediment and purifying water.
• 2. It helps in Nutrient recycling i.e., It involves the treatment of
biodegradable waste material, and feeding the food chain.
• 3. It supports a large diversity of life including Amphibians, mammals,
birds, etc.
• 4. They provide drinking water, food, and habitat.
• 5. Helps in preventing floods by absorbing excess water in the rainy
season.
• 6. It helps in groundwater recharge and maintaining a higher water
table.
• 7. It prevents water scarcity and drought-like situations.
• 8. Controls soil erosion.
• 9. Helps in climatic regulation. (keeping the surrounding area cool)
• 10. Also helpful for education, research, cultural and tourism
activities.
• Issues with wetlands (02:56 PM)
• 1. Conversion of wetland for urban settlement and agriculture.
• Ex. Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad.
• 2. Increased water pollution because of the release of urban sewage and
waste.
• 3. Methane production contributes to global warming.
• 4. Excessive use of fertilizer in agriculture causes eutrophication of
wetlands.
• 5. Excess use of antibiotics in aquaculture.
• 6. Deforestation and land Degradation, Sand extraction.
• 7. Overgrazing and overfishing.
• Measures taken for conservation: (03:08 PM)
• 1.Ramsar convention- 1971
• 2. Declartion of ramsar sites by India.
• 3. Wetland Conservation and Management Rules (2017)
• 4. Environment Protection Act 1976.
WILDLIFE (03:11 PM)
• How to read Wildlife for prelims :
• IUCN; CITES ( Appendix-1,2,3); Wildlife Protection Act ( Schedule-
01,2,3,4)
• Region and Habitat
• Characteristics
• Scheme- National and international
• Current News.
• IUCN status: (03:20 PM)
• The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are intended to be an easily
and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global
extinction.
• It divides species into nine categories:
 • 1. Not Evaluated
• 2. Data Deficient
• 3. Least Concern
• 4. Near Threatened
• 5. Vulnerable
• 6. Endangered
• 7. Critically Endangered
• 8. Extinct in the Wild and Extinct.
• 
• Tiger: (03:27 PM)
• Tiger and lion are endangered.
• cheetahs are vulnerable.
• Tiger found in all types of ecosystems in India. (forest, Grassland,
Mountain, Plains, Plateau, Delta)
• Lion: Grassland
• Chetah: Grassland of Kunuo
• Leoperd: All types of ecosystem.
• Snow leopard: Only Himalaya
TOPIC FOR NEXT LECTURE: BIODIVERSITY (03:33 PM)

BRIEF OVERVIEW, UPSC PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS, AND DOUBTS FROM THE PREVIOUS LECTURE
(01:17 PM)
BIODIVERSITY (01:40 PM):
• Topics to be read:
• a) What is biodiversity?
• b) Evolution of life on the Earth.
• c) Levels and measurements of biodiversity.
• d) Distribution of biodiversity.
• e) Loss of biodiversity.
• f) Conservation of biodiversity.
• What is Biodiversity?
• The kingdoms of living things and their species:
• Monera.
• Protista.
• Animal.
• Plant.
• Fungi.
• The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro defined
biological diversity as "the variability among living organisms from all sources
including "inter akia", terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the
ecological complexes of they are part, this includes diversity within species,
between species, and of the ecosystem.
• Evolution of life on the Earth:
• It was proposed by Charles Darwin in "On the Origin of Species" by
means of natural selection published in 1859.
• It proposes that the species evolve over time and that the diversity of
life on Earth is the result of a common ancestry.
• Natural selection means individuals with advantageous traits are more
likely to survive and reproduce passing on these traits to their offspring.
• Causes of evolution:
• i) Adapt and change.
• ii) Mutation.
• Factors affecting adaptation:
• i) Competition.
• ii) Challenges posed by the surrounding environment.
• Geological Time Scale (02:10 PM):
• Eons - Era - Period - Epoch.
• Note - Kindly refer to the chart made on the board by the faculty.
 • Precambrian:
• Luca (4 billion years ago (BYA)):
• Non-photosynthetic and it fed on carbon compounds.
• It is an ancestor of all the life on Earth.
• Blue Green Algae (3.5 BYA):
• This is also called cyanobacteria.
• It is responsible for great oxygenation events.
• Protozoa (Around 2 BYA):
• They are the first animals.
• They are the first eukaryotes also.
• The first group of organisms which is known for sexual reproduction.
• It is unicellular.
• Volvox - Multiple individual cells
• They can survive individually but live in a colony, thus acting like a
multicellular.
• Multiple individual cells.
• Sponges:
• Are considered to be truly multicellular.
• They are non-locomotive and remain attached to the floor of the ocean.
• They are the best examples of filter feeders.
• However, the first true multiorgan is jellyfish.
• Jellyfish (700 MYA):
• Complex organs inside the jellyfish.
• Very primitive.
• They are the first animals who leave the ocean floor (capable of moving
inside the water) and the first to leave the continental shelf.
• True multicellular as well as true multi-organ.
• sea anemone:
• Lives on the ocean floor.
• Seapens and corals (535 MYA):
• End of Precambrian.
• Not capable of movement.
• Seapens are also known as soft corals.
• Brought some advantages - the capacity of a secreting protection layer
acting like a skeleton.
• Cambrian (02:40 PM):
• Cambrian is known for the explosion of life.
• Increase in abundance of marine vertebrates (Cambrian explosion of
life).
• Two major groups of organisms dominated the sea floor:
• i) Molluscs.
• ii) Arthropods.
• Molluscs:
• Shell-based organisms.
• Three important groups of Molluscs:
• i) Octopus.
• It has a shell body with no external shell.
• ii) Squids:
• Highly mobile, highly agile.
• Fast swimmers.
• Don't have shells.
• Food for sharp and whales.
• iii) Cuttlefish:
• It has an internal shell.
• It has the capacity to change colour, it can undergo camouflage
depending on the surroundings.
• Arthropods:
• Jointed body-parts.
• They are the largest group of animals.
 • Insects (called hexapods) are a type of arthropod.
• Groups of individuals include:
• i) Trilobites.
• ii) Chelicerates (i.e. scorpions).
• iii) Myriapods (i.e. Millipede)
• iv) Hexapods (i.e. insects).
• v) Crustaceous (i.e.crab).
• Arthropods have the advantage of higher mobility on Earth.
• Not vertebrates.
• Has exoskeleton protection and it is made up of chitin.
• Arthropods have a segmented body.
• First animals (invertebrates) to arrive on land.
• Trilobites (02:58 PM):
• Apex species.
• Earliest arthropods.
• Present status - extinct.
• Chelicerates:
• They have well-developed mouth parts that enable them to feed.
• Examples include ticks, mice, etc.
• Myriapods:
• Centipede - Known for multiple body segments, each of the segments has
one pair of legs.
• Millipede - Known for multiple body segments, each of the segments has
two pairs of legs.
• Hexapods are all insects.
• They are the largest of all arthropods in terms of number as well as
diversity.
• Each insect has three body parts and 6 legs.
• Some will have wings.
• Insects were the first animals to fly (i.e. Dragonfly was the first to
fly).
• The first one to take off into the air.
• Insects usually have antennae.
• Crustaceous:
• Examples - crabs, lobsters, shrimps, krill, etc.
• Ordovician- Silurian - Devonian (03:28 PM):
• Ordovician - Vertebrates.
• Silurian - Plants.
• Devonian - Amphibians.
• The first vertebrates are fish (the first one is Protofish).
• Protofish - Jawless fish and no proper bone structure.
• Jawed fish replaced Protofish and it includes:
• i) Cartilaginous and bony fish:
• Both have Cartilaginous structures but bony fish have a skeleton
composed mostly of bone.
• Bony fish have hard bones.
• Examples include sharks.
• Cartilaginous fish - It will not float if it is not swimming.
• Bony fish have swim bladders.
• Ordovician ended with the first mass extinction due to global cooling
and that triggered the ice age also.
• Life started to evolve further, and plants started to evolve over the
land.
• Silurian:
• Mosses, algae, etc.
• Bryophytes and pteridophytes:
• Bryophytes are non-vascular plants (i.e. they have no roots), but
instead absorb water and nutrients from the air through their surface (e.g., their
leaves)
 • Resulted in the formation of forests.
• Amphibians are the first vertebrates to enter the land.
• They can't produce shelled eggs.
• Became totally dominant during the time of Devonian.
• The end of Devonian - 2nd Mass extinction.
• The growth of plants over the land.
• The rapid growth of plankton causes the depletion of oxygen.
• Carboniferous - Permian:
• Carboniferous - Coal.
• Permian - Reptiles.
• Seeded plants.
• Most of the coniferous are gymnosperm (i.e. pines).
• Reptiles started to leave attachment with water.
• Reptiles have much harder outer skins, thus they can survive in the
most diverse conditions.
• Reptiles have Internal fertilization.
• All these are called ectotherms, they take heat from the surrounding
environment.
• Reptiles started to dominate amphibians.
• Examples include crocodiles.
• crocodiles:
• Double eyelids.
• Have the capacity to control the heartbeat.
• End of Permian - 3rd Mass extinction (called the Great Die which caused
90% of extinction) due to continuous volcanic eruption which caused acid rain which
made the land lifeless.
• Mesozoic:
• Triassic - reptiles and mammals.
• Jurassic - Dinosaurs.
• Cretaceous - Angiosperm and birds.
• Mammals evolved (i.e. ancestors of mammals).
• Mammals will give birth (will not lay eggs).
• Mammals have the capacity to nourish the offspring till it matures.
• The Triassic saw the evolution of reptiles.
• Dinosaurs evolved in the Triassic.
• End of Triassic - 4th Mass extinction due to volcanic eruption and
global warming.
• After this, rainfall happened for 1 million years.
• This resulted in the formation of large-scale streams, rivers, and
deltas.
• Characteristics of Dinosaurs:
• Their capacity to grow is nearly 50 times the size of the baby.
• They had legs below their body which enabled them to walk and run
faster on the land.
• They have no specific patterns of food, or habitat, and no specific
behaviour.
• At the same time, angiosperm also evolved.
• Angiosperm - flowering plants.
• The ways through which flowering plants attract the insects:
• Through the colour, fragrance, etc.
• For the first time, plant diversity exceeded the animal diversity.
• Birds evolved from dinosaurs as some of the dinosaurs started to
develop wings.
• Birds are warm-blooded.
• Birds are generalist (varied habitat conditions, varied food
conditions, etc.).
• Birds have the capacity to fly and thus survive easily.
• Marsupials- Kangaroo.
• Marsupials give birth to underbirth offspring.
 • Placentals give birth to fully-grown offspring.
• Around 66 MYA - 5th Mass extinction - a large asteroid crashed into
Earth.
• Cenozoic:
• The emergence of modern mammal groups like herbivores, carnivores, etc.
• Herbivores have to keep moving in search of vegetation to survive.
• Changes in the ocean currents which triggered large-scale forest fires
resulted in the evolution of grasslands.
• Geological events - Continental drift.
• Evolution of Alps in Quaternary.
• Characteristics of Alps - Their intelligence, capacity to walk on two
legs, opposable thumb, capacity to hold tools, capacity to make tools, large brain
size, and they are more social.
• What made human beings most dominant were communication skills,
language, and the capacity to remember and reproduce the same.
• Human beings became dominant after the end of the last ice age.
• The evolution of agriculture led to settled life and the availability
of food.
• 6th mass extinction is already going on, triggered by human beings
(i.e. anthropogenic climate change).
THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS - THE MEASUREMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIODIVERSITY.

LEVELS AND MEASUREMENTS OF BIODIVERSITY (01:30 PM):

• Levels of Biodiversity:
• a) Genetic diversity:
• It is the variety of genes within a particular species.
• It includes the range of genetic information contained within the
individuals of a species.
• It is crucial for the adaptability and reliance of species to
environmental changes.
• It enables the species to adapt and survive in a range of habitats.
• For example, human beings from Europe, Africa, and Asia.
• b) Species diversity:
• It is the number of different species found in an ecosystem.
• Higher species diversity is required to ensure the stability of the
ecosystem.
• Examples:
• Rainforest ecosystem - high diversity, high species diversity.
• Boreal ecosystem - low diversity.
• c) Ecosystem diversity:
• It is the variation in ecosystems within a larger geographical area or
habitat or Earth as a whole.
• It is based on variations in abiotic conditions, species compositions,
and ecological processes.
• Higher ecosystem diversity ensures the long-term health of the planet
and the sustainability of life.
• Different ways of measuring the diversity:
• 

Fig: Species richness and evenness in the measurement of biodiversity

• Species diversity considered two main factors:
• i) Richness - Number of different species present.
• ii) Evenness - Number of individual per species and their relative
abundance.
• Richness is measured in three different ways:
• a) Alpha diversity:
• It refers to species diversity within a particular area of an ecosystem
and is measured by counting the number of species within an ecosystem.
 • It indicates the diversity and complexity of an ecosystem.
• Alpha diversity is measured by Shannon Weiner's index as well as
Simpson's index.
• b) Beta diversity:
• It is the species diversity between two different ecosystems and
involves comparing the species that are unique to each of the ecosystems.
• c) Gamma diversity:
• It is the measurement of overall diversity for different ecosystems
within a region, biome, or continent.
• It is measured by calculating the unique species found in all the
ecosystems in the entire region.
• Species can be of two types - Alien or native.
• Native species are also called indigenous species.
• Alien species types - Non-invasive and invasive.
• Non-invasive alien species - Eucalyptus.
• Native species types - Endemic and non-endemic.
• Endemic species also act as indicator species.
• Non-endemic are also called cosmopolitan species.
• Endemism (02:14 PM):
• It is the ecological state of species being unique to a defined
geographic location.
• Endemism means being indigenous only in that particular location.
• Importance of endemism:
• It results in unique diversity and ecological niches in an ecosystem.
• Endemic species also act as indicatorspecies.
• For example, lion-tailed macaque.
• Endemic species contribute to stability and resilience.
• Endemism helps in understanding unique adaptations and the evolution
process.
• Examples of endemic species of India:
• Hoolock gibbon is endemic to North East India.
• The lion-tailed macaque is endemic to shola forests.
• Nilgiri Tahr is endemic to only Nilgiris.
• Malabar Civet is endemic to the Western Ghats.
• Asiatic lions are endemic to the Gir forests.
• Red sandals are endemic to the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh.
• Humpbacked Mahseer is endemic to the Western Ghats and the peninsular
region.
• Distribution of Biodiversity (02:22 PM):
• Megadiverse Countries:
• These are the countries where natural biodiversity is highly abundant.
• It is used to raise awareness regarding the protection of natural
biodiversity.
• The criteria used for considering a country a megadiverse country are:
• i) It must have at least 5,000 endemic plants.
• ii) It must have marine ecosystems within its borders.
iii) There is a total of 17 megadiverse countrieswith at least 70% of the planet's
terrestrial biodiversity.
North America - USA and Mexico Europe - Not applicable Asia - India, China,
Malaysia, Indonesia, and Philippines
South America - Brazil, Venezuela, Colombo, Ecuador, and Peru Africa - South
Africa, Madagascar, and the Democratic Republic of Congo Oceania - Papua New
Guinea and Australia
• • Biogeographic Realm (02:37 PM):
• A biogeographic realm is any of the larger spatial regions of the
Earth's land surface with ecosystems sharing similar biological evolutionary
history and distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms.
• There are 8 biogeographic realms:
• i) Nearctic.
 • ii) Neotropical.
• iii) Palearctic.
• iv) Afrotropical.
• v) Indo-Malay.
• vi) Australasian.
• vii) Oceanic.
• viii) Antarctic
• Biogeographical regions of India (02:46 PM):
• Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species, organisms,
and ecosystems in geographic space through geological time.
• India is divided into 10 biogeographic regions.
• i) Trans Himalayas.
• ii) Himalayas.
• iii) Gangetic plains.
• iv) Semi-arid.
• v) Desert.
• vi) Western Ghats.
• vii) Deccan Peninsula.
• viii) North East.
• ix) Coast.
• x) Islands.
•
• Trans Himalayas:
• Regions:
• Ladakh, Lahaul Spiti Valley, and Sikkim.
• Topography:
• Huge diversity of terrain from high altitude mountains to deserts to
plateaus.
• Totally characterized by a barren landscape.
• Climate:
• Overall temperature is low.
• Precipitation is also low.
• Winters are extremely cold.
• Very low rainfall due to the rainshadow effect (snowfall).
• The climate is dominated by wind erosion.
• Natural vegetation:
• Very limited along the valleys.
• Alpine vegetation - grass, shrubs, etc.
• Some trees here and there such as juniper, rhododendron, and willow.
• Animals (Fauna):
• Overall diversity is less.
• Examples - Double-humped camel, yak, snow leopard, ibex goat,
Changthangi goat, Tibetan wild ass, Tibetan antelope, and black-necked crane.
• Shahtoosh Shawl is extracted from Tibetan antelope.
• Pashmina (Finest Cashmere wool) is made from Changthangi goat.
• Tso Moriri is the breeding ground for black-necked cranes.
• Adaptations:
• Higher lung capacity, thick fur, and capacity to migrate.
• Issues associated:
• Impact of climate change and global warming on local ecosystem.
• Tourism and habitat destruction.
• Overgrazing.
• The human-wildlife conflict.
• Himalayas (03:33 PM):
• Regions:
• Jammu Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh.
• Topography:
• High mountains - tallest mountains on the surface of the Earth.
• Variations in the altitude.
 • The Southern slopes are greatly impacted by monsoon winds and receive
ver good rainfall.
• The Northern slopes are a little bit dry.
• The temperature variation is also extreme from low to high altitude.
• Natural vegetation:
• Varies from deciduous, to coniferous, to alpine.
• Trees - deodar, chir pine, maple, oak, rhododendron, juniper.
• Alpine grassland.
• Fauna:
• Snow leopard, hangul (Kashmir stag), Himalayan tahr, Himalayan monal
(indicator species of the health of Himalayan ecosystem), Himalayan serow, Mishmi
takin, wild yak, golden mahseer, and musk deer.
• Adaptability:
• Thick fur, hibernation (i.e. Himalayan bear), camouflage (i.e. snow
leopard).
• Issues associated:
• Tourism, pollution, disposal of solid waste, overgrazing, construction,
soil erosion, depletion of water resources, global warming.
• Gangetic plains:
• Topography:
• Totally flat alluvial plains characterized by a dense network of
tributaries.
• A good number of floodplains.
• Lakes (i.e. oxbow lakes) and wetlands.
• Alluvial grasslands.
• Climate:
• Extreme climate - hot summers and cold winters.
• Before the monsoon the conditions are too dry - loo.
• Precipitation mainly during monsoon (200 cm in West Bengal to 50 cm in
Haryana).
• Vegetation:
• Dry deciduous and wet deciduous.
• Grasslands near the rivers.
• Trees - sheesham, acacia, neem, bamboo.
• Animal:
• Tiger (Philippine tiger reserves), Gangetic dolphins, elephants,
nilgai, gaur, leopard, deer species (chinkara, black buck, Cheetal - spotted dear,
and swamp deer), Hog deer, gharial (freshwater crocodile), mugger, and rhino.
• Adaptation:
• Migration.
• Issues and challenges:
• Deforestation, occupation of flood plains, conversion of wetlands, huge
amount of water pollution, overfishing, floods, drought.
• Semi-Arid:
• Southern Gujarat, eastern Rajasthan, western MP, and parts of Punjab
and Haryana
• Topography:
• Undulating plains with scattered hills.
• Rainfall:
• Moderate to low rainfall mainly during monsoon (between 25 cm to 70
cm).
• Vegetation:
• Earlier best grasslands of India.
• Thorns, bushes, invasive species.
• Trees - Sheesham, babool, kikar.
• Fauna:
• Lion, tiger, cheetah, leopard, great Indian bustard, chinkara, Cheetal,
Indian wild ass.
• Protected areas:
 • Keoladevo national park, sariska, ranthambore, Gir.
• Adaptations:
• Survival in very low conditions, water storing capacity, borrowing,
aestivation, nocturnals.
• Issues:
• Desertification is due to deforestation, overgrazing, and excessive
extraction of groundwater.
• Biodiversity loss due to man-animal conflict and habitat destruction.
• Drought conditions and increasing desertification due to climate
change.
• Desert:
• Regions:
• Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• Topography:
• Sandy, salty, rocky, sand dunes.
• Climate:
• Very high temperature during summers.
• High diurinal temperature.
• Rainfall less than 25 cm per annum.
• Very high rate of evaporation.
• Occasional cloud bursts as well as flash floods.
• Natural vegetation:
• Xerophytic, cactus, bushes, desert grass, babool, dates.
• Fauna:
• Camels, Kharai camels, reptiles, rats, snakes, lizards, great Indian
bustard, black buck, Indian wild ass, and flamingo
• Protected areas:
• Desert National Park.
• Adaptation:
• Drought resistant, nocturnal, camouflage.
• Issues:
• Overgrazing, water scarcity, loss of biodiversity due to habitat
destruction, and climate change cause more water stress, deforestation, and mining
activities.
THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS - LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS (CONTINUATION FROM THE PREVIOUS CLASS) (01:31 PM):

• Deccan plateau:
• The largest biogeographic region of India.
• It covers Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Telangana, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand andOdisha.
• Hard rocks.
• Temperature: Hot weather conditions.
• Precipitation: 50 cm - 200 cm.
• Vegetation: Tropical moist and dry deciduous, tropical thorn,
grasslands.
• Tree species: Teak, Neem, Mahua, Palash (flame of the forest), Babul,
Khair, Tendu, Red sanders, etc.
• Wildlife: Tigers, Elephants, Cheetal, Blackbuck (State Animal of Andhra
Pradesh), Barking deer, Sambhar deer, Neelgai, Swamp deer (State Animal of Madhya
Pradesh), Indian Bison/Gaur (largest bovine species), Great Indian Bustard, Sloth
beer, Monitor Lizard, etc.
• Protected areas: Panna Tiger Reserve, Panna Biosphere Reserve, Kanha
National Park, Bandhavgarh N.P. and Tiger Reserve, Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary,
Durgavati T.R., Pench N.P., Tadoba N.P., Melghat T.R (Crater lake is situated in
it), Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve, Pachmarhi B.R., Guru Ghasidas N.P.,
Simplipal N.P., and B.R., Srisailam Nagarjuna Sagar Tiger Reserve (Largest Tiger
Reserve area of the country), Daroji Sloth Beer Sanctuary, Bannerghatta N.P.,
Papikonda N.P., Seshachalam B.R., etc.
• North-East Biogeographic region (02:05 pm):
• Nature of topography: Totally hilly region except for the plains of
Assam.
• Temperature: Remains higher.
• Precipitation: Approx. 200 cm/annum (Bay of Bengal branch).
• Biodiversity: One of the richest and exhibits high endemism.
• Vegetation: Wet Evergreen, Semi-Evergreen, Moist deciduous.
• Trees: Bamboo, Teak, Carnivorous plants (Pitcher plant).
• Wildlife: Great Indian Hornbill (also found in western ghats), Amur
Falcon, One Horned Rhino (90% found in Assam only), Tigers, Elephants, Red Panda
(State animal of Sikkim), Sangai deer/dancing deer (Phumdis - Floating biomass),
Bengal florican (one of the three Bustard bird of India), Golden langur (Endemic to
north-east), Hoolock Gibbon, Pygmy hog, Mithun (FSSAI officially recognized it as
food animal), Gaur etc.
• Protected areas: Kaziranga N.P., Kaibul Lamjao N.P., Manas
T.R./Biosphere Reserve, Orang N.P./T.R., Dehing Patkai N.P., Pobitora Wildlife
Sanctuary (have a high density of rhinoceros), Buxa T.R., Dampa T.R., etc.
• Coastal and Islands (02:26 pm):
• Nature of topography: Low elevation, plains, brackish water.
• Temperature: Moderately high.
• Precipitation: Varies.
• Vegetation:
• Andaman: Wet and Semi Evergreen; Western coast: Semi-Evergreen;
Coromondal cost: Dry Evergreen.
• Mangrows, Coral reefs.
• Four major patches of coral reefs in India: Andaman & Nicobar islands,
Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar, and Gulf of Kutch.
• (Not found in the eastern coast).
• Volcano: Narcondam and Barren.
• Wildlife:
• Coast: Tiger, Olive Ridley Turtles, Saltwater crocodiles, Irrawaddy
Dolphins, Fishing cats (state animal of West Bengal), Dugong (Sea cow) (an
indicator of water pollution), etc.
• Island: Saltwater crocodiles, Dugong, Leatherback sea turtle, Nicobar
Megapode (critically endangered), etc.
• Protected areas: Sundarbans (Ramsar site, T.R, B.R. ), Gahirmatha,
Bhitarkanika, Chilka Lake, Kolleru Lake (Ramsar site), Guindy N.P. (Known for
crocodiles and snakes), Gulf of Mannar B.R. (Ramsar site), Pichavaram (Ramsar
site), Galathea N.P., etc.
BIODIVERSITY LOSS (02:49 PM):
• i) Habitat loss:
• Reasons:
• Deforestation, land degradation, and soil erosion, urbanization,
destruction of natural wetlands and water bodies, fragmentation of forests, forest
fires, etc.
• Forest fire: Fire in the forest in an uncontrollable manner and spread
from one part to another.
• It is most common in the Western Ghats and Uttarakhand.
• Conditions favoring forest fires:
• Usually occurs in deciduous and thorn forests.
• Dry seasons.
• Human habitats nearby to the forest area.
• Dry and warm air.
• Types:
• Crown fire, Ground fire, and Bush fire (Australia).
• Causes:
• Natural:
• Dry winds, Arid conditions, Lightning, Rolling of stones, Swaying of
bamboo.
• Anthropogenic:
• Unintentional:
• Negligence by tourists, Power lines, Negligence by surrounding villages
as well as by tribals living inside the forests, etc.
• Intentional:
• Shifting cultivation, Stubble burning, burning the forest for species
replacement, Poaching purposes, and other illegal activities, etc.
• How to control forest fire (03:20 pm):
• Education and awareness.
• Developing forest fire lines.
• Strict implementation of rules.
• Controlled burning.
• Using specific sign boards inside the forests.
• Fire drills for forest officials.
• ii) Overexploitation (03:26 pm):
• Reasons:
• Overgrazing, cutting of trees, shifting cultivation, monoculture
practices, extensive commercial agricultural practices, overfishing, bottom
trawling, excessive extraction of groundwater, Excessive use of pesticides, etc.
• iii) Pollution (03:34 pm):
• Water pollution:
• Eg: Algal blooms and eutrophication, excessive release of sewage and
industrial waste into rivers (Gangetic dolphin), coral bleaching, destruction of
mangroves, oil spills, the release of hot water from thermal and nuclear power
plants, etc.
• Air pollution:
• Eg: Smog and Ozone holes reducing the photosynthetic capacity, Lichens
do not survive in polluted air, fly ash, acid rain, etc.
• Soil Pollution:
• Eg: Soil erosion results in loss of topsoil, Struble burning
• Light pollution:
• Eg: Disturbance of natural biological cycles, disturbance of natural
migratory cycles/routes
• Radiation pollution:
• Eg: Decrease in the number of house sparrows.
• iv) Climate change (03:37 pm):
• Reasons:
• Global warming (Eg: Coral bleaching, bird migration), Ocean warming,
Ocean acidification, disturbance in the ocean circulation pattern, loss of
biodiversity of taiga and polar region, etc.
• (Note: The faculty played an informative video on the main screen from
03:57 pm to 04:07 pm).
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: Continuation of Biodiversity.

BIODIVERSITY LOSS - CAUSES:

• Killing and Poaching:
• By making a species endangered and threatened with extinction.
• The loss of other species which are dependent directly or indirectly.
• Loss of other species by killing and hunting.
• Reasons behind:
• Poaching for illegal trade eg Tusk of elephants and as an investment.
• As pets eg Tiger in West Asia; Star Tortoises (commonly found in dry
and arid areas), Peacocks, Pangolins, etc.
• For medicines eg Rhino, Musk Deer, etc.
• For food eg Wild Boar, deer, rabbit, Amur Falcons (Nagaland - Doyang
Lake; migratory bird from Russia),
• Illegal tourism eg in Gir National Park and also due to cultural
practice.
• Passenger Pigeon, Wolly Mammoth; Tasmanian tiger, and Dodo Bird have
been extinct.
• Man-animal conflict:
• IUCN defines man-animal conflict as encounters between humans and
wildlife that lead to negative results such as loss of property, livelihood,
injury, and rising violence against wild animals.
• It often leads to people killing animals in self-defense and as
retaliatory killings which can drive species to extinction.
• The causes of man-animal conflict:
• Expansion of agricultural areas.
• Rapid urbanisation; eg Leopards in Mumbai
• Unsustainable tourism practices eg hotels, resorts, etc.
• Increasing human population and mining.
• Habitat destruction and fragmentation of forest.
• Increasing the number of wild animals number due to conservation eg
tiger but the prey base is reducing.
• Some animals become man-eaters due to injury, age, accident, etc.
• Solutions:
• Elephant conflict - Karnataka, Kerela, and Assam.
• The solution is co-existence.
• It is through the alternative source of income.
• Having buffer areas for cultivation to reduce the interaction between
humans and wildlife.
• Taking proactive measures to reduce conflicts, spread messages,
warnings, etc, and not interfere with wildlife.
• Wildlife corridors between fragmented forest areas and ecotourism.
• Honey fee fencing for elephants and long-term habitat conservation.
• Increasing prey base, augmenting water source and water inside the
forest, etc.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: (2:39 PM)
• Conservation International (CI) identifies different biodiversity
hotspots across the world.
• These are the regions with high biodiversity and are under constant
threat.
• To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must have:
• 1. 1500 Vascular plant species as endemic.
• 2. Lost at least 70% of its natural vegetation.
• There are a total of 36 biodiversity hot spots across the world.
• In India, there are 4 biodiversity hot spots:
• 1. Himalayas.
• 2. Indo-Burma covers the North East and the rest of Indo-China.
• 3. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.
• 4. Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot which includes the Nicobar group of
islands.
• Strategies for conservation of Biodiversity: (3:07 PM)
• Insitu Conservation: It is the process of protecting endangered species
in their natural habitat. E.g. National Park.
• Exsitu Conservation: It involves conservation by removing it from the
threatened habitat and placing it under the care of humans. E.g. Zoo.
• In Situ • Ex Situ
• Within the habitat • Outside the habitat
• Cheaper • Costly
• No adaptation issues • Adaptation Issues
• Higher chances of survival • Lower chances of survival
• Local community gets impacted • No such issues
• No inbreeding issues • In-breeding issues
• • Ex Situ: Zoological Park, Botanical Garden, Breeding
Centres, Seed Vault, Gene bank, Cryopreservation eg in Ladakh, etc.
 • Insitu:
• Area-based: Reserve Forest, Protected Forest, National Park, Wildlife
Sanctuary, Bird Sanctuaries, Wetland, Biosphere Reserve.
• Species based: Tiger Reserve, Elephant Reserve.
• Biosphere Reserves (BR):
• These are the sites established to develop sustainable development
based on local community efforts and sound science.
• It includes terrestrial, marine, and coastal ecosystems.
• Objectives/functions of BR:
• 1. Conservation of Biodiversity.
• 2. Sustainable economic development.
• 3. Logistics support through training, monitoring, education, etc.
• A Biosphere Reserve is divided into 3 main zones:
• 1. Core area: It is a strictly protected zone with endemic plant and
animal species.
• It is kept free from human interference.
• It usually contains protected areas such as national parks, WLS, etc.
• 2. Buffer Area: It surrounds the core area; managed in ways that help
in the protection of the core zone in its natural conditions.
• It involves training, limited tourism, education, monitoring, regulated
grazing, and fishing.
• 3. Transition Zone: It is the area where human activities are in
harmony with nature.
• Socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable economic activities are
allowed.
• It includes human settlements, agriculture, and intense recreation.
• India has declared, 18 biosphere reserves out of which 12 are included
UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Reserve Programme.
• UNESCO MAB Programme recognizes BR across the World.
• It provides a framework to help the National Govt in planning and
implementation of research and training programs.
• These 18 BRs are:
• 1. Great Nicobar BR.
• 2. Gulf of Mannar BR.
• 3. Agasthyamalai BR.
• 4. Nilgiri BR.
• 5. Panna BR
• 6. Panchmarhi BR.
• 7. Achankmar-Amarkantak BR.
• 8. Simlipal BR.
• 9. Sunderban BR.
• 10. Nokrek BR (In Garo Hills, Meghalaya)
• 11. Khangchendzonga BR.
• 12. Nanda Devi BR.
• The above 12 are UNESCO-recognized.
• The rest 6 are as follows:
• 1. Manas BR (Assam)
• 2. Dibru-Saikhowa BR (Assam)
• 3. Dihang-Dibang BR. (Arunachal Pradesh)
• 4. Seshachalam BR (Andhra Pradesh)
• 5. Rann of Kutch (Gujrat)
• 6. Cold Desert (Lahual-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh)
TIGER: (4:04 PM)
• Continental and Island Tigers.
• Island Tigers:
• Javan Tiger and Bali Tiger - recently extinct
• The Sumatran Tiger is still surviving.
• Continental Tiger:
• 1. Royal Bengal Tiger (India, Nepal, Bhutan,
 • 2. Indo-Chinese Tiger (Extinct in Cambodia recently).
• 3. Malayan Tiger
• 4. South China Tiger
• 5. Siberian Tiger or Amur Tiger. (Largest tiger)
• Note: Caspian tiger and Tasmanian Tiger are extinct.
• Royal Bengal Tiger:
• IUCN Category: Endangered; also is in the CITES I category.
• The tiger is very important as it is a keystone, flagship, and umbrella
species.
• The stripe pattern is unique to each tiger; and made of 3 colors ie
orange, white, and black.
• The white tiger is due to a genetic mutation. Eg Rewa District and
Bandabgarh.
• In some cases absence of white color; black tigers will exist; in
Simlipal National Park.
• Golden tiger: Black is very less; eg Kaziranga National Park.
• Tiger census: Highest number in MP, followed by Karnataka and
Uttrakhand.
• Latest Tiger Reserve: Dholpur in Rajasthan.
TOPICS FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF SACRED GROOVES, ENVIRONMENTAL
DEGRADATION, ETC.

SACRED GROOVES (01:29 PM)

• These tracts of virgin forest are left untouched by local inhabitants
and protected by local people due to their culture and religious beliefs.
• LIST OF SACRED GROOVES

• SIGNIFICANCE OF SACRED GROOVES (01:41 PM)
• 1)Conservation of biodiversity by protecting the native and endemic
species present in the sacred grooves.
• 2)Carbon sequestration.
• 3)Religious and cultural significance, Various sacred grooves are
associated with myths, legends and religious practices providing a distinctive
cultural identity.
• 4)Medicinal usage: The sacred grooves protect various traditionally
used medicinal plants.
• 5)Protect traditional practices associated with the tribal living and
their culture.
• 6)The sacred grooves are located near water sources such as springs and
streams help in protecting the area and enhancing the water availability.
• 7)They provide opportunities for scientific research and environmental
education.
• 8)Community governance: It results in the development of a sense of
ownership and responsibility resulting in sustainable use and protection.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION (01:53 PM)
• A)WATER STRESS AND POLLUTION
• Water stress is a situation where the supply of quality water does not
match the water demand. i.e. Demands exceed supply. It is measured using the
Falkenmark index. It calculates the per capita availability of water in any
country.
• A country is said to be water stressed if the per capita availability
of waterfalls is less than 1700 meters cube/per person/year. India Data: 1545 (2011
census) with the world rank of 13.
• If the Percapita availability is less than 1700 m3/per/year then the
situation is called water scarcity.
• Of the total earth's water only 3% is fresh water, and out of the total
freshwater Icecaps and glaciers account for 68.7 % of groundwater constitute 30.1 %
0.3% is surface water and the rest is others.
 • Of the fresh surface water lakes constitutes 87%,swamps 11% and rivers
2%.Swamps are shallow wetlands, But not easily accessible.
• REASONS BEHIND WATER SCARCITY
• A)SUPPLY SIDE
• 1)Nature of Indian drainage system, The peninsula rivers are old and
deficient and seasonal in nature. Himalayan rivers are young abundant and perineal
in nature.
• 2)Plateau rocks of the peninsular region.
• B)DEMAND SIDE
• 1)Pollution which degrades the quality of water.
• 2)Unsustainable extraction of groundwater for both drinking as well as
agriculture due to the unplanned nature of work.
• 3)Unplanned Urbanization.Example: Bangalore's rapid urbanization.
• 4)Increased population so the Increased water demand for water
• 5)Deforestation, Overgrazing.
• 6) Interstate water disputes which stop us from efficiently using the
water.
WATER STRESS MEASURES OR MEASURES TO CONSERVE WATER (02:49 PM)
• 1)RRR (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle)
• REDUCE
• It involves a reduction of water intensity, starting at the household
level.
• REUSE
• RO water outlet the waste generated is huge so use it for other
purposes like cleaning etc.
• RECYCLE
• The concept here is not just to reuse it as it is but to recycle it and
then reuse
• 2)Pollution control
• Stringent implementation and community participation.
• 3)Reforestation and afforestation in the catchment area.
• 4)Sustainable agricultural practices like Intercropping, Mixed cropping
etc.
• 5)Interlinking of river.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT (03:28 PM)
• Area of land where all the water that is under it or drains off it
collects into one water body.
• 
RAINWATER HARVESTING (03:40 PM)
• It is a technique of collection, storage, and usage of rainwater using
natural reservoirs or tanks or recharge pits or infiltration of surface water into
sub-surface aquifers.
• Rainwater harvesting involves rooftop harvesting or in situ harvesting
using recharge Pitts or surface water collection using check dams or groundwater
recharge using ponds and lakes.
• TRADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM-LOCAL NAMES
• ZINGS-Ladakh
• Jhalaras-Jodhpur
• Ahar panes- Bihar
• Eri system-Tamil Nadu
• Bhandara Phad-Maharashtra.
• Kund-Western Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Panam Keni-Kerala.
WILDLIFE (04:00 PM)
• Among all the big cats the loudest roar is of the lion (Can be heard
upto 5 km).
• The lion is the king of the grassland (Not the forest)
• There are two categories of lion one is African and another one is
Asiatic lion. The IUCN status of the African lion is endangered.
 • The mane of the African lion is very thick and the Asiatic lion mane is
relatively thin.
• The belly fold is only visible in the Asian lion, not the African lion.
• The Gropu of the lion is called Pride.
• Gir is the only region where we find lions in India.
• 
• Male lions are relatively powerful but donot hunt. They just protect
the cubs. It is the lioness who goes hunting and is more ferocious.
The topic for the next class: Water & Air Pollution.

BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (01:10 PM)

• Sacred groves
• Water Pollution
• Air Pollution
FLY ASH (01:10 PM)
• Meaning-It is a particulate matter produced due to the burning of coal
mainly in thermal power plants.
• The size of the particulate matter is 10 to 100 microns.
• It is finer than cement and mainly composed of Silicoon dooside Sio2
alumni oxide ferrous oxide calcium oxide and various other minor metals.
• Impacts on Human Health
• Respiratory diseases, heart problems carcinogenic as well as stroke.
• Impacts on natural vegetation.
• Reduces the photosynthetic capacity.
• Reduces pant productivity and surrounding environment.
• Reduces the soil productivity.
• Increased leaching of metals into water bodies, may result in the
contamination of water resources.
• Handling
• Fly ash is collected by ESP (electrostatic precipitator) from flue gas
in thermal power plants.
• Handling involves dry disposal and wet disposal.
• Dry disposal through burial or covering through soils.
• Wet disposal by mixing with water and creating fly ash ponds.
• Utilization
• Raw material in cement and concrete manufacturing.
• Road construction.
• To control soil erosion and soil stabilization.
• Fly ash Bricks
• Benefits
• Lightweight
• High ash strength
• Cheaper
• Use for sound insulation.
• It absorbs less heat.
• Reduces the overall cost of construction and reduces the time of
construction.
• Disadvantages
• It is not good for cold conditions.
• If it is made poorly it becomes weak.
ACID RAIN (01:35 PM)
• Acid rain is precipitation with Ph less than 5.6.
• It occurs mainly due to Sulphur and Nitrogen compounds released by
vehicles, industries, thermal power plants, agricultural fields, etc.
• There are 2 forms of Acid rain
• Wait - deposition
• When it gets mixed with rainfall and falls down along with
precipitation.
• It deposits on surfaces along the flow of water.
 • Dry - deposition
• It is when no rainfall these particles get attached to dust particles
and fall down in powdered form
• When washed by rain results in An acidic runoff impacting the surface.
• Impacts of Acid rain
• Results in bad odour cause skin irritation, eye irritation, respiratory
problems, and reduced fertility of soils.
• Impacts on buildings and monuments increase the leaching of soil.
SMOG (01:50 PM)
• Smoke appears like fog.
• Earliest environmental problem.
• The first time was observed in London smog in the 1950s.
• Smog is a secondary pollutant formed in the atmosphere due to reactions
among chemical compounds and gases released through the burning of hydrocarbons,
oil refineries, and industrial processes.
• The primary pollutants responsible for the formation of smog are NOx,
SOx, and volatile organic compounds VOC depends upon the quality of water and
particulate matter.
• Components of smog include Ozone O3, formaldehyde, PAN (peroxy Acetyl
nitrate), Acrolein, etc.
• Types of smog
• Classical Smog • Photochemical smog
◦ Occurred in the cool humid climate. ◦ Observed in Dry and sunny climates.
◦ Mainly formed due to sulfur oxides. ◦ Mainly formed due to nitrogen
oxides.
◦ First observed in London. ◦ First observed in Los Angeles.
◦ Causes due to industries. ◦ Causes due to excessive automobiles.
• • Impacts of Smog (02:03 PM)
• Smog is highly hazardous and causes health issues
• Eye irritation, headache, bronchitis, asthma, chest pain, etc.
• Damage to plants
• Reduces photosynthetic capability.
• Reduces primary productivity.
• Impacts on building and structures
• Corrosion of metals and stones.
• Corrosion of rubber as well as painted surface.
• Reduces visibility.
• Decreases temperature.
DELHI'S AIR POLLUTION (02:08 PM)
• Presence of air pollutants/ Source of pollutants
• Vehicular emission.
• Construction activities.
• Space constraints renewal process - leads to huge dust and smoke.
• Industrial emission - coal emission, thermal power plants.
• Eateries and restaurants - diesel generators -use charcoal
• Burning of solid waste.
• Road cleaning process - dust formation.
• Space/Location
• Huge basin surrounded by mountains,
• Continentality located away from the seas reduces the winds and creates
calm conditions, being surrounded by mountains on all sides.
• Pollutants get trapped for longer durations.
• Time
• Smog conditions happen during winter because temperatures are low by
October and November, temperatures start to decrease.
• Because of the lack of temperature wind gets suppressed and creates
calm conditions.
• Radiation Inversion - Because of low temp and calm wind conditions.
• Radiation Invasrsion means is the air near the surface has a low
temperature and the air above it has a higher temperature.
• Stubble burning as well as burning of crackers.
• The time gap between rice harvests and wheat sowing is limited due to
the legislation in Punjab and Haryana which prohibits rice plantation before the
notified dates this has resulted in stubble burning.
• Measures to control air pollution
• Smog control- Reducing stubble burning.
• The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)-Air Quality Management
in the National Capital Region.
• Reducing Automobile emissions.
• Use of Electrical Vehicles.
• Mass transportation.
LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIFICATION (02:35 PM)
• Land degradation is the reduction in the fertility levels of productive
lands which causes lower ecological productivity is called as land degradation.
• Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry areas leading to loss of
productive ecosystem and biodiversity is called desertification.
• Land degradation involves a negative trend in land conditions.
• It is caused by human-induced processes directly or indirectly.
• Categories of Land degradation
• Slight degradation - up to 10 % loss of original productivity.
• Moderate degradation -10 -50% loss.
• Severe degradation - more than 50 % loss.
• Causes of land degradation (03:11 PM)
• Natural causes
• Climatic variation example Rajasthan was part of the Indus
civilization but due to variations in precipitation level, it became dry.
• El Nino condition, Negative IOD.
• Offshore wind subsidence and high evaporation.
• Changes in river courses.
• Natural climate change.
• Shifting of jet streams.
• Anthropogenic causes
• Deforestation increases soil erosion surface runoff soil becomes dry
due to water content decreases.
• Organic content decreases in soil.
• Overgrazing.
• Soil erosion (03:18 PM)
• It is of two types
• Water erosion and wind erosion
• Removal of top-level soil resulting in loss of fertility and its
capacity to hold vegetation is called Soil erosion.
• Wind erosion is caused due to deflation, attrition, and abrasion.
• Water erosion causes due to
• Splash erosion: due to the impact of rain drops on the top layer of
soil causing the loosening of soil.
• Sheet erosion - it involves the removal top thin layer due to flowing
water.
• Rill erosion-due to continuous flow of water small fingers like rills
are developed.
• Gully The continued soil erosion leads to large-scale gullies for
example Chambal Badland/Chambal ravines.
• Slip Erosion - It involves the removal of the entire top layer.
• Causes of Soil erosion
• Deforestation
• Overgrazing
• Soil erosion
• How Agriculture leads to land degradation
• Excessive use of groundwater, flood irrigation, excessive use of
chemical fertilizers,
• monoculture(no renewal of nutrients ).
• Stubble burning
• Shifting cultivation
• Water-intensive crops
• Mining
• Open cast mining and underground mining.
• Totally removes fertile soil causing deforestation to result in
complete land degradation.
• Mining-related activities transportation, excessive quantity of dust,
and water pollution.
• Sand mining across rivers and coastal regions.
• Negative impact of sand mining
• Make soil susceptible to soil erosion
• Reduces the capacity of soil for water percolation and groundwater
recharge.
• Along coastal regions, it leads to saltwater intrusion in fertile
lands.
• Impacts the aquatic system and aquatic life.
• Waste disposals
• Solid waste -household waste, plastic waste, e-waste, biomedical waste
construction, demolishing waste, hazardous waste.
• Mass movements
• Types
• Landslide, Solifluction Slumping, Mudflow, Debris Flow, Debris Slide,
Debris Avalanche, Rockslide, Rockfall, Debris Fall.
• The extent of land degradation in India (03:46 PM)
• Himalayan mountains
• Reasons
• Steep topography, mass movements deforestation, overgrazing, waste
disposal.
• Western Region
• Reasons
• Soil salinization due to flood irrigation.
• Wind erosion, high evaporation.
• Deforestation, overgrazing.
• Ganga Plains
• Excessive use of groundwater.
• Deforestation.
• Commercial monoculture.
• Shifting cultivation.
• Soil erosion, land subsidence, and mass movements.
• Mining, water erosion.
• Peninsular region
• Reasons
• Excessive use of groundwater, unplanned urbanization, and water-
intensive agriculture.
• Impacts of land degradation and desertification (03:54 PM)
• Impact on ecosystem services
• Impact on provisioning services.
• The capacity to provide quality water decreases.
• Overall cultural services have degraded.
• Impact on Climate
• It degraded land quality to sink carbon.
• Albedo is also changing.
• Impact on food security
• Decrease in agricultural productivity.
• GPD has a negative impact
• Impact on Gender and Education
 • A decrease in agricultural productivity causes more involvement in
family labour, they get less education.
• Depletion of water leads to girls fetching water from faraway areas.
• Missing schools, higher dropout rate, reduced child care time, reduced
time for other work and leisure activities.
• Impact on health
• Respiratory diseases.
• CHEETAH (04:00 PM)
• Two subspecies
• African Cheetah - vulnerable
• Asiatic Cheetah- Critically endangered
• Habitat - Grassland ecosystem
• Comes in Appendix I of CITES and Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection
Act.
• Distribution
• Asiatic cheetah only in Iran.
• African Cheetahs are found in Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and
Namibia.
• Difference between two subspecies
• The Asiatic cheetah is slightly more athletic than the African cheetah.
• Asiatic Cheetah is pale white in colour.
• African cheetah is pale yellow in colour.
• Characteristics
• Cheetah is the fastest land mammal reaching 100 km/hour from a
stationary position in 3 seconds.
• The oldest big cat species, first come in evolution.
• Keystone species of grassland system
• Totally adaptative to grassland ecosystem
• Camouflage
• Usually, it leaves alone sometimes the main cheetah is found in groups.
• Two black lines running on its face are called malar stripes. It
reduces the sun's glare.
• The purring sound made by the Cheetah.
• It gets food only once in 5 attempts.
• Threats faced by cheetah.
• Tourism safari
• Competition by lions, hyenas
• Decrease in prays base.
• Extinct in India due to
• Habitat destruction and habitat quality decreased which reduced the
prey base.
• Targeted killing of cheetah.
• Human-wildlife conflict.
• The last Cheetah was shot dead in 1947.
• In 1952 declared extinct.
• Methods for Cheetah Reintroduction
• Habitat clear for cheetah introduction.
• Cheetah Mitras-local community group, to decrease man-animal conflict.
• Community participation.
TOPIC OF THE NEXT CLASS IS LAND DEGRADATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE.

LAND DEGRADATION (01:33 PM)

• Measures to control land degradation:
• Types of Restoration methods:
Active Restoration Passive Restoration
It involves active human participation to reclaim degraded land. It involves ni
Human participation and the land is allowed to regenerate naturally
It involves community participation in land restoration It involves the removal
of the local community impacting the livelihood negatively.
Faster Slower
Costlier Cheaper
• • Methods of Active Restoration:
• Afforestation and Reforestation
• National Forest Policy 1988 aims to cover 33% of India.
• National afforestation program.
• Agroforestry:
• involves the deliberate growing of trees and shrubs with crops and/or
animals in interacting combinations for a variety of objectives.
• Agrisilviculture Involves a combination of Agriculture with the
practice of growing trees around peripheral areas of agricultural land,
Uncultivated Agricultural fields, and in combination crops.
• Example of Agroforestry: Growing trees around peripheral areas, Growing
fodder trees as shade for the crops (Coffee), fruits
• Benefits of Agroforestry:
• 1. Ecological:
• -Reduces soil erosion
• Ex: Windbreak and shelter belt.
• -Increase the water table through percolation
• - Enhances nutrient recycling.
• - Stabiles the microclimate.
• 2. Economical :
• - Extra source of income for the farmer
• - Reduces crop failure by controlling pests and incest through
Allelopathy.
• 3. Social Benefit:
• - Reduces the wildlife interaction.
• - Reduces the pressure on the forest.
• - Reduces Migration as improves in the economy.
• - Provides additional employment.
• Toungya Cultivation (02:05 PM)
• It Involves the cultivation of crops by farmers are villagers in forest
areas temporarily.
• Joint Forest Management:
• It is the management of the forest adjacent to the village community
jointly by the community and the forest department.
• It was introduced in the national forest policy in 1988.
• The community maintains the forest and is allowed to use non-timber
forest produced through the establishment of a village forest community.
• Social Forestry:
• It involves growing trees in common land outside the forest such as bus
stops, schools along the road, etc.
• Urban Forestry:
• It Involves trees in Urban Areas.
• Issues faced by Urban forestry:
• - Shortage of soil area available for trees.
• - Low percolation of water.
• - Excessive concretization.
• - Infrastructure Activity such as the expansion of roads, telephone
lines, and Pipelines.
• Solution:
• - Miyawaki method.
• - Patch forest.
• Restoration From an Agriculture perspective:
• - Countour Farming and terrace cultivation:
• It involves agriculture as per the slope to prevent water loss and soil
erosion.
• Countour Framing in hilly areas according to solve the problem.
 • -Countour Bunding:
• It involves building bunds along the contour line to reduce soil
erosion.
• - Mulching:
• It is the material applied on the soil surface to check soil moisture
evaporation, increase water in the soil, and enhance nutrient availability.
• -Mixed cropping:
• Growing 2-3 types of crops together in the same field at the same
time.
• Sandune Fixation:
• It involves planting an indigenous variety of grass in order to stop
the shifting of sand in desert areas.
• Measures taken to control Land degradation (02:36 PM)
• International level:
• -UNCCD
• -SDG 15 (combating desertification).
• - Land Degradation Neutrality:
• LDN is a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources
necessary to function eco-system functions and services and enhance food security
remains stable or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales.
• National level:
• -National Afforestraion program.
CLIMATE CHANGE (02:43 PM)
• What is climate change:
• UNFCCC defines climate change as a change of climatic conditions that
are attributed directly and indirectly to human activities that alter the
composition of the global atmosphere and which in addition to natural climate
variability observed over a comparable period.
• Causes:
• Natural:
• 1. Volcanic eruption: It raises huge amounts of Carbon dioxide.
• Excessive release of particles causing Warming as well as cooling
effects.
• 2. El Nino
• 3. Oceanic circulations and plate movements.
• 4. Solar Cycle.
• 5. Milankovich cycle.
• Anthropogenic Causes:
• 1. Excessive release of Greenhouse gas through fossil fuel Burning.
• 2. Change in the Landuse due to deforestation, and agriculture reduce
the Albedo effect.
• 3. Urbanization through which various GHS being released such as HFC,
etc.
• 4. livestock- Rearing for meat which releases Methane.
• 5. Agriculture such as paddy fields.
• Radiative Forces are the change in the heat budget due to the
alteration of composition and processes in the atmosphere.
• These changes can be both Natural and Anthropogenic.
• A rise in the temperature causes Positive Radiative forcing and a
decrease in temperature causes Negative Radiative forcing.
• The changes having warning effects are called positive forcing.
• Ex. Release of GHG (Green House Gases).
• The changes that have a cooling effect are called Negative forcing.
• Ex. Increase in Aerosol due to volcanic eruptions and blocking the
sunlight.
• Green House Effect and Global Warming (03:34 PM)
• Global Warming is the situation where the Average atmospheric
temperature has increased due to excessive greenhouse effect (GHE) and enhanced
green effect.
 • GHE is the situation in which the outgoing terrestrial radiation is
trapped in the atmosphere for a longer period of time due to the presence of GHG.
• GHE is natural to Earth's atmosphere.
• However, The excessive release of GHG has increased the effect of GHE
resulting in Global warming.
• Important GHG:
• 1. C02 (Carbon Dioxide)
• 2. CH4 (Methane)
• 3. N20 (Nitrous Oxide)
• 4. HFC (Hydrochorofloro carbon)
• 5. PFC (perfluorocarbon)
• 6. SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride)
• Water Vapour, CFC, Black carbon
• Global Warming Potential:
• It is the measure of how much energy the emission of one tonne of gas
is observed over a given period of time relative to the emission of one ton of
carbon dioxide.
• Atmospheric Lifetime:
• It is the time period up to which a gas stays in the atmosphere.
• 
• Quality of GHG in the Atmosphere:
• 1. Carbon dioxide (76% )
• 2. Methane (16%)
• 3. Nitrous Oxide (6%)
• 4. F-gases (2%)
• Sector-wise distribution of GHG emission (03:57 PM)
• 1. Energy (73%)
• 2. Agriculture, Forestry, and Landuse (18.4%)
• 3. Industry (5%)
• 4. Waste (3.2%)
• Carbon Dioxide over 8,000 Years.
• 
• Current concentration 2021 Average (414.7 ppm)
• Keeling curve (04:08 PM)
• It is the assessment of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in the last 60
years.
• 
• Primary sources of Methane:
• 1. Wetlands
• 2. Ruminant emission (cattle)
• 3. Landfills
• 4. Paddy fields
• Biomass burning, oil, and Gas ( burned a fuel), Coal burning, termite
emission, Oceans, gas hydrates, wildfires, and Geological sources.
• Primary sources of Nitrous Oxide:
• 1. Agriculture
• 2. Wastewater Treatment.
• 3. Stationary Combustion
• 4. Chemical production and other Products.
• Primary sources of F-gases:
• Substitution of Ozone-depleting Substances (93%)
• Electronic Industry
• Electrical Transmission and Distribution
• Processing of Aluminum and Magnesium
• HCFC Production
TOPIC FOR NEXT CLASS: CLIMATE CHANGE CONTINUE

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS: (01:10:00 PM)

 • Land Degradation, Climate Change, and Green House Gases.
EVIDENCE TO PROVE CLIMATE CHANGE: (01:25:00 PM)
• Global Temperature:
• The global average temperature is consistently increasing.
• As per Assessment Reports(AR) 6th of IPCC, the global average
temperature has increased by 1.09 degrees Celsius since the late 19th century out
of which 1.07 Degree rise is caused by human factors.
• 2023 was the warmest year on record.
• Each of the last four decades has been successively warmer than any
preceding decades.
• Ocean Warming:
• The top 100 meters of ocean water have shown an average warming of 0.33
degrees since the 1960s.
• The sea level rise in the last century was 20 centimeters.
• Melting of Glaciers and Ice Sheets:
• There is the melting of ice sheets and glaciers all over the globe
including the Himalayas, Rockies, Andes, Poles, etc.
• Arctic ice disappeared by 40% in September and 10% in March.
• The extent of the Arctic is the smallest in the last thousand years.
• Since the beginning of industrialization acidification of the ocean has
increased by 30%.
• Increase in extreme events such as cold waves, heat waves, tropical
cyclones, floods, etc.
• Breach of Planetary Boundaries:
• They represent the system of prices that regulate and ain't the
stability of the planet.
• They define the global biophysical limits that humanity should operate
within to ensure a stable and resilient system.
• Some of Such planetary boundaries have been breached.
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE: (01:51:00 PM)
• On Hydrological Cycle:
• Increases the rate of evaporation and causes dryness of wetlands and
water bodies.
• Interferes in the hydrological cycle cause uncertainty in rainfall.
• Intensity and frequency of rainfall changes.
• Extreme events related to the water cycle such as tropical cyclones,
cloud bursts, flash floods, and droughts, increase water stress.
• Impacts water supply to agriculture.
• It causes faster melting of glaciers which may result in frequent
glacial lake outbursts.
• Variations in the hydropower generation-> increases in the short run,
and decreases in the long term.
• Ocean Warming:
• It results in the formation of more stable and stratified upper layers.
• It leads to less mixing of deeper and closer nutrient-rich water with
oxygen-rich upper layers leading to a lower supply of nutrients in the upper layers
and poor supply of oxygen to the lower layers.
• It will create Oxygen Minimum Zones in lower layers.
• At higher temperatures dissolved oxygen in water decreases.
• Ocean warming results in frequent tropical cyclones.
• High temperature is harmful to some sensitive marine species, for
example, Corals.
• It adversely impacts biodiversity, life, distribution, and biological
processes such as metabolism.
• Ocean Acidification:
• More CO2 in the atmosphere -> higher absorption by ocean waters ->
Acidification.
• it coverts carbonates -> Bicarbonates. Many marine organisms are
dependent on carbonates like corals.
 • Due to this thickness of the shells decreases and they become weaker.
• It impacts the growth of organisms, their reproduction, and their
distribution.
• It also adversely impacts the ecosystem services such as food
production, income generation, tourism, etc.
• Ocean Deoxygenation:
• At higher Temperance dissolved oxygen will be less.
• Due to the decreased mixing of water oxygen supply to the bottom layer
decreases.
• High temperature increases the oxygen demand of marine organisms
through increasing metabolic rates.
• At high temperatures, Algal blooms increase causing depletion of
oxygen.
• Continuous depletion of oxygen leads to Hypoxic conditions and dead
zones.
• Ocean warming, ocean acidification, and ocean deoxygenation are
referred to as the "Deadly Trio" for ocean biodiversity.
• On Food Security:
• Direct impacts -> Lower production due to crop failures, loss, and
adversely impacting the livestock and fisheries.
• Indirect Impacts -> More disasters, lower nutritional quality of foods,
increase in insects, etc.
• Impacts on Gender.
• Impacts on Health.
• Karakoram Anomaly:
• The Karakoram Anomaly refers to the phenomenon where glaciers in the
central Karakoram region of the Himalayas are either stable or advancing, in
contrast to the widespread glacial retreat observed globally due to global warming.
OZONE DEPLETION: (03:03:00 PM)
• Ozone:
• It is O3. It is an allotrope of Oxygen.
• It has a pungent smell and pale blue in color.
• Ozone is found as:
• 1. Stratospheric Ozone:
• It is the 90% of the total Ozone.
• It is called 'Good Ozone' as it filters harmful UV radiation.
• Ozone in the atmosphere is concentrated between 15 and 30 kilometers
above the earth’s surface, with a maximum thickness present at around 25 Km.
• The overall proportion of ozone in the atmosphere is 0.000004%.
• It is measured in the Dobson Unit.
• It is measured by checking the amount of ozone at 0 degrees Celcius and
1 Atmospheric Pressure.
• At such conditions 1 DU = 0.001 milliliter.
• The total amount of Ozone in atmospheres is 300 to 500 Dobson Units.
• Troposphere: 10%.
• It is a secondary pollutant formed during the formation of smog.
• It is not naturally available. It is the result of pollution.
• It is harmful to living beings and results in various health issues
hence called the 'Bad Ozone'.
• Ultra Voilet(UV Rays) Radiations:
• Ultraviolet rays are part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum ranging from
the end of the visible light range to the X-ray region.
• It is harmful rays as a continuous effect on humans can cause skin and
eye disorders.
• A large amount of UV rays coming from the sun is absorbed by the ozone
layer in the atmosphere.
• The interaction of UV ray wavelength with biological materials is
divided into three divisions -
• UVC (100 nm-280nm):
 • These are completely absorbed by the stratosphere.
• It is the most damaging.
• UVB (280 nm- 315 nm):
• It is slightly damaging and hence it is called Biologically Active.
• 90% of it is blocked in the Stratosphere.
• It is damaging when long-term exposure occurs and can cause skin
tanning, skin cancer, etc. in the long term.
• It helps in Vitamin D synthesis.
• UVA (315 - 400 nm):
• It is the least damaging.
• Only five percent is blocked, and 95% of it reaches the Earth's
surface.
• Ozone Cycle:
• It is a mechanism through which Ozone absorbs UV radiation.
• It is the cycle through which Ozone is formed from molecular oxygen by
absorbing the UV radiation and Ozone gets converted back into molecular oxygen by
absorbing UV radiation again.
• An Oxygen molecule splits into two atoms of oxygens when exposed to UV
rays.
• O2 Molecule reacts with the Atomic oxygen and forms O3(Ozone).
• When UV rays fall on an O3 molecule it splits into O2 and atomic
oxygen.
• In both states, it absorbs UV radiation and that is how it protects us
from the UV rays.
• Uses of Ozone:
• It absorbs UV radiation in Stratosphere.
• It protects oxygen in the Troposphere.
OZONE DEPLETION: (03:30:00 PM)
• Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone
layer in the upper atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds
containing gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries or other human activities.
• Some compounds release chlorine or bromine when they are exposed to
intense UV light in the stratosphere.
• These compounds contribute to ozone depletion and are called ozone-
depleting substances (ODS).
• These include:
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), Carbon
Tetrachloride(CCL4), Methyl Chloroform, Nitric Oxide(NO), Methyl Bromide, etc.
• They were used in refrigerators, propellents, fire extinguishers, dry
cleaning agents, etc.
• They are Non-Corrosive, Non-inflammable, Low toxicity, chemically
stable, long lifetime, and non-oxidized(Can't be removed from the atmosphere
easily).
• These compounds relieve a Chlorine atom in Strotosphre and this is
highly reactive and interferes in the Ozone cycle and thus leads to the depletion
of O3.
• O3+ Cl = O2 + ClO
• ClO + O = Cl + O2.
• Net reaction -> O + O2 -> 2O2.
• This causes a decrease in the amount of O3 and an increase in the
amount of O2.
• Each Cl/Bromine atom converts thousands of Ozone molecules into Oxygen
and causes ozone depletion.
• Impacts of Ozone Depletion:
• On Humans: Damage DNA, genetic mutation, Skin disease, Reduced
immunity, etc.
• On Plants & Ecosystems: May harm crop productivity, plant metabolism,
reproductive capacities, bio-geo-chemical cycles, etc.
• Air Quality: Chemical reactivity of gases increases, and Concentration
changes in gases like O3, H2O2, etc.
• Changes the lifetime of GHGs like Methane, etc.
OZONE DEPLETION OVER ANTARCTICA: (03:50:00 PM)
• The conditions favoring large-scale Ozone depletion over Antarctica:
• a. Antarctica is a huge land mass.
• b. Very low temperatures during winter.
• c. Formation of Polar Startotoshreic Clouds(PSCs) in the polar regions
at low altitudes.
• d. PSCs are formed to a greater extent at colder temperatures.
• The Ice particles of PSCs provide a substrate for chemical reactions
and release ozone-depleting agents causing large-scale ozone Depletion.
• e. Very cold temperatures during winter result in the formation of a
polar vortex, which is a ring of rapidly circulating air confining Ozone Depletion
to Antarctica only.
• Timeline of events:
• June- Very low temperature and a strong Vortex is formed.
• July-August- Free Chlorine, Bromine, and Nitric Oxide are trapped in
PSCs.
• September- Spring begins.
• First sunlight reaches Antarctica, PSC clouds disappear, and catalytic
Chorine and Bromine are released on a large scale destroying Ozone.
• October- lowest levels of Ozone over Antarctica.
• November- The vortex breaks and fresh Ozone comes in reducing the ozone
Hole.
• Why not the Arctic?
• a. Temperature is not as low as in Antarctica.
• b. Not much large continental area.
• c. PSCs are not formed usually.
• d. The vortex is not strong, therefore Ozone levels in winters over the
Arctic are much higher than in Antarctica.
TOPICS FOR THE NEXT CLASS: Environmental Conservation.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION- 1:17 PM

• Timeline-
• 1864- The Imperial Forest Department was established by Dietrich
Brandis (father of tropical forest).
• 1865- Indian Forest Act
• 1867- Imperial Forest Service
• 1906- Forest Research Institute
• 1927- Indian Forest Act
• 1935- Forestry to transferred to the provincial list
• 1966- The Indian Forest Service was constituted in 1966
• 1972- Wildlife Protection Act (WPA)
• 1973- Project Tiger
• 1974- Water (Prevention and Control Act)
• 1976- 42nd CAA (forestry and wildlife protection moved to the
concurrent list)
• 1980- Forest Conservation Act
• 1981- Air Act (Prevention and Control)
• 1986- Environmental Protection Act
• 1988- National Forest Policy
• 2002- Biodiversity Act
• 2006- Forests Rights Act
• 2010- National Green Tribunal
• 2016- CAMPA Act
LEGISLATIONS- 1:56 PM
• Constitutional provisions-
• Part IV (Article 48A- Directive Principles of State Policies)
 • Part IV (Article 51A- Fundamental duties)
• Indian Forest Act, 1865-
• It provides for the protection of trees and forest fires.
• It prohibited cultivation and grazing in forest areas.
• It introduced the concept of reserved and protected forest
• Indian Forest Act 1927-
• It defines a forest as an area occupied by the government for the
conservation & management of biological and ecological resources.
Types of forests-
• 1. Private forests - These are the forests that are not occupied by the
government but they can regulate timber cutting and cultivation.
• 2. Public forest- These are the forest land owned by the government.
• a. Reserved forests- They enjoy the highest degree of protection, once
declared the rights inside this forest are totally extinguished.
• b. Protected forests- The ownership is with the government but is less
protected as compared to reserved forests.
• It allows for some degree of human activity in a regulated manner - for
example controlled grazing, firewood collection etc.
• Not all rights are extinguished in protected forests.
• 3. Village forest- These are the forests that the state government may
assign to the local village community including the rights over such forests.
• The government is empowered to regulate the activities inside any
forest and also punish any violations such as logging, firing, hunting, etc.
• The state government controls the movement of forest produce through
the system of transit permits.
WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT 1972- 2:52 PM
• Background-
• Wildbird Protection 1887
• Wild bird and animal protection 1912
• Authorities -
• Centre- National Board for Wildlife headed by PM.
• State- State Board for Wildlife headed by CM.
• It approves the constitution of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries
in India.
• At the centre level, there is a director and asst. director of wildlife
preservation.
• At the state level chief warden and warden are appointed by the state
government.
• NTCA- National tiger conservation authority.
• Established as an executive authority along with Project Tiger.
• It was given statutory status in 2005
• It is headed by the environment minister.
• It controls poaching, hunting, etc.
• Central Zoo Authority- provides recognition to zoos in India.
• Provides technical guidance to zoos in India.
Schedules-
• The Act prohibits hunting of any wild animals that are listed in these
schedules.
• There are four schedules-
• Schedule I- The animals are given the highest protection, it includes
all the major endangered and critically endangered species.
• Schedule II- Lesser protection includes other wildlife species.
• Schedule III- Protected plant species whose cultivation, possession,
and transportation are banned example Pitcher plant, ladies slipper, etc.
• Schedule IV- It is the list of animals that are included in the
appendices of CITES.
• The earlier provision of Vermin is now removed and the central
government shall declare through notification any wild animal as Vermin for a
specified area and period.
 • Exemptions from punishments-
• 1. Killing in case of self-defense - In any such case the wild animal
is the property of the government alive or dead.
• 2. Animals that have become dangerous to human life.
• 3. Animals that are disabled or deceased beyond recovery.
PROTECTED AREAS AS PER ACT- 3:27 PM
• National parks and wildlife sanctuary -
• 
• Conservation reserve- The government may declare any area adjoining a
national park or wildlife sanctuary as a conservation reserve if the land is owned
by the government.
• Community reserve- The land is held privately or by the community and
is used for the conservation of wildlife.
• No change in land use pattern is allowed in conservation and community
reserves.
• Amendments under WPA-
• The number of schedules was reduced from 6 to 4.
• Provision for CITES implementation was added.
• The schedule V for Vermin was removed.
• More authorities were established-
• Management authority- Issues permits and certificates for the trade of
scheduled specimens of wildlife.
• Any person possessing live specimens of scheduled animals shall obtain
registration certification from the management authority.
• The central government is empowered to regulate or prohibit the import,
trade, or proliferation of invasive alien species.
• Relax certain restrictions- filmmaking in a wildlife sanctuary, grazing
or movement of livestock by local communities in a sanctuary are relaxed.
• Captive Elephants- The transfer and transport of live elephants are
allowed in accordance with the conditions prescribed by the central government.
• 1974 Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act-
• It allows the formation of statutory bodies CPCB and SPCB to control
water pollution in India.
• CPCB- Advises the government
• SPCB- Implements the law, and prescribes the standards of discharge.
• It can inspect any of the establishments and can also impose penalties.
• 1981- Air Act-
• It expanded the authority of CPCB and SPCB to control air pollution.
WILDLIFE- 4:03 PM
• Snow leopard-
• One of the five big cats
• UNCN- Vulnerable
• Habitat- High elevated area, snow area.
• India, Bhutan, Nepal, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and four central
Asian countries, Russia, and Mongolia.
• Ladakh, J&K, HP, UK, Sikkim, Arunanchal.
• 
• Characteristics- Usually it is found above 3000 meters, and lives in
very difficult terrain.
• The ecosystem is highly vulnerable.
• It is the top predator of the Himalayan ecosystem.
• It has a very heavy and thick tail.
• They are called ghosts of mountains.
• Threats- hunting, poaching for bones, man-animal conflicts,
• Project snow-leopard- Centrally sponsored scheme.
• Global Snowleopard Ecosystem Program- It is an inter-government
program
• Leopard- It is the only big cat species found in all the ecosystems,
Vulnerable status.
 • Among all the big cats they are the highest in number, they have an
exceptionally large range, they are also known for living in urban areas, and they
climb trees.
• 
• Black Panther is also species of leopard.
• It is very rare, Ghost of Kabini.
The topic for the next class- Continuation of Environmental conservation
legislation

FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980- 1:16 PM

• Forest Conservation Act, 1980-
• It aims to prevent and regulate the diversion of forest land for non-
forestry purposes.
• Prior approval of the central government is essential for converting
forests into non-forest land.
• The government may constitute an advisory committee for approval.
• The project developer shall provide for compensatory afforestation in
non-forest land equal to the area of forest land being diverted and double in case
of degraded land.
• The project developer shall also pay the net present value of the
diverted forest for fifty years.
• The project developer shall also compensate for other project-specific
transfers.
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) Act,
2016:
• The funds received for compensatory afforestation, net present value,
and other project-specific transfers under the Forest Conservation Act of 1980
shall be divided into two funds which are established under this Act.
• 1. National compensatory afforestation fund
• 2. State compensatory afforestation fund
• The funds shall be divided into 10:90 i.e national: state.
• These funds are created under a public account.
• It also provides for the establishment of national compensatory
affectation fund management and planning authority and state forest afforestation
fund management and planning authority.
The funds can be used for the following activities-
• 1. Compensatory affrestation
• 2. Forest regeneration
• 3. Wildlife protection
• 4. Infrastructure development inside the forest
GODAVARMAN CASE 1995- 1:47 PM
• The SC defined forest as per the dictionary definition of forest
irrespective of ownership.
• All such forests are subjected to the Forest Conservation Act, which
also stopped tree felling and non-forest activities inside forests across India.
• The state government shall constitute an expert committee to identify
and demarcate the forests.
Forest Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2023-
• The act has been given a new name 'Van Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan
Adhiniyam, Forest (Conservation and Augmentation) Act, 1980.
• Coverage - The land covered under the provisions of this land include -
• The land was declared under the Indian Forest Act.
• The land is recorded in the government record as forest.
Exempted categories-
• 1. Forest land up to 0.1 hectares along the railway line or public
road.
• 2. Within 100 km of the international border or LAC or LOC.
• 3. Any kind of security-related infrastructure up to 10 hectares of
forests.
• 4. Defence-related projects up to 5 hectares in left-wing affected
areas.
• 5. Addition of activities into forestry activities- zoos, safaris,
etc.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT (EPA) 1986- 2:18 PM
• It is an umbrella act designed to provide a framework for central
government and coordination of activities of various authorities.
• The environment is defined to include water, air, and land and the
inter-relationships that exist among themselves and human beings and other living
creatures and property.
• Environment pollution is the presence of pollutants defined as any
solid, liquid, or gaseous substances present in such concentration that may be
injurious to the environment.
• Hazardous substances are those which may cause harm to human beings or
other living creatures.
• "It empowers the central government to take all such measures as it
deems necessary" including imposition of penalties and punishments.
BIODIVERSITY ACT, 2002- 2:51 PM
• It aims to protect India's rich biodiversity and associated knowledge
and check bio-piracy.
• It provides for setting up -
• 1. The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
• 2. State biodiversity boards (SBB)
• 3. Biodiversity management committee (BMC) at local levels
• NBA and SBB are required to consult BMC in all decisions with respect
to biological resources.
• Indian citizens and entities have free access to biological resources
within the country.
• Shall share the benefits with the local community.
• All foreign nationals and entities require prior approval from the NBA
to obtain biological resources from India.
Biodiversity (Amendment) Act, 2023-
• Foreign nationals and entities can now get approval from the NBA before
the actual Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and not before the application.
• Registered Ayush practitioners are exempted from giving prior
intimation to SBB for accessing biological resources for commercial utilization.
• It exempts the users of codified traditional knowledge from sharing the
benefits with local communities.
• It decriminalized the offenses and increased the punishment for the
violation.
FOREST RIGHTS ACT 2006- 3:13 PM
• Scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of
forest rights 2006).
• It recognizes the forest rights of families primarily residing in
forests and depending on forests for livelihood.
• The family must have been residing in the forest for the last 75 years.
It recognizes the following rights-
• 1. Right to live in the forests
• 2. Title rights of ownership of lands i.e being used for self-
cultivation up to a maximum of four hectares without the right to transfer.
• 3. Usage rights on minor forest produce, grazing, etc.
• 4. Community rights to protect and conserve forest resources for
sustainable use.
The process of recognition of rights-
• 1. Gram sabha will pass a resolution recommending eligible rights
holders.
• 2. This resolution is screened and approved at the sub-division at the
district level.
 • 3. The Forest Rights Act also defines critical wildlife habitat as
areas of national parks and sanctuaries where it has been established on the basis
of scientific criteria that such areas are required to be kept as inviolate (free
from human interference) for the purpose of wildlife conservation.
NGT Act 2010-
• It was established for effective and expeditious disposal of cases
related to the environment.
• The NGT has the power to enforce any legal right related to the
environment and provide relief and compensation.
• The tribunal is not bound by the procedure under CrPC and is guided by
the principle of natural justice.
• There is no need for an advocate.
• These cases shall be disposed of within six months.
• NGT deals with all environmental legislations except the Indian Forest
Act of 1927, WPA 1972, and FRA 2006.
NATIONAL FOREST POLICY 1988- 3:43 PM
• It aims to conserve the natural heritage, biodiversity, and genetic
resources of India.
• It aims to achieve a forest coverage of 33% at the national level and
66% in hills.
• It aims to achieve a symbiotic relationship between the forest
department and the tribal community.
• It aims to achieve a massive afforestation program across India.
• It discourages shifting cultivation.
Rules under EPA, 1986-
• Coastal Regulation Rules (CRZ):
• Zone I (A)- Ecosensitive area
• Zone I (B)- Inter-tidal zone
• Zone II- Developed area in CRZ
• Zone III (A)- rural area with higher population density
• Zone III (B)- rural area with lower population density
• Zone IV (A)- 12 nautical miles from (Low Tide Line) LTL
• Zone IV (B)- Tidal-influenced body
• Temporarily tourist activities are allowed on beaches
• CRZ clearance I and IV will be granted by the central government
• CRZ clearance for II and III will be granted by the state government
• Defense and strategic purpose projects are exempted from these rules.
Wetland and conservation and management rules, 2017-
• 1. It establishes the national wetland authority as the apex body which
can advise and monitor wetland management in India.
• 2. It also establishes state wetland authority in every state and UT
headed by the respective minister of environment.
Functions of state wetland authority-
• To prepare a list of all wetlands for regulations except river
channels, paddy fields, water bodies for aquaculture, and the water bodies falling
under the Indian Forest Act, Forest Conservation Act, and Wildlife Protection Act
we will as under CRZ.
• It prohibits certain activities in wetlands- setting up industries,
expansion of existing industry, dumping of solid waste and untreated industrial
waste
The topic for the next class- Waste management rules, International initiatives

THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:14 PM)
WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974 (05:20 PM)
• It establishes CPCB and SPCB as statutorybodies to control the water
bodies.
• CPCB advises the government and coordinates the action at the national
level.
 • SPCB is the body responsible for laying down effluent standards, laying
down penalties through inspection and overall prevention and control of water
pollution.
• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in
1977 to provide for levy and collection of Cess on water consumption by certain
industries.
AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981 (05:31 PM)
• It expands the authority of CPCB and SPCBto include Air pollution
control.
• SPCBs prescribe the emission standards as well as issue consent for
industries.
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980 (05:33 PM)
• It aims to prevent and regulate the diversion of forest land for non-
forestry purposes.
• Prior approval of the Central Government is essential for converting
forests to non-forestry purposes in India.
• The Government may constitute an advisory or expert committee to grant
approval, and the project developer shall provide for Compensatory Afforestation in
Non-forest land equal to the area of forest land being diverted or double in case
of degraded land.
• The Project developer shall pay the Net Present Value (NPV) of diverted
forests for 50 years.
• CAMFA Act, 2016:
• It provided for the creation of the National Compensatory Afforestation
Fund and State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the public account.
• 90% for the State fund and 10% for the National fund.
• Management and Planning authorities were established at the National
and state level.
• The fund collected for Compensatory afforestation, Net Present Value
and other project-specific transfers is collected in these funds.
• It also prescribes the list of activities for which funds can be
utilized like Afforestation, regeneration, wildlife protection and infrastructure
development.
• Some Challenges in CAMFA Act:
• Considering forest as a commodity.
• Low quality of forest cover and maintenance is not proper
• Computing the appropriate net present value of a forest is a challenge.
• TN Godhavarman Vs Union of India case:
• The Supreme Court stopped tree felling and non-forestry activities
inside forests across India.
• It defined forests as per the dictionary definition of forests
irrespective of the ownership.
• All forests in India are subjected to the 'Forest Conservation Act of
1980'
• The State government shall constitute an Expert Committee to identify
and demarcate forests.
• Forest Conservation Amendment Act, 2023:
• The forests are defined as 'Any land declared as a Forest under the
Indian Forest Act and any land recorded as forest in government records'
• It exempts a large area of non-recorded forests.
• Exemptions in certain areas like:
• Forests land up to 0.1 Hectare along the railway line or road.
• Forest land within 100 Km of International borders.
• For Construction of security-related infrastructure, forest land up to
10 hectares.
• Forest land up to 5 hectares in Left-wing extremism affected areas for
defence purposes or public utility projects.
• Addition of many activities as forestry activities such as the
establishment of zoos and safaris, ecotourism facilities and silviculture
operations.
ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986 (06:23 PM)
• It is an Umbrella legislation designed to provide a framework for the
Central Government regarding the protection of the Environment.
• It defines Environment to include water, air and land and their
interrelationships among human beings and other living creatures and property.
• It defines environmental pollution as the presence of pollutants which
is any substance present in such a concentration as may be injurious to the
environment.
• It defines hazardous substances as any substance which may cause harm
to human beings or other living creatures or property.
• It empowers the centre to take all such measures as it deems necessary,
including programmes, restrictions, prohibitions, penalties and punishments.
BIODIVERSITY ACT (06:33 PM)
• It aims to protect India's rich biodiversity and associated knowledge
and check 'Biopiracy'
• It provides for setting up:
• a) National Biodiversity Authority. (NBA)
• b) State Biodiversity Boards. (SBB)
• c) Biodiversity Management Committees at the local level.
• NBA and SBB are required to consult in decisions regarding biological
resources.
• All foreign nationals and MNCs require prior approval of the NBA for
trading biological resources from India.
• Indian nationals and companies are required to intimate SBB for
accessing biological resources.
• Biodiversity Amendment Act, 2023:
• Registered Ayush practitioners are exempted from giving permissions to
SBB.
• Codified traditional knowledge practitioners are exempted from sharing
benefits with local communities.
• The approval for IPR by the NBA will be required before the grant of
IPR and not before the application.
THE SCHEDULED TRIBES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL FOREST DWELLERS (RECOGNITION OF FOREST
RIGHTS) ACT, 2006 (06:51 PM)
• Eligibility:
• The Families who primarily reside in forests and depend on forests for
livelihood.
• They must be residing in forests for a minimum of 75 years.
• Rights given under this act:
• Right to live under the forests.
• If at all they are using any of the land for cultivation, they will be
given land rights as well up to 4 hectares.
• Right to hold forest land for self-cultivation up to a maximum of 4
hectares.
• The title rights are granted only for the land that is actually being
cultivated.
• The land is non-transferable.
• The usage right on minor forest produce.
• Some community rights to protect or conserve forest resources for
sustainable use.
• Process:
• a) The gram sabha shall pass a resolution recommending the eligible
rights holders.
• b) The resolution is approved at sub-divisional and district levels
with the help of the screening committee.
• The Forest Rights Act defines critical habitat as areas of national
parks and sanctuaries where it has been established on the basis of scientific
criteria that such areas are required to be kept free from human interference for
the purpose of wildlife conservation.
NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL ACT, 2010 (07:10 PM)
• It was established for effective and expeditious cases related to the
environment.
• NGT has the right to enforce legal rights and provide relief and
compensation as per the act.
• It is not bound by the procedure under Civil Procedure Code and it is
guided by the 'Principles of Natural justice'
• No need for an advocate.
• Cases shall be disposed of within six months.
• It deals with all environmental legislations except the Indian Forest
Act of 1927, the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, and the Forest Rights Act of
2006.
NATIONAL FOREST POLICY 1988 (07:39 PM)
• Objective:
• Conservation of natural heritage, biodiversity and genetic resources.
• It aims to achieve a total of 33% forest cover at the national level
and 66% in hilly regions.
• Participation of people in protecting forests through joint forest
management.
WILDLIFE: CHEETAH (07:44 PM)
• 
• Two Species of Cheetah:
• a) Asiatic Cheetah (IUCN Status: Critically Endangered)
• b) African Cheetah (IUCN Status: Vulnerable)
• It can run at speeds up to 100km/hr.
• Cheetah is a keystone species of the Grasslands.
• Cheetah does not roar.
• Difference between Asian and African Cheetahs:
• Asiatic Cheetah • African Cheetah
• Asiatic Cheetah is Slimmer • Slightly heavier.
• Faster as well as stronger. • They have slightly low speed compared to
Asian Cheetah
• Pale White in colour • Yellowish in Colour
• • The Most characteristic feature of cheetahs is two black
lines near the eyes.
• Those black tear marks, also called 'malar stripes' that run down from
their eyes down the sides of their face, attract the sun away from the eyes.
• The same strategy is used by football players who put black smudges
under their eyes.
• Reasons for the Extinction of Cheetahs in India:
• Human-wildlife conflict.
• Poaching and hunting.
• Bounty killing.
• Competition with Lions and hyenas.
• Modern tourism and Safari activities
• The last cheetah was spotted in 1947 and in 1952 Cheetah was declared
extinct in India.
• Cheetah Reintroduction Project:
• It was in the 1970s and 2009 that efforts were made to bring cheetahs
to India.
• Recently they were reintroduced in Kuno National Park, MP.
WILDLIFE: LEOPARD (08:08 PM)
• Leopard is observed in diverse wildlife from deserts, plains,
mountains, etc.
• IUCN Status: Vulnerable.
• Leopards are skilled climbers and are known to haul their kills into
trees to keep them away from scavengers and other predators like lions and hyenas.

 • Their fur is typically golden-yellow with distinctive dark spots and
rosettes. The coat colour may vary depending on the leopard's habitat, ranging from
pale yellow to deep gold.
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES.

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS: (1:20 PM):

• CITES: Convention on International trade in Endangered Species of wild
flora and Fauna:
• It aims to ensure that the International Trade of wildlife does not
threaten their survival.
• CITES is administered by UNEP, 184 members.
• HQ- Geneva.
• 3 Appendix:
• Appendix 1- Threatened species, restricted trade which is generally
prohibited.
• Appendix 2- not necessarily threatened with extinction but if
unregulated trade, may become so, need to regulate trade.
• Appendix 3- Species subjected to regulation in 1 country and
Cooperation from other countries as well.
• Legally binding but doesn't take the place of domestic laws.
• The last COP was held in 2022.
• COP 19 of CMS was held in Panama City.
• 1979: Convention on Migratory Species:
• Conservation and management of terrestrial, aquatic, and avian
migratory species.
• 131 members including India.
• 2 appendix:
• Appendix 1:
• Appendix 2:
• The l13th COP of CMS happened in Gandhinagar in 2020.
• The last COP was held in Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
• 1982: Nairobi Conference:
• The tenth anniversary of the Stockholm conference.
• It resulted in the Nairobi Declaration.
• 1985: Vienna Convention:
• Protection of the Ozone Layer.
• Entered into force in 1988.
• 197 countries have signed and ratified the convention.
• This has seen universal ratification
• To promote cooperation, research, and information exchange to protect
the ozone layer.
• To adopt measures against ozone depletion activities.
• 1987- Montreal Protocol:
• Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone layer.
• This has also seen universal ratification.
• Reasons behind its success:
• Implements legally binding control.
• Targets are given for both developed and developing countries.
• Accepts the principle of CBDR.
• Targets were implemented in a gradual and phased manner.
• Initial year- 50% target of CFC.
• Also provided funding mechanisms to assist developing countries through
the establishment of a multilateral fund for the implementation of the Montreal
Protocol.
• Most of the ozone-depleting substances are phased out except for
critical uses like:
• Metered doses inhalers for asthma and COPD.
• Fire suppression system in submarines and aircraft.
 • CFCs were replaced with HCFCs and with HFCs.
• HFC is not an ODS, but it is a greenhouse gas.
• To reduce HFCs through the Montreal protocol Kigali agreement was
agreed upon in 2016.
• To substitute HFC with other alternatives since HFC was a GHG.
• According to it, HFC should be phased by 85 percent by developed
countries from 2019 and by developing countries from 2024 and 2028.
• An alternative to HFCs is HFO: Hydrofluoroolefins.
POLLUTION AND WASTE-RELATED EFFORTS: (2:10 PM):
• 1989: BASEL Convention on Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste:
• To reduce the movement of hazardous waste between nations especially
from developed to developing countries.
• It aims to assist LDC in environmentally sound management of these
wastes.
• It provides for prior consent to approve and procedures to regulate the
transboundary movement of hazardous waste.
• It does not cover radioactive waste.
• HQ- Geneva.
• Basel Ban prohibits the members from exporting hazardous waste.
• 1998: Rotterdam Convention
• It targets hazardous chemicals.
• It aims to promote shared responsibility in the International trade of
certain hazardous chemicals.
• It facilitates information exchange for import and export through Prior
Informed Consent.
• Covers those pesticides and chemicals that are banned or severely
restricted.
• 2001: Stockholm Convention:
• It is a convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.
• POPs are resistant to environmental degradation.
• They accumulate and biomagnify in the ecosystem.
• The members agree to eliminate the listed POPs under the convention.
• It listed 12 POPs initially which were known as Dirty Dozen.
• Regularly through amendments, the number of POPs under the Stockholm
Convention has been increased.
• Examples: Endrin, DDT, etc.
• 2013: Minamata Convention:
• It is a convention to protect human health and the environment from
mercury pollution.
• It aims to reduce mercury pollution from selected activities.
CONVENTIONS RELATED TO CLIMATE CHANGE: (2:27 PM):
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):
• IPCC was established as a scientific body in 1988.
• UNEP and WMO established it.
• It is a research body to provide scientific information to develop
climatic policies.
• 2007- IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
• It releases three types of reports:
• 1. The First Assessment Report (AR1) was released in 1990.
• AR5 was released in 2014.
• The sixth assessment report (AR6) is the latest one (2021).
• Other reports include Special Reports like Climate Change and Land and
Methodology Reports.
UNFCCC: (3:00 PM):
• Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:
• Annex 1 includes industrialized and developed countries or OECDs and
economies in transition (EIT).
• Annex 2 Countries: These are members of the OECD.
• Non-Annex 1: These are not listed in Annex 1 and are low-income
developing countries, including LDCs and developing countries.
• LDCs: Least Developed Countries.
• Important COPs:
• COP1 was held in Berlin in 1995.
• COP 3 was held in Kyoto in 1997.
• Kyoto Protocol:
• It was agreed upon in 1997.
• It entered into force in 2005 and the target period was between 2008 to
2012.
• The second commitment period was from 2012 to 2020.
• It aims to reduce global warming through targeted emission reduction.
• It targeted to reduce the emission of six greenhouse gases: CO2, CH4,
N2O, HFC, PFC, and SF6.
• Incorporated the principle of CBDR.
• Annex 1 countries were given specific targets and deadlines.
• For Non-Annex-1 and LDCs there were no fixed targets.
• Mechanisms under Kyoto Protocol:
• Joint Implementation:
• Through this, an Annex 1 country can invest in emission reduction
projects in another Annex 1 country.
• Clean Development Mechanism:
• When Annex 1 countries can implement emission reduction projects in
non-annex 1 countries and meet their targets.
• Carbon Credit and Emission Trading:
• It allows the parties to buy Kyoto Units which are carbon credits from
other countries to meet their domestic reduction targets.
• REDD:
• It stands for Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation.
• COP 7 in Marrakesh in 2001.
• Marrakesh resulted in the formation of the Adaptation Fund to support
developing countries.
• COP 8 in Delhi in 2002:
• Delhi Ministerial Declaration called the developed countries to
transfer technologies and minimize the impact of climate change.
• COP 15 in Copenhagen in 2009:
• It resulted in a rift between developed and developing countries and
showed the reluctance of Annex 1 countries to fulfill targets under Kyoto.
• COP 16 in Cancun in 2010:
• It was agreed on a Green Fund for climate change to help developing
countries by developed countries.
• It was agreed that $100 billion per year be mobilized by 2020.
• COP 17 in Durban in 2011:
• Agreed to start the negotiations for a new treaty after Kyoto.
• The fund agreed upon at Cancun was established as the Green Climate
Fund.
• COP 18 in Doha in 2012:
• Kyoto Protocol was amended and a second commitment period was agreed
upon between 2012 to 2020- the Doha Amendment.
• COP 21 in Paris in 2015: (3:40 PM):
• It resulted in the Paris Agreement.
• It commits to limiting global warming to below 1.5 degrees Celsius or
to a maximum of 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.
• Countries were expected to commit voluntarily to emission reductions
through Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs).
• It is not a treaty and INDCs are not binding.
• It is legally binding for the members to participate in the Global
Stocktake Mechanism through which the targets under NDCs were assessed together.
• The agreement is guided by the principles of CBDR.
 • COP 24 in Katowice in 2018:
• First CMA to Paris Agreement.
• It was agreed to record the pledges in the public registry.
• The future pledges should cover a common time frame from 2031.
• COP 25 Madrid in 2019:
• No major outcomes.
• COP 26 in Glasgow in 2021:
• Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda was finalized to accelerate the development
and deployment of clean technologies.
• The first-ever decision to phase down coal.
• Net-Zero targets were announced in Glasgow.
• Most of the countries announced the net zero targets by 2050 including
China-2060 and India (2070).
• COP 27 in Sharm El-Sheikh-- Current Affairs.
• Agreed to establish Loss and Damage fund.
• Revisit and strengthen the NDCs by the end of 2023 to align with Paris
agreements
• COP 28 - Dubai-2023.
WILDLIFE:
• Snow Leopard:
• Vulnerable.
• High mountain areas.
• Called Ghosts of the Mountains.
• J and K, HP, UK and SIkkim.
• 12 countries in the world have snow leopards.
• Usually lives above 3000 meters, and lives in fragmented terrains.
• Threat- Ibex is less, Man-Animal conflict, hunting, etc.
• heaviest Tail.
• Project Snow Leopard- Centrally sponsored Scheme.
• Save Our Snow Leopard, GSLEP, etc
• Bishkek Declaration.
• Leopard:
• It is one of the most widespread of all big cats.
• It has a Vulnerable status.
• Has a very wide range of habitats and can live in varying conditions.
• It is generally the apex carnivorous.
• It is also known as a panther. Black Panthers are also leopards with a
genetic defect that makes them black.
• A black panther in the Kabini forest reserve in Karnataka.
The topic for the next class is UNCCD and CBD.

BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:16 PM)

• International conventions
• CITES
• Vienna Convention
• Montreal protocol
• Pollution
• Basel Convention
• Rotterdam Convention
• Stockholm Convention
• UNFCCC
• Kyoto Protocol
• Clean development mechanism
• Joint Implementation
INDIA NATIONALLY DETERMINED COMMITMENTS (05:30 PM)
• Qualitative Targets
• Healthy and sustainable ways of living based on traditions and values
and conservation and moderation.
• For this government has introduced the LiFE mission.
• Mission LiFE stands for LiFEStyle For Environment.
• The objective of Mission LiFE is to promote and encourage a sustainable
and environmentally conscious way of living.
• Quantitative targets
• To reduce the emission intensity by 45 % by 2030 from the 2005 level.
• To produce one unit of GDP.
• Cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based
energy resources is to be 50 % by 2030 and the current is 43.8 %.
• Create an additional carbon sink through additional forest and tree
cover. by 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030.
UN CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 1992 (05:38 PM)
• An international legally binding multilateral treaty opened for
signature in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit.
• Objective
• Conservation of biological diversity.
• Sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
• Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the
utilization of genetics.
• Head Quarter - Montreal, Canada
• 196 parties.
• COP (Conference of Parties) - It is the governing body, and its meeting
happens once in two years.
• The United Nations Environment Programme implements the CBD convention.
• Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 2000 (05:44 PM)
• It aims to ensure the safe handling transport and usage of living-
modified organisms (LMO) resulting from modern biotechnology that may adversely
impact biodiversity.
• It establishes an Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA) procedure for
ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make
informed decisions.
• It establishes a bio-safety clearing house to facilitate the exchange
of information.
• Nagoya protocol -COP 10 -2010
• Fair and equitable sharing of benefits with local communities.
• It aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources in a fair and equitable manner.
• Aichi targets 2010
• It includes 20 biodiversity targets to be achieved by 2020 in the form
of a strategic plan to be implemented by members of the CBD.
• 2012 Hyderabad
• 2018 Sharm el Sheikh
• 2020 Kunming China (10 years of CBD)
• 2021 - Virtual COP
• 2022 - Montreal
• Montreal meet happened under the chairmanship of China.
• Key outcomes of Montreal meet :
• Resulted in the Kunming Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
• The target period is 2020 -30 to address biodiversity loss to reach the
ecosystem and protect indigenous rights.
• It includes 4 goals to be achieved by 2050 and 23 targets achieved by
2030.
• Goal A
• Halting human-induced extinction of threatened species.
• Goal B
• Sustainable use and management of biodiversity.
• Goal C
• fair sharing of the benefits
 • Goal D
• Ensuring adequate means of implementing the GBF.
• Effective conservation and management of at least 30 % of land and 30 %
of ocean by 2030.
• Reduce the rate of establishment of invasive species by 50 5 by 2030.
• Increase the area and quality of green and blue spaces in urban areas.
• To reduce food waste by half by 2030.
• For effective implementation of this framework, a dedicated GBF fund
was established by the Global Environment Facility GEF.(established in 2023, World
Bank will see it ).
• UNCCD (THE UN CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION) 1992 (06:13 PM)
• It is the major outcome of the Rio Earth Summit.
• Established in 1994.
• 197 members.
• It is solely a legally binding convention linking development and
environment to sustainable land management.
• It aims to protect and restore land and ensure a safer, Just, and more
sustainable future.
• It provides the concept of LDN land degradation neutrality as a target
to be achieved by 2030.
• COP 14 - 2019, New Delhi
• India set a target of restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land by
2030.
• Delhi declaration on a range of issues related to desertification.
• COP 15 2022 Abidjan , Cote de Ivoire /Ivory coast
• Agreed and committed to restoring one billion hectares of degraded land
by 2030.
• Abidjan declaration on achieving gender equality for successful land
restoration.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (06:25 PM)
• Bruntland Commission defined Sustainable Development as the development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
• Why Sustainable development
• To ensure intergenerational equity.
• To ensure intergenerational equity.
• To reduce pollution.
• To reduce the impact of global warming and climate change.
• To reduce the loss of biodiversity.
• To reduce the ecological footprint.
• To live within the carrying capacity of the earth.
• 3 pillars of Sustainable development
• Economic Sustainability -
• Decisions are made in the most equitable and fiscally sound way
possible while considering the other aspects of sustainability.
• Social sustainability
• Providing enabling conditions for everyone to have the capacity to
realize their needs.
• Environmental Sustainability
• Maintaining ecosystem integrity and carrying capacity of the natural
environment.
• Ecological Footprint (07:02 PM)
• The biologically productive land and sea area required to provide the
resources that populations consume and to observe the waste it generates is called
an ecological footprint.
• The unit of ecological footprint is Global hectare GHA.
• The ecological footprint of most industrial nations varies between 4 -
8,
• US- 8 Gha, Qatar-14 gha, Japan 4.7 gha
 • India 1.1 gha
• The world as a whole is 2.6 Gha.
• The global footprint network publishes an ecological footprint report
every year.
• It also produces Earth Overshoot Day which marks the date when
humanity's demand for ecological resources in a given year exceeds what Earth can
regenerate in that year.
• Earth overshoot day of 2022 was on 28 July. In 2023 2nd August.
• The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is the size of the population
that can be supported by the ecosystem indefinitely by its supporting systems.
• Initiatives for sustainable development (07:30 PM)
• Malthus theory 1798
• Populations are increasing in geometric progression and resources are
increasing in arithmetic progression.
• It proposes that if the population grows in geometric progression,
resources tend to grow in arithmetic progression.
• This results in the depletion of natural resources causing the collapse
of the population.
• Limits to Growth Theory by Club of Rome 1972
• It proposes that with no changes in historic growth trends, the limits
to growth on Earth would become evident through a rapid decline in population after
2050.
• In 1992, the Beyond the Limits reportsuggested that with the
incorporation of sustainability ecological and economic stability can be achieved.
• Stockholm Confernce 1992
• It is agreed that both development and the environment can be managed
in a mutually beneficial way.
• 1987 Brundland Commission
• The World Commission on environment and development.
• It was chaired by Gro Harlem Bruntland (PM of Norway)
• It resulted in a report on Our common future.
• This report defined sustainable development.
WILDLIFE (07:43 PM)
• Clouded leopard
• Vulnerable
• It leaves in dense forests, particularly tropical evergreen forests.
• Region -Northeast India south east Asia.
• Characteristics
• Named after the patches appearing like clouds.
• Very shy animal
• Difficult to site because of camouflage.
• Found in tree canopies.
• It's the capacity to hang from a tree and walk upside down.
• It has short legs, a very strong grip, wide paws, and a long and heavy
tail as long as its body.
• It has the longest canine among the cats.
• Great swimmer, Arboreal
• Fishing cat
• Vulnerable
• Habitat distribution - near water bodies and coastal regions.
• Mainly found in Sundarbans West Bengal, Odissa, foothills of Himalayas,
rarely sighted in western ghats.
• Characteristics
• The main food is fish.
• Swims and hunts.
• Nocturnal
• State animal of Tamilnadu.
• Caracal
• Found in dry, arid semi-arid regions.
 • Near Threatened
• South Asia, Central Asia and West Asia, and South Africa.
• Characteristics
• Hair around its hair
• Skillful hunter
• Asiatic Elephant
• 3 subspecies of elephants
• 1 Asiatic
• 2. Savannah/bush elephant
• 3. Forest elephant
• Asiatic elephant • Savannah/bush elephant • Forest Elephant
• Endangered • Endangered • Critically endangered
• • Tallest of all 3 • Shortest of all 3
• Ears are small. • The ears are big. • The ears are big.
• Tallest at its back. • Tallest at its shoulder. •
• Back is concave • The back is convex. • The back is convex.
• The tusk goes both downwards and upwards. • The tusk is very big and
outward extension.The tusk is pinkish in color. • The tusk goes downwards.
• Only male has tusks. therefore Male elephant is called a tusker. • Males
and females both have tusks. • Males and females both have tusks.
• • Asiatic Elephant
• Found in most of the environment.
• The function of the ear is cooling down.
• They follow a matriarchy headed by the eldest female group, the male
lives alone.
• Long-lived, Average age is 120 years.
• The longest gestation period is 22 months.
• Herbivores,Graminivores.
• Require regular supply of water and grass, long migration path if lack
of availability of water and grass.
• Very intelligent and sensitive.
• Karnataka has the highest population, Assam has the second population
and Kerla is third.
• Project Elephant
• Centrally sponsored scheme similar to project Tiger.
• It declares elephant reserves.
• 32 elephant reserves in India.
• MIKE (The Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants)2003.
• CITES monitors the MIKE.
• National heritage animal.
• Captive elephants are not included in the wildlife life protection
scheme.
TOPIC OF THE NEXT CLASS IS CONTINUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:
• * Refer to the table in the Handout (Environment - Units 5 & 6) for
detailed coverage of Sustainable development.
• Sustainable development- concept.
• Initiatives for Sustainable Development.
• Energy.
• Sustainable Agriculture and other concepts.
• 1992- Rio Earth Summit-
• Also known as the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCEP).
• UNFCCC.
• UNCBD.
• UNCCD.
• Rio Declaration.
• Agenda 21.
 • Forest principles.
• As a result of it UNCSD was established to monitor the implementation
of UNCED decisions.
• Rio Declaration- including a set of 27 principles, to guide the
countries in future sustainable development.
• Polluters pay principle (for example coal cess).
• Precautionary principle.
• Agenda-21- it outlines actions that governments, international
organizations, industries, and the community can take to achieve sustainability.
• Forest Principles- it includes the recommendations for conservation and
sustainable development of forestry.
• 2000- Millennium Summit (05:33 PM)
• It adopted the UN Millenium Declaration committing global partnerships
to reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-bound and quantified
targets with a deadline of 2015 which are known as Millenium Development Goals
(MDG).
• 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
• 2. Achieve universal primary education.
• 3. Promote gender equality and empower women.
• 4. Reduce child mortality.
• 5. Improve maternal health.
• 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases.
• 7. Ensure environmental sustainability.
• 8. Develop a global partnership for the development.
• Rio+ 10 Summit (at Johannesburg's ) 2002-
• It resulted in Johannesburg's declaration reaffirming its commitment
towards sustainable developments.
• Three pillars of development= (economic+ social+ environmental)
development.
• Rio+ 20 Summit (at Rio ) 2022-
• Green economy- for the first time discussed at the global level.
• Sustainable development goals agreed upon.
• The important themes of the summit- Green economy to eradicate poverty
and promote sustainability.
• To develop an institutional framework for sustainable development.
• It was decided to launch Sustainable development goals (SDGs).
• It resulted in the Rio+20 Declaration on sustainable development and
Green Economy.
• "The Future We Want" was the name of the Declaration.
• Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) (05:49 PM)
• They have a total of 17 goals with 169 targets.
• It aims to ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030.
• 17 Goals-
• 1. No Poverty.
• 2. Zero Hunger.
• 3. Good Health and Well-being.
• 4. Quality Education.
• 5. Gender Equality.
• 6. Clean Water and Sanitation.
• 7. Affordable and Clean Energy.
• 8. Decent Work and Economic Growth.
• 9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure.
• 10. Reduced Inequality.
• 11. Sustainable Cities and Communities.
• 12. Responsible Consumption and Production.
• 13. Climate Action.
• 14. Life Below Water.
• 15. Life on Land.
• 16. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions.
 • 17. Partnerships for the Goals.
• Difference between SDGs and MDGs (05:54 PM)
• SDGs • MDGs
• 17 Goals and 169 targets. • 8 Goals and 21 targets.
• Broader in coverage (broader consultation). • Narrow in coverage
(narrow consultation).
• Applicable to all countries. • Applicable mainly to developing and least
developed countries.
• More emphasis on social and environmental aspects. • More emphasis on
economic aspects.
• Involve the participation of civil society and NGOs. • No such role for
such civil society organization.

ENERGY (05:58 PM)

• * Refer to the table in the Handout (Environment - Units 5 & 6) for
detailed coverage of Sources of energy.
• Source of energy/ fuel- solar, wind, tidal, hydel/ hydropower.
• Solar-
• Production- from natural sunlight.
• Advantage- Environment-friendly Ample or unlimited availability.
• Limitations-
• Limited capacity for storage of sunlight.
• Cloud cover may limit usefulness.
• Collecting equipment is expensive.
• Biomass- Fuel wood, Biomass conversion, solid waste.
• Installed Generation Capacity as of 30.11.2023-
• Totalled installed capacity- 4,26,132 (51.2 %- Private sector, 24.8%-
state, 24%- central sector).
• Total fossil fuels- 56.1% (coal- 48.5%, gas- 1.6%, and diesel- 5.9%).
• 1st rank- coal- 48.5%.
• 2nd- Solar accounts for 17% of total energy.
• 3rd- Large Hydro- 11 %.
• 4th- Wind energy- 10.5 %.
• Total non-fossil fuel- 43.9%.
• Nuclear energy-1.8%.
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (06:23 PM)
• Sustainable agriculture- it is the method of agriculture involving the
balanced management of resources available on the farm to produce healthy food
without compromising the ability of future generations to do so.
• Sustainable agriculture practice aims to protect the environment,
public health, human communities, and animal welfare.
• Natural farming- it is an ecological farming approach developed by
Fukuoka, a Japanese farmer and philosopher.
• It is also referred to as do nothing for me.
• It is a closed system that demands no inputs and mimics nature.
• It minimizes human labor and adapts as closely as possible to the
natural production of food.
• It involves 5 principles- no tillage, no fertilizer, no pesticide, no
weeding, no pruning.
• Organic farming-
• An agriculture production system that avoids or excludes the use of
synthetically manufactured inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
• It relies upon organic methods such as crop rotation, bio-fertilizers,
green manure, and other methods.
• Advantages of organic farming-
• Reduces pollution (both air and water pollution).
• It reduces health hazards by reducing biomagnification.
• Ensures sustainable production levels.
• Reduces cost of the agriculture production.
 • Ensures optimum utilization of natural resources.
• Reduces soil erosion.
• Better quality food grains as well as crops.
• Reduces crop failure and ensures consistent income levels for farmers.
• Various components-
• Nutrient management.
• Organic manure- farm yard manure, mainly made of a decomposed mixture
of leaf litter, leftover fodder, dung, cow urine, etc.
• Vermicompost- produced from earth warms and other decomposing waste
material.
• Green manure- involves growing certain leguminous crops and plowing
into the soil as it is.
• For example green gram, or cowpea.
• Bio-fertilizers- are the living microorganisms of bacteria and fungi
that help in increasing the fertility of soil.
• For example Rhizobium, Azatobacter, Azospirillum- specifically
associated with crops like carrot, tommato, wheat, sunflowers etc.
• Phosporous Solubalizaing Bacteria (PSB)- helps in easy assimilation of
phosphorus.
• Mycorrhizal Fungi- improves the soil quality by increasing water
retention, aeration, and tolerance of heavy metals.
• Weed Management (07:19 PM)
• Manually removing or mulching, drip irrigation, etc.
• Insect and pest management- using beneficial pests, crop rotation, mix
cropping, organic pesticide (neem powder, buttermilk), Pongamia, etc.
• Limitations-
• Becomes expansive if not produced on the farms.
• Production level declines during the initial few years.
• The guidelines and awareness among farmers.
• Marketing is not streamlined.
• Certification-
• NPOP (National Program for Organic Production)- 2001 by Ministry of
Commerce and Industry.
• Third-party certifiers check that a farm is free of manufactured
chemicals and issue certification.
• It is expansive and requires annual renewal.
• It is recognized by European and American importers.
• PGS (Participatory Guarantee System)-
• Five or more farmers get trained in organic farming under a govt.
scheme.
• With the help of regional councils they get certified in the name of
the group and send the produce through the group.
• But it is not recognized by the USA and European Union.
• Jaivik Bharat-
• It is a voluntary logo issued by FSSAI to mark food items as organic.
• Zero Based Natural Farming (07:38 PM)
• It is a method of cultivation developed by Subhas Palaker.
• It reduces the cost of production to zero using all natural resources
available on the farm.
• Four componnets are-
• Jeevamrita- application of a liquid mixture made up of cow dung, cow
urine, and other local ingredients.
• Beejamrita- microbial seed coating to ensure faster regeneration of
seeds.
• Acchadana- to provide for mulching and covered crops.
• Whapasa- increasing soil erosion and humus content.
• Vertical farming-
• It is cultivating and producing plants in vertically stacked layers and
vertically inclined surfaces.
 • Methods of vertical farming-
• Aeroponics which involves no growing medium.
• Hydroponics involves growing crops in water using mineral nutrient
solutions without soil.
• Acquaponis, which integrates aquaculture with hydroponics.
• The nutrient-rich wastewater from fish tanks is used to support
hydroponic production.
• Some other methods-
• System of Rice Intensification.
• Direct seeding method of rice.
• Sustainable sugarcane initiative.
• Permaculture.
• Precision farming.
• Wildlife:
• Great One Horned Rhino (Indian Rhino)-
• White rhino- Near Threatened.
• Indian rhino- Vulnerable.
• 90% of India Rhino in India (90% in Assam, rest in UP, Bihar, and WB),
rest 10 % in Nepal+ Bhutan and Bangladesh.
• Kaziranga NP, Manas NP, Pobitora NP.
• It is a grass-eating, that lives near to aquatic marshy area- alluvial
grassland.
• Appears black in color.
• Horn made of keratin.
• IRV 2020 implemented by Assam Forest Department and WWF India.
• The target was to increase rhino population from 2000 (in the year
2003)to 3000 ( by the year 2020).
• Great Indian Bustard-
• Critically Endangered.
• Raj. parts of Gujarat and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Telangana.
• Dry grassland.
• Heaviest of all flying birds in the world.
• Endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
• Indicator species of grassland ecosystem.
• Poaching, hunting, etc
• Lesser Florican-
• Critically endangered.
• Dry grasslands.
• Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• Bengal Florican-
• Critically endangered.
• Alluvial grasslands with higher moisture.
• Sarus crane-
• Vulnerable.
• Entire Indo-Gangetic plane.
• Wetlands.
• Lives in pairs, known for a lifelong partnership.
• Tallest flying bird in the world.
• State bird of UP.
NEXT CLASS TOPICS- EIA and Environmental Ethics.

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL MEASURES: (1:15 PM):

• EPCA (Environment Pollution (Prevention & Control) Authority ) was
formed to control air pollution (Formed due to the intervention of the Supreme
court).
• CAQM (Commission for Air Quality Management) was formed as a statutory
body and replaced EPCA.
 • It sees the issues over Delhi-NCR.
• Anyone who violates the orders can be punished.
• NAQI or National Air Quality Index measures air quality.
• It is under CPCB.
• Pollutants measured are PM 10, PM 2.5, NOx, SOx, O3, CO, Ammonia, and
Lead.
• If there is excess, then a Graded Response Action Plan is invoked.
• The National Clean Air program was launched in 2019.
• The target was to reduce Particulate matter by 40% by 2026.
• Measures to control Stubble Burning:
• Biodecomposer.
• Happy seeder.
• Biodiesel.
• palletization.
• Farmers were also fined who burned the stubble.
• Other measures:
• Installation of Smog tower.
• PUC certificate implementation.
• Banning of diesel engine vehicles beyond 10 years.
• Ban on firecrackers.
• What else can be done:
• increase the connectivity of mass transportation.
• Waste management.
• Increase green and blue space in urban areas.
• Proper management of construction and management waste.
• Promote efficient fuel usage in hotels and restaurants.
WATER POLLUTION: (1:48 PM):
• Ganga Cleaning measures:
• 1986- Ganga Action Plan was announced or GAP phase 1.
• Sewage, Industrial waste, leaching, etc.
• 1995- GAP phase 2.
• expanded to other rivers also.
• Focus on a water treatment facility.
• 2009- Revamping- after the declaration of Ganaga as a National rover.
• National Ganga river basin authority headed by the PM was established,
along with 6 union ministers and 5 CMs.
• Mission Clean Ganga started.
• No industrial or municipal sewage was released to Ganga by 2020.
• 2011- The National Mission for Clean Ganga was established.
• The National Ganga River Basin Project started in the same year with
the help of the World Bank.
• 2014- Namami Gange Programme.
• Integrated Ganga Conservation Mission.
• Aviral Dhara and Nirmal Dhara components.
• Continuous flow and clean flow.
• Afforestation, Community participation, Rover front development, Ganga
Gram.
• Established Clean Ganga fund.
• 2016- The National Ganga Council was established.
• National Ganga Council supported by NMCG.
• phase 2 announced in the year 2022.
• State Ganga Committee at the state level and at the district level-
District Ganga Committee.
EIA: (ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT): (2:04 PM):
• It is a study to predict the effect of the proposed project on the
environment.
• It compares various alternatives for a project and seeks to identify
the one that represents the best combination of economic and environmental costs
and benefits.
 • Benefits of EIA:
• Protection of Environment
• Protect the interest of tribals.
• Involvement of local communities.
• Efficient implementation of the project.
• Optimum resource utilization.
• Reduction in time and cost of the project.
• Disaster prevention.
• Accountability of government.
• EIA Processes:
• Project Proposal: It is by the project developer includes all relevant
information regarding the project and is submitted to the government.
• Screening: It is done by the assessment agency, whether a project
requires an EIA or not.
• Scoping: It involves detailing the terms of reference for EIA.
• Impact Analysis and Mitigation: This is done by an assessment agency
and involves the identification and prediction of like impacts of proposed
projects. It also recommends mitigation to reduce and avert the potential adverse
consequences.
• Reporting: Prepare and submit the report of assessment along with the
environmental management plan to the decision-making body and other interested
parties.
• Review and Public hearings involving the people likely to be affected
by the project and allow making suggestions.
• Decision Making: By the decision-making body to approve or reject with
conditions.
• Implementation and Post monitoring: It involves monitoring of project
for its outcomes once it is commissioned.
• EIA in India:
• In 1976, the Planning Commission asked the Department of Science and
Technology to examine the river valley projects from an environmental angle.
• Till 1994, environmental clearance from the central government was an
administrative decision.
• In 1994, the government came out with a notification on EIA under the
Environment Protection Act, of 1986.
• It made Environmental clearance mandatory for a list of activities in
India and prescribed a clear procedure.
• EIA Rules 2006:
• It categorizes developmental projects into:
• Category A: It requires EC from the central government through the
National Assessment Authority at the National Level and the Expert Appraisal
Committee at the National Level.
• Category B: It requires approval from the state government.
• Category B is divided into B1 and B2.
• B1 projects require mandatory EIA. B2 project EIA is not mandatory.
• B2 projects undergo screening.
• Projects with Mandatory Clearance: Mining, thermal power plants, river
valley projects, infrastructure projects, and industries.
• Environmental Ethics: (2:47 PM):
• Anthropocentrism: It suggests that human beings are the most important
living creatures and other living beings assist in their survival.
• Non-Anthropocentrism-It gives value to every living being in nature.
• Psycho-centrism: It holds that human beings have more value in the
environment because of better-developed mental capacity.
• Biocentrism: It gives importance to all living beings in the ecosystem.
• Wholism: The environmental systems are considered to be whole rather
than individual parts of something.
• Shallow Ecology: Environmental preservation for human interest alone.
• Deep Ecology: It recognizes that nature has an inherent value and
protects the environment for nature's sake.
• Social Ecology: Integrating social issues with environmental
conservation. It studies the relationship between people and their environment.
INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT: (3:22 PM):
• It gives the present status of forests in India.
• Released by Forest Survey of India.
• It is a biennial survey.
• Discussion via ppt.
• Refer to the PPT for the same.
• Forest cover, Tree cover.
• Open forests and scrubland.
• 40-7- percent- Moderately dense forest, very dense forests.
• Less than 10 percent is scrubland.
• The forest cover of different regions.
WILDLIFE: (3:30 PM):
• Vultures in India:
• There are 9 species of vulture in India and 4 of them are critically
endangered.
• Critically Endangered Species of Vulture:
• White-backed vulture
• Slender-billed vulture
• Long-billed vulture or Indian vulture.
• Red Headed vulture.
• Characteristics:
• They are scavengers.
• Drastic fall in numbers in the last few decades due to the use of
diclofenac due to biomagnification.
• Initiatives for Conservation:
• Vulture Action Plan 2020-2025.
• Jatayu Conservation Centre in Pinjore, Haryana.
• SAVE: Saving Asia Vulture from Extinction
• Sea turtles:
• Among the 7 species,5 are found in India.
• Not found in India- Flatback and Kemps ridley turtle.
• The most common is olive Ridley.
• Leatherback turtle is the largest of all Found in Great Nicobar.
• Loggerhead, Hawksbill turtles.
• Olive Ridley:
• IUC status- Vulnerable.
• Come to lay eggs every year at the coast in Orissa- a Mass resting of
Olive Ridley turtles is called Arribada.
• They are carnivorous.
• Issues- getting stuck in fishing nets, plastic pollution, disturbance
by tourists, light pollution.
• Initiatives:
• Operation Save Kurma, sea turtle project, etc.
• Mahseer:
• A freshwater fish.
• Three types of Mahsheer:
• Golden Mahseer:
• Found in Himalayan rivers
• IUCN: Endangered
• Blue-finned Mahseer:
• Found in rivers of the Deccan plateau
• It is the least concern.
• Hump-backed Mahseer
• Status: Critically endangered
• Found majorly in the Kaveri River and its tributaries.
• It is also called the Tiger of Kaveri River.
 • Crocodiles:
• Gharial, Saltwater crocodile, Mugger.
• 90% of Gharial is found in Chambal only.
• Important Deer Species in India:
• 1) Blackbuck:
• Status: Least Concern
• 2)Chinkara aka Indian Gazelle
• Status: Least Concern
• 3) Cheetal or spotted deer.
• 4) Brow antlered deer aka Sangai Deer
• Found only in Loktak Lake in Manipur.
• It is also called Dancing Deer.
• 5) Kashmir Stag aka Hangul
• Status: Critically Endangered.
• Found in the Himalayas.
• Commonly found in Dachigam National Park
• 6) Musk Deer
• Status: Endangered
• It is found in the Himalayas
• 7) Swamp Deer aka Barasingha
• Status: Vulnerable
• Found in plain areas of UP, Bihar
• 8) Tibetan Antelope:
• Status: Near Threatened
• Source of Shahtoosh Wool
• 9) Barking deer, Nilgai, Sambhar, and mouse deer.
• Monkeys Species:
• 1. Capped Langur: Found in the Himalayas
• Status: Endangered
• 2. Lion-Tailed Macaques: Found only in the Western Ghats
• 3. Nilgiri Langur:
• Status: Vulnerable
• 4. Golden Langur:
• Endangered.
• Found in North-East and Assam
• 5. Hoolock Gibbon:
• Status: Endangered
• Pangolin.
• Ant eater and found in plain areas.
• Dugong.
• Vulnerable.
• River dolphins:
• Gangetic river dolphin- Endangered, almost blind, found in Ganga and
Yamuna, Also in Nepal and Bangladesh.
• Poaching, fishing issues, fishing nets, National Aquatic animal of
India.
• Irrawaddy dolphin- Chilika lake.
• Indus river Dolphin- Vyas river.
• Yangtze River dolphin- Bhaiji.
• Bison or Gaur.
• Indian wild ass- Kutch.
• Red Panda.
• eats bamboo, the state animal of Sikkim.
• Malabar civet- Nocturnal and critically endangered.
• Mountain goats.
• Niligiri Tahr and Himalayan Tahr.
• State animal of TN- Niligiri Tahr, Shola forests.
• Markhor- Near threatened.
• Pygmy hog- pig, endangered, Assam.
 • Edible nest swiftlet.
• Listed under the Habitat Recovery program.
• Asian wild buffalo or water buffalo- found near swamps.
• Nicobar Megapode- Vulnerable, makes nest using soil and vegetation on
the ground.
• Jerdon'd Courser- Eastern Ghats of TN, critically endangered.
• Northern rover terrapin- freshwater turtle, South and SE Asia,
• Arabian sea humpback whale- threatened due to fishing and shipping.
The syllabus of the environment is completed.