PROCESS CONTROL

Introduction
Process control is defined as the functions and operations necessary to change the
required materials either physically or naturally.
Every process must have one or more controlled variables and one or more
manipulated variable.
The following shows a block diagram of a process control system.

All process control systems have the following requirements in common:

i) Measurement - made by sensor or transducer i.e., measurement of controlled

variable.
ii) Evaluation – Controller need to evaluate the information from the sensor and it
does so by comparing the sensor signal with the reference (set-point).
iii) Final control element – This corrects the error by manipulating some variables
in response to the output controller.

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS

Every process exhibits 3 basic characteristics, namely;

i) Process Load
This refers to the total amount of control agent needed to keep the process in a balanced
condition, e.g. in the milk pasteurization planta certain amount of steam is needed to
keep the milk at certain temperature.

ii) Process Lag

This refers to the process delays and retardations as the system adjusts to attain the set-
point variables after a process load.

iii) Process Time Lags

This is the time taken for the controlled variable to reach a new value after a process
load.

In the last example, the control of the lube oil temperature may initially seem easy.
Apparently, the operator need only measure the lube oil temperature, compare the
actual temperature to the desired (setpoint), compute the amount of error (if any), and

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adjust the temperature control valve to correct the error accordingly. However,
processes have the characteristic of delaying and retarding changes in the values of the
process variables. This characteristic greatly increases the difficulty of control.

Process time lags are caused by three properties of the process. They are: capacitance,
resistance, and transportation time.

a) Capacitance is the ability of a process to store energy. A large capacitance in the

process means it takes more time for the process load to change.

In the figure below, for example, the walls of the tubes in the lube oil cooler, the
cooling water, and the lube oil can store heat energy. This energy-storing
property gives the ability to retard change. If the cooling water flow rate is
increased, it will take a period of time for more energy to be removed from the
lube oil to reduce its temperature.

b) Resistance is that part of the process that opposes the transfer of energy
between capacities. In Figure 9, the walls of the lube oil cooler oppose the
transfer of heat from the lube oil inside the tubes to the cooling water outside the
tubes.

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 c) Transportation time is time required to carry a change in a process variable
from one point to another in the process. If the temperature of the lube oil
(Figure 9) is lowered by increasing the cooling water flow rate, some time will
elapse before the lube oil travels from the lube oil cooler to the temperature
transmitter. If the transmitter is moved farther from the lube oil cooler, the
transportation time will increase. This time lag is not just a slowing down or
retardation of a change; it is an actual time delay during which no change occurs

iv) Stability of Automatic Control Systems

Stability is the ability of a control loop to return a controlled variable to a steady, non-
cyclic value, following a disturbance or a process load.
Typically, an unstable system will cause the controlled variable to be above or below the
desired variable.

Control loops can be either stable or unstable.

Instability is caused by a combination of process time lags (i.e., capacitance, resistance,

and transport time) and inherent time lags within a control system. This results in slow
response to changes in the controlled variable. Consequently, the controlled variable
will continuously cycle around the setpoint value.

Oscillations describes this cyclic characteristic. There are three types of oscillations
that can occur in a control loop. They are decreasing amplitude, constant amplitude, and
increasing amplitude.

(a) Decreasing amplitude - These oscillations decrease in amplitude and eventually

stop with a control system that opposes the change in the controlled variable. This is the
condition desired in an automatic control system.

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(b) Constant amplitude - Action of the controller sustains oscillations of the controlled
variable. The controlled variable will never reach a stable condition; therefore, this
condition is not desired.
(c) Increasing amplitude - The control system not only sustains oscillations but also
increases them. The control element has reached its full travel limits and causes the
process to go out of control.

INDUSTRIAL CONTROLLERS
The basic characteristic of a controller is the way it acts to restore the controlled
variable to its desired value.
The different actions of control are called control modes. The common control modes
include:

1) Two Position control

2) Floating Control
3) Proportional Control
4) Integral (reset) Control
5) Derivative (rate or pre-act) Control

1. TWO POSITION CONTROL

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A two position controller is a device that has two operating conditions: completely ON
or completely OFF. The figure below shows the input to output characteristic waveform
for a two-position controller.

The controller switches from its "OFF" state to its "ON" state when the measured
variable increases above the setpoint. Conversely, it switches from its "ON" state to its
"OFF" state when the measured variable decreases below the setpoint. This device
provides an output determined by whether the error signal is above or below the
setpoint. The magnitude of the error signal is above or below the setpoint. The
magnitude of the error signal past that point is of no concern to the controller.

The two-position control mode supplies energy in pulses to the process, thus, causing a
cycling of the controlled variable.
The amplitude of the cycling depends on three factors;
i) The capacitance of the process
ii) Dead time of the process
iii) Size of the load changes the process is capable of handling

The amplitude of the oscillations is decreased by either increasing the capacitance,

decreasing the dead time lag decreasing the size of the load.
For these reasons, two-position control is only used on processes that have a
capacitance large enough to counteract the combined of the dead time lag and load
change capability.

Two-position control is simple and cheap, and is preferred whenever the cycling can be
reduced to an acceptable level.

A simple example below involves switching ON and OFF a heat supply with each
switching in both direction occurring at the same preset temperature.

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The magnitude and the frequency of temperature cycling will depend upon the
magnitude of the heat source and the dynamic of the thermal load.

In most controllers, it is found that the correcting element is not moved until the
temperature has actually passed the desired value.
The controller may be designed with an adjustable overlap so that the two
predetermined control actions are automated when the controlled condition passes
from one to the other of the two set-points chosen values as show below;

If the width of the overlap is increased, the frequency of oscillation is decreased but the
amplitude is increased. If this greater deviation from a desired value can be tolerated,
the less frequency operation of the valve, contactor or other correcting unit, and in turn
longer life for the equipment.

Another example of Two Position Control is a system using a two position

controller to check on a tank water level.

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The controlled process is the volume of water in the tank. The controlled variable is the
level in the tank. It is measured by a level detector that sends information to the
controller. The output of the controller is sent to the final control element, which is a
solenoid valve, that controls the flow of water into the tank.

As the water level decreases initially, a point is reached where the measured variable
drops below the setpoint. This creates a positive error signal. The controller opens the
final control element fully. Water is subsequently injected into the tank, and the water
level rises. As soon as the water level rises above the setpoint, a negative error signal is
developed. The negative error signal causes the controller to shut the final control
element. This opening and closing of the final control element results in a cycling
characteristic of the measured variable.

Floating Control
This is a special application of the two-position control in which the final control
element is stationary as long as the error remains within the neutral zone.

When the controlled variable is outside the neutral, the final control element changes at
a constant rate in a direction determined by the sign of the error.
The final control element continues to change until the error returns to the neutral zone
or until the final control element reaches one of its extreme positions.

The Input – Output Curve

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Floating control has the tendency to produce cycling of the controlled variable. The
amplitude of the cycling depends on the dead time lag of the process, the capacitance of
the process and the speed at which the controller increase and decreases the final
control element.

The main advantage of floating control is its ability to handle larger load changes by
gradually adjusting the final control element.

2. PROPORTIONAL CONTROL

Proportional control produces a change in controller output proportional to the error

signal.
There is a fixed relationship between the value of the controlled variable and the
position of the final control element.

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The main disadvantage of proportional control is that, it cannot eliminate the error
caused by the load change, i.e there is always an offset.

Proportional control is used when the gain cannot be made large enough to counteract
the effect of the largest load change in the proportional offset.

An operational amplifier can be used to form an electronic proportional controller as

illustrated below;

Output, V = ke
Where, k = gain,
𝑅𝑓
K = 𝑅𝑖
e = error signal
𝑉
Transfer function, 𝑒 = k

Proportional Band
Suppose the final corrective device is a variable position value. Proportional band can
illustrated by the graph below;

Suppose a valve is controlling fuel flow to a burner.

When the valve opening gets larger, more fuel is delivered and more heat is released
into the process.
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If the set-point temperature is 1800F, a valve opening of 40% is required. If the
temperature drops to 1750F, the valve opening must be at 60%.
For every 50F change of temperature, the valve moves for 20% of its full range, i.e. a
given error % change in temperature brings about proportional % change valve
position.
A temperature of 1650F an below causes the valve to open 100%, while a temperature
of 1900F and above causes the valve to be fully shut. The difference between these two
points i.e (250F in this case (190 - 165)) is called proportional band.

Example
If the controller set-point can be adjusted between 600F and 3000F, and has an
adjustment of 2400F.
190−165
Proportional band =
300−60

25
= 240

= 0.104 or 10.4%

Therefore, proportional band is the range of the full controller range by which the
measured value must change in order to cause the correcting device to change by 100%.
Outside this band, the valve ceases to respond because it has reached its limit.

INTEGRAL (RESET) CONTROL

Integral control describes a controller in which the output rate of change is dependent
on the magnitude of the input. Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a slower
rate of change of the output. This controller is called an integral controller because it
approximates the mathematical function of integration. The integral control method is
also known as reset control.

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In the case of the following electrical analogy, the integral mode changes the output of
the controller by an amount proportional to the integral of the error signal, i.e. the
change in the controller output during an integral from 0 to t seconds is proportional to
the net area under the error curve between 0 and t seconds as illustrated below in the
curve below.

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 Notice that the rate of
change of the controller output is proportional to the error signal.
𝐾 𝑡
V =𝜏𝑖 ∫0 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + V0

Where, k = gain
V0 = Output signal at t = 0, [Initial value of output]
An electronic integral controller can be constructed using OP –amp as shown below;

𝜏𝑖 = RiCi
1
Transfer function = 𝜏𝑖𝑠

Properties of Integral Control

The major advantage of integral controllers is that they have the unique ability to return
the controlled variable back to the exact setpoint following a disturbance.

Disadvantages of the integral control mode are that it responds relatively slowly to an
error signal and that it can initially allow a large deviation at the instant the error is
produced. This can lead to system instability and cyclic operation. For this reason, the

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integral control mode is not normally used alone, but is combined with another control
mode.

DERIVATIVE CONTROL
It changes the output of the controller at a rate proportional to the change of the error
signal.
This change may be caused by a variation in the measured variable, the set point on
both. The derivative mode contributes to the output of the controller only while the
error is changing.
For this reason, the derivative control is never used alone.

The step and ramp response of an ideal derivative is shown below;

At every instant the output of the derivative control mode is proportional to the slope or
rate of change of the error signal. The step response indicates why an ideal derivative
control mode is never used alone.
The error curve has an infinite slope for a step change and the derivative mode must
respond with an infinite change in the controller output.
In actual practice, the response of the derivative action to rapidly changing signal is
limited. This greatly reduces the sensitivity of the controller to the unwanted noise
spikes which frequently occurs in actual practice.
The figure below shows an ideal and a practical differentiation.

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 For both cases;
τd = RdCd
𝑑𝑒
Output time domain equation, v = τd 𝑑𝑡

The transfer function in frequency domain (practical) is given by:

𝑉 τds
Transfer function = 𝐸 = 𝑆𝑅𝐶+1

The term (1 + SR1Cd) limits the response product by rapidly changing signal.

PROPORTIONAL – INTEGRAL (P - I) CONTROL

The integral mode is frequently combined with the proportional mode to provide an
automatic reset action, which eliminates the proportional offset.
It is used on processes with large load changes when the proportional mode alone is not
capable of reducing

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CONTROL SYSTEMS NOTES MR JOHN KADENGE
 PROPORTIONAL – DERIVATIVE (P-D) CONTROL

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 PROPORTIONAL – INTEGRAL – DERIVATIVE CONTROL (P-I-D)

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CONTROL SYSTEMS NOTES MR JOHN KADENGE
CONTROL SYSTEMS NOTES MR JOHN KADENGE