WEEK 1

Genetic is the study of heredity and variation in living things

HEREDITY OR INHERITANCE is defined as the transmission and expression of

characteristics or traits

in an organism from parents to offspring.

VARIATION is defined as the differences which exists between parents and offspring as well
as a many the offsprings.

CHARACTERS OR TRAIT THAT CAN BE TRANSMITTED IN MAN

It is only those traits that constitute the genetic makeup of the parents that can be
transmitted and expressed in the offspring.

These traits include colour of the skin, colour of eyes this colour of the hairs and hair texture,
size of body stature, shape of the head , shape of the ears, shape of the month, lips, shape of
the nose, length of the hands and legs,length of neck , Blood grouping, baldness,
tongue rolling, hemophilia , voice, intelligences composure, aptitude , sickle cell
anaemia are transmissible in animals while is transmissible include colour and shape of the
leaves shoot , seed size and shape, colour of the flowers, size of the fruit and
pigmentation

HOW CHARACTERS OR TRAITS GET TRANSMITTED FROM GENERATION TO

GENERATION

Only characters controlled by genes can be transmitted A diploid organisms has two sets of
chromosome referred to as homologues. Such an organism has two copies of each gene, with
each copy occupying identical locations or loci on the homologous chromosomes.

Diploid organisms produce gametes by meiosis in their reproductive organs . A male

individual produces egg cells or ova.. During meiosis the number of chromosome in a cell is
halved , the gametes are therefore haploid containing one set of chromosome and gene only
one copy of each gene.

During sexual reproduction, the gamete of a male and female individual fuse to form zygote.
Each zygote is diploid as it gets one set of chromosomes, and hence one copy of each gene
from the gametes of each parent. The gene an organism inherits during fertilization is called
genotype remain constant throughout life span. The phenotype which is the physical
appearance or features of an organism is determined by its genotypes and the environment in
which it lives.

Basic Genetic concepts

GENE; This is defined as the physical unit of inheritance transmitted from due generation
another and responsible for controlling the development of characters in the new organisms.
CHROMOSOMES: these are strands of genetic materials which are obvious during cell
division. They are found in the nucleus where they carry the genes. They contain of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and protein.

CHARACTER OR TRAIT; These are inheritable attributes or features possessed by an

organism’s height or size.

ALLELOMORPHS these are pairs of genes or locus that controls contrasting character.
Pair of allomorphs are called allelic pair while each member of the pair is the allele of the
other.

PHENOTYPE: Is the sum total of all observable features of an organism s that is the
physical, physical, physiological and behavioral traits e.g. height, weight, skin colour.

GENOTYPE; The term in used to describe those traits or sum total of the genes inherited
from both parent or in order word, it is the genetic makeup or constitution of an
individual. Genotype includes both the dominant and the recessive traits that form the
genetic makeup of an individual.

DOMINANT charater;This is a trait that is expressed in an offspring when two individual

with contrasting characters are crossed.

RECESSIVE: Character this is the trait from one parent which is masked or does not
produce its effect in the presence of dominant gene or character. Shortnees is recessive
character while fellness is dominant character. Recessive genes are gene which control
recessive character,

HOMOZYGOUS: Is an individual with identical alleles in respect of a particular trait or

character (TT or tt).

HETEROZYGOUS: An individual having two member of a pair of genes controlling a pair

of contrasting alleles located on different on the same position on a pair of chromosome e.g.
(Tt for tallness or a plant with Rr.

GAMETE - Is a single cell formed as a result of the union of a ale gamete with a female
gamete

FILIAL -Generation - the offspring of parent make up the filial generation the first, second
and third generations of offspring are known as first, second and third filial generations of
offspring are known as first, second and third filial generation are denoted by the symbols
F1, F2 and F3.

HYBRID: Is an offspring from a cross between parents that are generically different parents
that are generically different but of the same species.

HYBRIDIZATION - is the crossing of a plant with contrasting character.

MONOHYBRIDIZATION: Involves the crossing of two organisms with two organisms with
two pairs of contrasting character.

LOCUS- is the site for location of gene in a chromosome.

HAPLOLD- Is when an organism has one set of chromosomes in the same genete it is
represented by (n).

DIPLOID- Is when an organism has two sets of chromosomes in the body cell. The bodies of
animals and plants are diploid. Diploid number is represented by (2n).

MUTATION – Is a change in the genetic makeup of an organism that resulting in a new

characteristic that is inheritable

BACKCROSS - This is the mating of an f1 individual with an individual which has the
parental genotype.

PURE BREED - This simply means an individual that is homozygous.

CO-DOMINANCE - Is a situation where the phenotype of the heterozygote exhibits

properties of both parents . Example of co-dominance is seen in ABO BLOOD GROUP
SYSTEM IN HUMAN BLOOD GROUP a IS DOMINANT AS BLOOD GROUP b. If a child
is product by two parents, one with blood group B and the other blood group A. The child
will belong to blood group AB.

SEX – LINKED CHARACTER – These are characters that are carried by genes located on
the sexchromosome . These genes or characters are said to be sex- linked and usually found
in the X- chromosome they expressed in male children even when the gene is recessive .
Such phenotype are expressed in female only when the two X – chromosomes are recessive
or two x – chromosomes are recessive or carry the recessive gene. Example of
characteristics expressed by genes that are located on sex chromosome include colour
blindness, hemophilia , baldness.

MENDEL’S WORKS IN GENETICS

Gregor Mendel (1822 - 1884) was a Monk in Austtria. He is referred to as father of

Genetics because of his work which formed the foundation for scientific study of heredity and
variation Mendels Experiment .

Gregor Mendel carried out several experiment on how hereditary characters were being
transmitted from generation to generation . He worked with garden pea called possum
sativum.

Reasons for using the pea are follows.

_ Peas are usually self pollinating and he could pollinated them by himself.

_ They have a very short life span than animals and some other plants.
 Tall plant Short plants
Gamete
parents 1shorts
3talls
Ttall T
plants t t

(1) He planted tall plants for several generation and discovered that
the plant produced were all plants in the same way he planted short pea plants for several
generation. He also discovered that the plants produced were all short.

(2) He proceeded to plant tall plants and short pea plants . By the time the flowers were
produced of the collected pollen grains of the tall pea plants tagged of male and pollinated
the stigma of the shrt plant which is labeled as female.

He collected the pollen grain of the short plant and placed them on the stigma of the tall
plant.

(3)Mendel area again picked the seed and he discovered that the plant were all tall. This he
referred to it as first filial generation (fi)

(4) Mendel them crossed the f1 plants, collected their got from this were tall and
short in the ratio 3 : 1 . He then called this stage second filial generation.

Parents Tall plants

Parents Tall plant (F1) X Tall plant (F1)

Tallness shortness

T T X t t
 TT Tt
Tt x ttT T
Tt T T Tt Tt Tt
t tt t t
t
F1genertion

PARENTS Tt x Tt

GAMETES

F2generation

Phenotypic F2 are 3 tall plant 1 short plant

Genetypic ratio 1:2:1

Mendelian Traits:

Mendel discovered trait or characters that be transmitted from parents to offspring. He

studied various inherited characteristics in pea plant. The traits or character are:
height/length, colour of seeds, surface of seed coat. Other examples of traits that can be
transmitted from parents to offspring include: the blood group, the Rhesus factor, skin colour
eye colour shape and body weight.

Mendelian Laws of inheritance

Mendel’s Laws of heredity explains the principals of Mendelian inheritance.mendel produced

offspring of pea plant by self-polling on and cross –pollination and as a result of his
experiments,he came out with his certain deductions termed mendel’s law.The two laws are

1. First law
 x y x x xy
girl girl boy boy
xx xx xy
x

Law of segregation states that genes are responsible for the development of individual
and that they are independently transmitted from one generation to another without
undergoing any alteration.

ii. Second Law

Law of independence assortment of genes

This law states that each character behaves as a separate unit and pair of alleles for a
given character distributes itself in the gemetes during formation does not affect the
way other allelic pair for other character distribute themselves. OR the Law State that
when more than one factors are considered, each character behaves as a separate
unit and is inherited independently of any other character.

How characters Manifest from Generation to Generation

a. Sex Determination-In human being,sex is determined by sex chromosome (23rd

pairs).In female,the sex chromosomes are similar in size and shape,,they are referred
to as “X” chromosome hence female have XX in (23rd) pairs. .Male on the other hand
have contrasting (different) size and shape. One is an “X” chromosome while other is
a “Y” chromosome. M.ale chromosome is therefore XY.half of the male sperms
contain X chromosome and the other half is Y chromosome . Each egg of the female
contain an X Chromosome. This implies they if an X- sperm fertilizes an X- egg, the
offspring will be a female (XX). Otherwise if Y- sperm fertilizes an X -egg,the
offspring is a male,having XY genetic constitution

(SPERM ) XY X
XX(Eggs)

b. SEX-LINKED CHARACTER OR SEX LINKAGE

These are characters that associate themselves with sex chromosome. The gene rresponsible
for such characters are found on the sex chromosome such characters are called sex-linked
characters. Examples are colour blindness, haemophilia and baldness

Colour blindness
XC HbXAHb
C C S
XXc C C c
XC Y
XY XX XcY HbAHbS

It is associated with sex. The sufferers are unable to distinguish between colours. All colours
unable to distinguish between colour. All colours e.g red and green looks alike to the
sufferers of the disease. The gene of the disease is receissive and it is associated with X-
chromosome only. The Y- chromosome does not carry the gene that controls colour
blindness.If gene C (capital) is present with its allele c
(small letter) the disease effect is not felt.

XCXC – Normal female

XCY _ Normal male
Xc Xc _ Carrier female
Xc Y _ Sufferer male(colour blind)

PARENTS X C Xc X
XCY

Gamates

ii. Sickle cell Anemia

This is an inherited and genetically linked disorder-The red blood cells of the sufferer of the
disease change shape of round look to sickle or cresent form by a lowering in concentration
of oxygen due to insufficient flow of the blood to the part of the body. This results in sickle
crisis with pain in bones and joints. Sickle cell disease /trait is caused by recessive gene
connoted by letter ‘S’ and normal situation connected by A. The trait is carried by
hemoglobin.
Parent
Both the normal and carrier do not feel the effect of sicked cell.
Some heretic disorder
i. Sickle cell Anaemia
 HbAHbS HbAHbS HbsHbS
W WBW HbAHbA WB B B WB
WB

PARENTS X

normal carrier carrier

sufferer

ii. Hemophilia – is a disease in which the correct protein (fibrin) for clothing are not
produced. The result is a serious bleeding even after trivial bruises who pass it to possible
sufferers (males) don’t always suffer from it in most cases.
iii. Colour blindness
iv. Rhesus factor
This is a type of agglutinogen found in red blood cells. It was first discovered in mokeys
when present it is termed rhesus positive (RH+) .
-
Lack of it is referred to as rhesus negative (RH ) .

Father Mother Compatibility

Rh +ve Rh + ve compatibles
Rh – ve Rh – ve compatible
Rh – ve Rh + ve compatible
Rh +ve Rh – v incompatible

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE: Is a condition where neither of the contrasting characters

are dominant over each other. This result in a mixture or blend of the two characters. This
phenomon is known as incomplete dominance, blending inheritance or co-dominance.
Examples: Andalusian fowl: If a while featherds Andalusian fowl (WW) is crossed with a
black fowl (BB) . The offspring are BW (blue) parents WW x BB

PARENTS WW X BB

GAMETES X
w B w B

F1 genertaion all blue fowls

Parents WB X WB

Gametes

F2 WW WB WB BB
Generation white blue blue black

CO-DOMINANCE - ABO blood group in man exhibit co-dominance. The blood group is
determined by a single pair of genes located or a homologous pair of chromo ones. There
are three different alleles., TA for antigen A, TB for antigen B , to for no antigen B, for no
antigen .TA and TB are dominant while to is recessive.
Blood group Alleles
A TA TA or TATo
B TB TB or TBTo
AB TA TB
O to to

DIHYBRID CROSS (DIHYBIDIZASTION)

The study of cross involving the inheritance pattern of two characters each of which is
determined by two alleles of a gene for instance, pea plant with seed colour and seed shape
are used in garden pea plant , round seed (RR) is dominant over wrinkled seed (rr) , yellow
seed (Y) is dominant over the green seed (y).
When a pure stock of plants having round yellow seeds is crossed with a pure stock of
wrinkled and seeds , the F1 general offspring all round and yellow.
Parents ____ Round and yellow X wrinkled and green
RYRY x ryry
Gametes RY ry
F1 RYry (All round and yellow)
F2 is arranged in prunnet table as follow
RY, ry , X RYry
Gametes : RY, RY, ry , ry X RY , RY, RY, ry
 RY RY ry ry

RY RYRY RYRY RYrY RYrg

Ry RyRy RyrY RyrY Ryry

Ry RYrY RyrY RyrY rYry

Ry RYry Ryry rYry ryry

Analysis of phenotype ratio

Round and yellow 9

Round and green 3
Wrinkled and yellow 3
Wrinkled and green 1
Analysis of genotyptic ratio
Homozygons romo yellow 1
Homozygons romo green 1
Homozygons wrinkled yellow 1
Homozygons wrinkled green 1
Homozygons Romo, heterozygons yellow 2
Homozygons romo yellow, Homozygons green 2
Homozygons wrinkled, Homozygons yellow 2
Homozygons romo and yellow 4

Questions
(1) A man with heterozygous genotype for blood group B marries a woman with
heterozygous

A. what percentage of their children be universal donor?

2.The alternative form of a gene that represents constrasting character is a/an (A)allele
(B)diploid (C)haploid (D)homologue

(3) If two parents are sickle cell carrier their genotype would be (A) Hb A HbA and Hbs
Hbs (b) HbsHbs and Hbs Hbs (c) HbA Hbs and Hb A Hbs (D) Hba HbA and HbA HbA