QUANTITATIVE

METHODS

QUANTITATIVE
METHODS
NOTES
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE NO.

TITLE
NO.

1 QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES 5

2 CORRELATION ANALYSIS 11

3 REGRESSION ANALYSIS 34

4 THEORY OF PROBABILITY 49

5 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION 72

6 BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 75

7 POISSON DISTRIBUTION 83

8 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 87

9 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS 94

10 NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS 117

11 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 131

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CHAPTER – 1

QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES
Meaning and Definition:

Quantitative techniques may be defined as those techniques which provide the decision
makes a systematic and powerful means of analysis, based on quantitative data. It is a scientific
method employed for problem solving and decision making by the management. With the help of
quantitative techniques, the decision maker is able to explore policies for attaining the
predetermined objectives. In short, quantitative techniques are inevitable in decision-making
process.

Classification of Quantitative Techniques:

There are different types of quantitative techniques. We can classify them into three
categories. They are:

1. Mathematical Quantitative Techniques

2. Statistical Quantitative Techniques
3. Programming Quantitative Techniques

Mathematical Quantitative Techcniques:

A technique in which quantitative data are used along with the principles of mathematics
is known as mathematical quantitative techniques. Mathematical quantitative techniques involve:

1. Permutations and Combinations:

Permutation means arrangement of objects in a definite order. The number of
arrangements depends upon the total number of objects and the number of objects taken at a time
for arrangement. The number of permutations or arrangements is calculated by using the
following formula:-

Combination means selection or grouping objects without considering their order.

The number of combinations is calculated by using the following formula:-

=
2. Set Theory:-

Set theory is a modern mathematical device which solves various types of critical
problems.

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3. Matrix Algebra:

Matrix is an orderly arrangement of certain given numbers or symbols in rows and

columns. It is a mathematical device of finding out the results of different types of algebraic
operations on the basis of the relevant matrices.

4. Determinants:

It is a powerful device developed over the matrix algebra. This device is used for finding
out values of different variables connected with a number of simultaneous equations.

5. Differentiation:
It is a mathematical process of finding out changes in the dependent variable with
reference to a small change in the independent variable.

6. Integration:

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation.

7. Differential Equation:

It is a mathematical equation which involves the differential coefficients of the dependent

variables.

Statistical Quantitative Techniques:

Statistical techniques are those techniques which are used in conducting the statistical
enquiry concerning to certain Phenomenon. They include all the statistical methods beginning
from the collection of data till interpretation of those collected data.

Statistical techniques involve:

1. Collection of data:

One of the important statistical methods is collection of data. There are different methods
for collecting primary and secondary data.

2. Measures of Central tendency, dispersion, skewness and Kurtosis

Measures of Central tendency is a method used for finding he average of a series while
measures of dispersion used for finding out the variability in a series. Measures of Skewness
measures asymmetry of a distribution while measures of Kurtosis measures the flatness of
peakedness in a distribution.

3. Correlation and Regression Analysis:

Correlation is used to study the degree of relationship among two or more variables. On
the other hand, regression technique is used to estimate the value of one variable for a given
value of another.

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4. Index Numbers:

Index numbers measure the fluctuations in various Phenomena like price, production etc
over a period of time, They are described as economic barometres.

5. Time series Analysis:

Analysis of time series helps us to know the effect of factors which are responsible for
changes:

6. Interpolation and Extrapolation:

Interpolation is the statistical technique of estimating under certain assumptions, the
missing figures which may fall within the range of given figures. Extrapolation provides
estimated figures outside the range of given data.
7. Statistical Quality Control
Statistical quality control is used for ensuring the quality of items manufactured. The
variations in quality because of assignable causes and chance causes can be known with the help
of this tool. Different control charts are used in controlling the quality of products.

8. Ratio Analysis:
Ratio analysis is used for analyzing financial statements of any business or industrial
concerns which help to take appropriate decisions.
9. Probability Theory:
Theory of probability provides numerical values of the likely hood of the occurrence of
events.
10. Testing of Hypothesis
Testing of hypothesis is an important statistical tool to judge the reliability of inferences
drawn on the basis of sample studies.

Programming Techniques:

Programming techniques are also called operations research techniques. Programming

techniques are model building techniques used by decision makers in modern times.

Programming techniques involve:

1. Linear Programming:

Linear programming technique is used in finding a solution for optimizing a given

objective under certain constraints.

2. Queuing Theory:

Queuing theory deals with mathematical study of queues. It aims at minimizing cost of
both servicing and waiting.

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3. Game Theory:
Game theory is used to determine the optimum strategy in a competitive situation.
4. Decision Theory:
This is concerned with making sound decisions under conditions of certainty, risk and
uncertainty.
5. Inventory Theory:

Inventory theory helps for optimizing the inventory levels. It focuses on minimizing cost
associated with holding of inventories.

6. Net work programming:

It is a technique of planning, scheduling, controlling, monitoring and co-ordinating large

and complex projects comprising of a number of activities and events. It serves as an instrument
in resource allocation and adjustment of time and cost up to the optimum level. It includes CPM,
PERT etc.

7. Simulation:

It is a technique of testing a model which resembles a real life situations

8. Replacement Theory:

It is concerned with the problems of replacement of machines, etc due to their

deteriorating efficiency or breakdown. It helps to determine the most economic replacement
policy.

9. Non Linear Programming:

It is a programming technique which involves finding an optimum solution to a problem in

which some or all variables are non-linear.

10. Sequencing:

Sequencing tool is used to determine a sequence in which given jobs should be performed
by minimizing the total efforts.

11. Quadratic Programming:

Quadratic programming technique is designed to solve certain problems, the objective

function of which takes the form of a quadratic equation.

12. Branch and Bound Technique

It is a recently developed technique. This is designed to solve the combinational

problems of decision making where there are large number of feasible solutions. Problems of
plant location, problems of determining minimum cost of production etc. are examples of
combinational problems.

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Functions of Quantitative Techniques:

The following are the important functions of quantitative techniques:
1. To facilitate the decision-making process
2. To provide tools for scientific research
3. To help in choosing an optimal strategy
4. To enable in proper deployment of resources
5. To help in minimizing costs
6. To help in minimizing the total processing time required for performing a set of jobs

USES OF QUANTITATE TECHNIQUES

Business and Industry

Quantitative techniques render valuable services in the field of business and industry.
Today, all decisions in business and industry are made with the help of quantitative techniques.

Some important uses of quantitative techniques in the field of business and industry are
given below:

1. Quantitative techniques of linear programming is used for optimal allocation of

scarce resources in the problem of determining product mix

2. Inventory control techniques are useful in dividing when and how much items are to
be purchase so as to maintain a balance between the cost of holding and cost of
ordering the inventory

3. Quantitative techniques of CPM, and PERT helps in determining the earliest and the
latest times for the events and activities of a project. This helps the management in
proper deployment of resources.

4. Decision tree analysis and simulation technique help the management in taking the
best possible course of action under the conditions of risks and uncertainty.

5. Queuing theory is used to minimize the cost of waiting and servicing of the
customers in queues.

6. Replacement theory helps the management in determining the most economic

replacement policy regarding replacement of an equipment.

Limitations of Quantitative Techniques:

Even though the quantitative techniques are inevitable in decision-making process, they
are not free from short comings. The following are the important limitations of quantitative
techniques:
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1. Quantitative techniques involves mathematical models, equations and other mathematical
expressions
2. Quantitative techniques are based on number of assumptions. Therefore, due care must be
ensured while using quantitative techniques, otherwise it will lead to wrong conclusions.
3. Quantitative techniques are very expensive.
4. Quantitative techniques do not take into consideration intangible facts like skill, attitude
etc.
5. Quantitative techniques are only tools for analysis and decision-making. They are not
decisions itself.

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CHAPTER - 2

CORRELEATION ANALYSIS
Introduction:

In practice, we may come across with lot of situations which need statistical analysis of
either one or more variables. The data concerned with one variable only is called univariate data.
For Example: Price, income, demand, production, weight, height marks etc are concerned with
one variable only. The analysis of such data is called univariate analysis.
The data concerned with two variables are called bivariate data. For example: rainfall and
agriculture; income and consumption; price and demand; height and weight etc. The analysis of
these two sets of data is called bivariate analysis.
The date concerned with three or more variables are called multivariate date. For
example: agricultural production is influenced by rainfall, quality of soil, fertilizer etc.
The statistical technique which can be used to study the relationship between two or more
variables is called correlation analysis.
Definition:
Two or more variables are said to be correlated if the change in one variable results in a
corresponding change in the other variable.
According to Simpson and Kafka, “Correlation analysis deals with the association
between two or more variables”.
Lun chou defines, “ Correlation analysis attempts to determine the degree of relationship between
variables”.
Boddington states that “Whenever some definite connection exists between two or more
groups or classes of series of data, there is said to be correlation.”
In nut shell, correlation analysis is an analysis which helps to determine the degree of
relationship exists between two or more variables.
Correlation Coefficient:
Correlation analysis is actually an attempt to find a numerical value to express the extent
of relationship exists between two or more variables. The numerical measurement showing the
degree of correlation between two or more variables is called correlation coefficient. Correlation
coefficient ranges between -1 and +1.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CORRELATION ANALYSIS

Correlation analysis is of immense use in practical life because of the following reasons:
1. Correlation analysis helps us to find a single figure to measure the degree of
relationship exists between the variables.
2. Correlation analysis helps to understand the economic behavior.

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3. Correlation analysis enables the business executives to estimate cost, price and other
variables.
4. Correlation analysis can be used as a basis for the study of regression. Once we know
that two variables are closely related, we can estimate the value of one variable if the
value of other is known.
5. Correlation analysis helps to reduce the range of uncertainty associated with decision
making. The prediction based on correlation analysis is always near to reality.
6. It helps to know whether the correlation is significant or not. This is possible by
comparing the correlation co-efficient with 6PE. It ‘r’ is more than 6 PE, the correlation
is significant.
Classification of Correlation
Correlation can be classified in different ways. The following are the most important
classifications
1. Positive and Negative correlation
2. Simple, partial and multiple correlation
3. Linear and Non-linear correlation

Positive and Negative Correlation

Positive Correlation
When the variables are varying in the same direction, it is called positive correlation. In
other words, if an increase in the value of one variable is accompanied by an increase in the value
of other variable or if a decrease in the value of one variable is accompanied by a decree se in the
value of other variable, it is called positive correlation.

Eg: 1) A: 10 20 30 40 50
B: 80 100 150 170 200

2) X: 78 60 52 46 38
Y: 20 18 14 10 5
Negative Correlation:
When the variables are moving in opposite direction, it is called negative correlation. In
other words, if an increase in the value of one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the value
of other variable or if a decrease in the value of one variable is accompanied by an increase in the
value of other variable, it is called negative correlation.

Eg: 1) A: 5 10 15 20 25
B: 16 10 8 6 2

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2) X: 40 32 25 20 10
Y: 2 3 5 8 12

Simple, Partial and Multiple correlation

Simple Correlation
In a correlation analysis, if only two variables are studied it is called simple correlation.
Eg. the study of the relationship between price & demand, of a product or price and supply of a
product is a problem of simple correlation.
Multiple correlation
In a correlation analysis, if three or more variables are studied simultaneously, it is called
multiple correlation. For example, when we study the relationship between the yield of rice with
both rainfall and fertilizer together, it is a problem of multiple correlation.
Partial correlation
In a correlation analysis, we recognize more than two variable, but consider one dependent
variable and one independent variable and keeping the other Independent variables as constant.
For example yield of rice is influenced b the amount of rainfall and the amount of fertilizer used.
But if we study the correlation between yield of rice and the amount of rainfall by keeping the
amount of fertilizers used as constant, it is a problem of partial correlation.
Linear and Non-linear correlation

Linear Correlation
In a correlation analysis, if the ratio of change between the two sets of variables is same,
then it is called linear correlation.
For example when 10% increase in one variable is accompanied by 10% increase in the
other variable, it is the problem of linear correlation.
X: 10 15 30 60
Y: 50 75 150 300
Here the ratio of change between X and Y is the same. When we plot the data in graph
paper, all the plotted points would fall on a straight line.
Non-linear correlation
In a correlation analysis if the amount of change in one variable does not bring the same
ratio of change in the other variable, it is called non linear correlation.

X: 2 4 6 10 15
Y: 8 10 18 22 26
Here the change in the value of X does not being the same proportionate change in the value of Y.

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This is the problem of non-linear correlation, when we plot the data on a graph paper, the
plotted points would not fall on a straight line.

Degrees of correlation:

Correlation exists in various degrees

1. Perfect positive correlation

If an increase in the value of one variable is followed by the same proportion of increase in
other related variable or if a decrease in the value of one variable is followed by the same
proportion of decrease in other related variable, it is perfect positive correlation. eg: if 10% rise in
price of a commodity results in 10% rise in its supply, the correlation is perfectly positive.
Similarly, if 5% full in price results in 5% fall in supply, the correlation is perfectly positive.

2. Perfect Negative correlation

If an increase in the value of one variable is followed by the same proportion of decrease
in other related variable or if a decrease in the value of one variable is followed by the same
proportion of increase in other related variably it is Perfect Negative Correlation. For example if
10% rise in price results in 10% fall in its demand the correlation is perfectly negative. Similarly
if 5% fall in price results in 5% increase in demand, the correlation is perfectly negative.

3. Limited Degree of Positive correlation:

When an increase in the value of one variable is followed by a non-proportional increase

in other related variable, or when a decrease in the value of one variable is followed by a non-
proportional decrease in other related variable, it is called limited degree of positive correlation.

For example, if 10% rise in price of a commodity results in 5% rise in its supply, it is
limited degree of positive correlation. Similarly if 10% fall in price of a commodity results in 5%
fall in its supply, it is limited degree of positive correlation.

4. Limited degree of Negative correlation

When an increase in the value of one variable is followed by a non-proportional decrease

in other related variable, or when a decrease in the value of one variable is followed by a non-
proportional increase in other related variable, it is called limited degree of negative correlation.

For example, if 10% rise in price results in 5% fall in its demand, it is limited degree of
negative correlation. Similarly, if 5% fall in price results in 10% increase in demand, it is limited
degree of negative correlation.

5. Zero Correlation (Zero Degree correlation)

If there is no correlation between variables it is called zero correlation. In other words, if

the values of one variable cannot be associated with the values of the other variable, it is zero
correlation.

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Methods of measuring correlation

Correlation between 2 variables can be measured by graphic methods and algebraic

methods.

I Graphic Methods

1) Scatter Diagram

2) Correlation graph

II Algebraic methods (Mathematical methods or statistical methods or Co-efficient of correlation

methods):

1) Karl Pearson’s Co-efficient of correlation

2) Spear mans Rank correlation method

3) Concurrent deviation method

Scatter Diagram

This is the simplest method for ascertaining the correlation between variables. Under this
method all the values of the two variable are plotted in a chart in the form of dots. Therefore, it is
also known as dot chart. By observing the scatter of the various dots, we can form an idea that
whether the variables are related or not.

A scatter diagram indicates the direction of correlation and tells us how closely the two
variables under study are related. The greater the scatter of the dots, the lower is the relationship

Y Y
X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

X X

0 X 0 X
Perfect Positive Correlation Perfect Negative Correlation

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Y X Y X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X

0 X
0 X
High Degree of Negative Correlation
High Degree of Positive Correlation

Y X Y X
X X X
X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X
X X X X
X

0 X
0 X
Low Degree of Negative Correlation
Low Degree of Positive Correlation

Y
X X X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X X

0 X
No Correlation (r = 0)

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Merits of Scatter Diagram method

1. It is a simple method of studying correlation between variables.
2. It is a non-mathematical method of studying correlation between the variables. It does not
require any mathematical calculations.
3. It is very easy to understand. It gives an idea about the correlation between variables even
to a layman.
4. It is not influenced by the size of extreme items.
5. Making a scatter diagram is, usually, the first step in investigating the relationship between
two variables.
Demerits of Scatter diagram method
1. It gives only a rough idea about the correlation between variables.
2. The numerical measurement of correlation co-efficient cannot be calculated under this
method.
3. It is not possible to establish the exact degree of relationship between the variables.
Correlation graph Method
Under correlation graph method the individual values of the two variables are plotted on a
graph paper. Then dots relating to these variables are joined separately so as to get two curves.
By examining the direction and closeness of the two curves, we can infer whether the variables
are related or not. If both the curves are moving in the same direction( either upward or
downward) correlation is said to be positive. If the curves are moving in the opposite directions,
correlation is said to be negative.
Merits of Correlation Graph Method
1. This is a simple method of studying relationship between the variable
2. This does not require mathematical calculations.
3. This method is very easy to understand

Demerits of correlation graph method:

1. A numerical value of correlation cannot be calculated.
2. It is only a pictorial presentation of the relationship between variables.
3. It is not possible to establish the exact degree of relationship between the variables.
Karl Pearson’s Co-efficient of Correlation
Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation is the most popular method among the algebraic
methods for measuring correlation. This method was developed by Prof. Karl Pearson in 1896. It
is also called product moment correlation coefficient.

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Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is defined as the ratio of the covariance between X and
Y to the product of their standard deviations. This is denoted by ‘r’ or r xy

r = Covariance of X and Y
(SD of X) x (SD of Y)
Interpretation of Co-efficient of Correlation

Pearson’s Co-efficient of correlation always lies between +1 and -1. The following
general rules will help to interpret the Co-efficient of correlation:

1. When r - +1, It means there is perfect positive relationship between variables.

2. When r = -1, it means there is perfect negative relationship between variables.
3. When r = 0, it means there is no relationship between the variables.
4. When ‘r’ is closer to +1, it means there is high degree of positive correlation between
variables.
5. When ‘r’ is closer to – 1, it means there is high degree of negative correlation between
variables.
6. When ‘r’ is closer to ‘O’, it means there is less relationship between variables.
Properties of Pearson’s Co-efficient of Correlation

1. If there is correlation between variables, the Co-efficient of correlation lies between +1

and -1.
2. If there is no correlation, the coefficient of correlation is denoted by zero (ie r=0)
3. It measures the degree and direction of change
4. If simply measures the correlation and does not help to predict cansation.
5. It is the geometric mean of two regression co-efficients.

i.e r=

Computation of Pearson’s Co-efficient of correlation:

Pearson’s correlation co-efficient can be computed in different ways. They are:

a Arithmetic mean method
b Assumed mean method
c Direct method
Arithmetic mean method:-
Under arithmetic mean method, co-efficient of correlation is calculated by taking actual mean.

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r=

or

r= whereas x-x- and y=y-

Calculate Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation between age and playing habits of students:
Age: 20 21 22 23 24 25
No. of students 500 400 300 240 200 160
Regular players 400 300 180 96 60 24
Let X = Age and Y = Percentage of regular players
Percentage of regular players can be calculated as follows:-
400 x 100 = 80; 300 x 100 = 75; 180 x 100 = 60; 96 x 100 = 40 ,
500 400 300 240

100 = 30; and

Pearson’s Coefficient of

Correlation (r) =

Computation of Pearson’s Coefficient of correlation

% of
Age x Regular )
(x-22.5) (y-50)
Player y
20 80 -2.5 30 -75.0 6.25 900
21 75 -1.5 25 -37.5 2.25 625
22 60 -0.5 10 - 5.0 0.25 100
23 40 0.5 -10 - 5.0 0.25 100
24 30 1.5 -20 -30.0 2.25 400
25 15 2.5 -35 -87.5 6.25 1225
135 300 -240 17.50 3350

= = = 22.5

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= = = 50

r = = = = -0.9912
Assumed mean method:
Under assumed mean method, correlation coefficient is calculated by taking assumean only.

r=

Where dx = deviations of X from its assumed mean; dy= deviations of y from its assumed mean
Find out coefficient of correlation between size and defect in quality of shoes:

Size : 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-21

No. of shoes
Produced : 200 270 340 360 400 300
No. of defectives: 150 162 170 180 180 114
Let x = size (ie mid-values)
y = percentage of defectives
x values are 15.5 , 16.5, 17.5, 18.5, 19.5 and 20.5
y values are 75, 60, 50, 50, 45 and 38
Take assumed mean: x = 17.5 and y = 50

Computation of Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

x y dx dy dxdy dx2 dy2
15.5 75 -2 25 -50 4 625
16.5 60 -1 10 -10 1 100
17.5 50 0 0 0 0 0
18.5 50 1 0 0 1 0
19.5 45 2 -5 -10 4 25
20.5 38 3 -12 -36 9 144

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r=

r=

= = = -0.9485

Direct Method:

Under direct method, coefficient of correlation is calculated without taking actual mean or
assumed mean

r=

From the following data, compute Pearson’s correlation coefficient:

Price : 10 12 14 15 19

Demand (Qty) 40 41 48 60 50

Let us take price = x and demand = y

Computation of Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

Price Demand
xy x2 y2
(x) (y)
10 40 400 100 1600

12 41 492 144 1681

14 48 672 196 2304

15 60 900 225 3600

19 50 950 361 2500

= 70 = 239

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r=

r=

r= = = +0.621

Probable Error and Coefficient of Correlation

Probable error (PE) of the Co-efficient of correlation is a statistical device which measures
the reliability and dependability of the value of co-efficient of correlation.

Probable Error = standard error

[

= 0.6745 x standard error

Standard Error (SE) =

PE =

If the value of coefficient of correlation ( r) is less than the PE, then there is no evidence of
correlation.

If the value of ‘r’ is more than 6 times of PE, the correlation is certain and significant.

By adding and submitting PE from coefficient of correlation, we can find out the upper
and lower limits within which the population coefficient of correlation may be expected to lie.

Uses of PE:

1) PE is used to determine the limits within which the population coefficient of correlation
may be expected to lie.

2) It can be used to test whether the value of correlation coefficient of a sample is significant
with that of the population

If r = 0.6 and N = 64, find out the PE and SE of the correlation coefficient. Also determine
the limits of population correlation coefficient.

Sol: r = 0.6
N=64

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PE = 0.6745 SE

SE =

= = = 0.08

P.E = 0.6745

= 0.05396

Limits of population Correlation coefficient = r PE

= 0.6 0.05396

= 0.54604 to 0.6540

Qn. 2 r and PE have values 0.9 and 0.04 for two series. Find n.

Sol: PE = 0.04

0.6745 0.04

0.0593 = 0.19

N = 3. = 10. 266

N = 10

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Coefficient of Determination
One very convenient and useful way of interpreting the value of coefficient of correlation is
the use of the square of coefficient of correlation. The square of coefficient of correlation is
called coefficient of determination.
Coefficient of determination = r2
Coefficient of determination is the ratio of the explained variance to the total variance.
For example, suppose the value of r = 0.9, then r2 = 0.81=81%
This means that 81% of the variation in the dependent variable has been explained by
(determined by) the independent variable. Here 19% of the variation in the dependent variable
has not been explained by the independent variable. Therefore, this 19% is called coefficient of
non-determination.
Coefficient of non-determination (K2) = 1 – r2
K2 = 1- coefficient of determination
Qn: Calculate coefficient of determination and non-determination if coefficient of correlation
is 0.8
Sol:- r =0.8
Coefficient of determination =
= 0.82 = 0.64 = 64%
Co efficient of non-determination =1–
= 1- 0.64
= 0.36
= 36%

Merits of Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation:-

1. This is the most widely used algebraic method to measure coefficient of correlation.
2. It gives a numerical value to express the relationship between variables
3. It gives both direction and degree of relationship between variables
4. It can be used for further algebraic treatment such as coefficient of determination
coefficient of non-determination etc.
5. It gives a single figure to explain the accurate degree of correlation between two variables

Demerits of Pearson’s Coefficient of correlation

1. It is very difficult to compute the value of coefficient of correlation.

2. It is very difficult to understand

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3. It requires complicated mathematical calculations
4. It takes more time
5. It is unduly affected by extreme items
6. It assumes a linear relationship between the variables. But in real life situation, it may not
be so.
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Method

Pearson’s coefficient of correlation method is applicable when variables are measured in

quantitative form. But there were many cases where measurement is not possible because of the
qualitative nature of the variable. For example, we cannot measure the beauty, morality,
intelligence, honesty etc in quantitative terms. However it is possible to rank these qualitative
characteristics in some order.

The correlation coefficient obtained from ranks of the variables instead of their
quantitative measurement is called rank correlation. This was developed by Charles Edward
Spearman in 1904.

Spearman’s coefficient correlation (R) = 1-

Where D = difference of ranks between the two variables

N = number of pairs

Qn: Find the rank correlation coefficient between poverty and overcrowding from the
information given below:

Town: A B C D E F G H I J

Poverty: 17 13 15 16 6 11 14 9 7 12

Over crowing: 36 46 35 24 12 18 27 22 2 8

Sol: Here ranks are not given. Hence we have to assign ranks

R = 1-

N = 10

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Computation of rank correlation Co-efficient

Town Poverty Over crowding R1 R2 D D2

A 17 36 1 2 1 1

B 13 46 5 1 4 16

C 15 35 3 3 0 0

D 16 24 2 5 3 9

E 6 12 10 8 2 4

F 11 18 7 7 0 0

G 14 27 4 4 0 0

H 9 22 8 6 2 4

I 7 2 9 10 1 1

J 12 8 6 9 3 9

44

R=1-

= 1-

=
1 - 0.2667
+
= 0.7333

Qn:- Following were the ranks given by three judges in a beauty context. Determine which pair
of judges has the nearest approach to Common tastes in beauty.
Judge I: 1 6 5 10 3 2 4 9 7 8
Judge I: 3 5 8 4 7 10 2 1 6 9
Judge I: 6 4 9 8 1 2 3 10 5 7

R = 1=

N= 10

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Computation of Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient

Judge I Judge II Judge III R1-R2 R2-R3 R1-R3
(R1) (R2) (R3) (D1) (D2) (D3)
1 3 6 2 3 5 4 9 25
6 5 4 1 1 2 1 1 4
5 8 9 3 1 4 9 1 16
10 4 8 6 4 2 36 16 4
3 7 1 4 6 2 16 36 4
2 10 2 8 8 0 64 64 0
4 2 3 2 1 1 4 1 1
9 1 10 8 9 1 64 81 1
7 6 5 1 1 2 1 1 4
8 9 7 1 2 1 1 4 1
200 214 60

R=1-

Rank correlation coefficient between I & II =

= 1-

= 1- 1.2121
= - 0.2121

Rank correlation Coefficient between II & III judges = 1 -

= 1-

= - 0.297

Rank correlation coefficient between I& II judges = 1-

= 1- 0.364

= +0.636

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The rank correlation coefficient in case of I & III judges is greater than the other two pairs.
Therefore, judges I & III have highest similarity of thought and have the nearest approach to
common taste in beauty.
Qn: The Co-efficient of rank correlation of the marks obtained by 10 students in statistics &
English was 0.2. It was later discovered that the difference in ranks of one of the students
was wrongly takes as 7 instead of 9 Find the correct result.

R = 0.2

R = 1- = 0.2

= 90 0.8= 792

Correct = = 132 - +

= 164

Correct R 1=

= 1-

= 1-

= 1 - 0.9939
= 0.0061
Qn: The coefficient of rank correlation between marks in English and maths obtained by a
group students is 0.8. If the sum of the squares of the difference in ranks is given to be
33, find the number of students in the group.

Sol: R=1- = 0.8

ie, 1- = 0.8

1-08 =

0.2 ( -N) = 198

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N3 - N =

N = 10

Computation of Rank Correlation Coefficient when Ranks are Equal

There may be chances of obtaining same rank for two or more items. In such a situation,
it is required to give average rank for all. Such items. For example, if two observations got 4th
rank, each of those observations should be given the rank 4.5 (i.e 4.5)

Suppose 4 observations got 6th rank, here we have to assign the rank, 7.5 (ie.
to each of the 4 observations.
When there is equal ranks, we have to apply the following formula to compute rank
correlation coefficient:-

R= 1-

Where D – Difference of rank in the two series

N - Total number of pairs
m - Number of times each rank repeats
Qn:- Obtain rank correlation co-efficient for the data:-

X: 68 64 75 50 64 80 75 40 55 64
Y: 62 58 68 45 81 60 68 48 50 70

Here, ranks are not given we have to assign ranks Further, this is the case of equal ranks.

R= 1-

R= 1-

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Computation of rank correlation coefficient

x y R1 R2 D(R1-R2) D2
68 62 4 5 1 1
64 58 6 7 1 1
75 68 2.5 3.5 1 1
50 45 9 10 1 1
54 81 6 1 5 25
80 60 1 6 5 25
75 68 2.5 3.5 1 1
40 48 10 9 1 1
55 50 8 8 0 0
64 70 6 2 4 16
72

R=1-

= 1-

=1-

=1-

= 1- = 1 - 0.4545

= 0.5455

Merits of Rank Correlation method

1. Rank correlation coefficient is only an approximate measure as the actual values are not
used for calculations
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2. It is very simple to understand the method.
3. It can be applied to any type of data, ie quantitative and qualitative
4. It is the only way of studying correlation between qualitative data such as honesty, beauty
etc.
5. As the sum of rank differences of the two qualitative data is always equal to zero, this
method facilitates a cross check on the calculation.

Demerits of Rank Correlation method

1. Rank correlation coefficient is only an approximate measure as the actual values are
not used for calculations.
2. It is not convenient when number of pairs (ie. N) is large
3. Further algebraic treatment is not possible.
4. Combined correlation coefficient of different series cannot be obtained as in the case
of mean and standard deviation. In case of mean and standard deviation, it is
possible to compute combine arithematic mean and combined standard deviation.

Concurrent Deviation Method:

Concurrent deviation method is a very simple method of measuring correlation. Under this
method, we consider only the directions of deviations. The magnitudes of the values are
completely ignored. Therefore, this method is useful when we are interested in studying
correlation between two variables in a casual manner and not interested in degree (or precision).
Under this method, the nature of correlation is known from the direction of deviation in
the values of variables. If deviations of 2 variables are concurrent, then they move in the same
direction, otherwise in the opposite direction.
The formula for computing the coefficient of concurrent deviation is: -

r=

Where N = No. of pairs of symbol

C = No. of concurrent deviations (ie, No. of + signs in ‘dx dy’ column)
Steps:
1. Every value of ‘X’ series is compared with its proceeding value. Increase is shown
by ‘+’ symbol and decrease is shown by ‘-‘
2. The above step is repeated for ‘Y’ series and we get ‘dy’
3. Multiply ‘dx’ by ‘dy’ and the product is shown in the next column. The column
heading is ‘dxdy’.

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4. Take the total number of ‘+’ signs in ‘dxdy’ column. ‘+’ signs in ‘dxdy’ column
denotes the concurrent deviations, and it is indicated by ‘C’.
5. Apply the formula:

r=

If 2c
Qn:- Calculate coefficient if correlation by concurrent deviation method:-

Year : 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Supply : 160 164 172 182 166 170 178 192 186
Price : 292 280 260 234 266 254 230 190 200

Sol: Computation of coefficient of concurrent

Deviation
Supply (x) Price (y) dx dy dxdy
160 292 + - -
164 280 + - -
172 260 + - -
182 234 + - -
166 266 - + -
170 254 + - -
178 230 + - -
192 190 + - -
186 200 - + -
C=0

r=

= == = -1

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Merits of concurrent deviation method:
1. It is very easy to calculate coefficient of correlation
2. It is very simple understand the method
3. When the number of items is very large, this method may be used to form quick idea about
the degree of relationship
4. This method is more suitable, when we want to know the type of correlation (ie, whether
positive or negative).

Demerits of concurrent deviation method:

1. This method ignores the magnitude of changes. Ie. Equal weight is give for small and big
changes.
2. The result obtained by this method is only a rough indicator of the presence or absence of
correlation
3. Further algebraic treatment is not possible
4. Combined coefficient of concurrent deviation of different series cannot be found as in the
case of arithmetic mean and standard deviation.

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CHAPTER - 3

REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Introduction:-
Correlation analysis analyses whether two variables are correlated or not. After having
established the fact that two variables are closely related, we may be interested in estimating the
value of one variable, given the value of another. Hence, regression analysis means to analyse the
average relationship between two variables and thereby provides a mechanism for estimation or
predication or forecasting.
The term ‘Regression” was firstly used by Sir Francis Galton in 1877. The dictionary
meaning of the term ‘regression” is “stepping back” to the average.

Definition:
“Regression is the measure of the average relationship between two or more variables in
terms of the original units of the date”.
“Regression analysis is an attempt to establish the nature of the relationship between
variables-that is to study the functional relationship between the variables and thereby provides a
mechanism for prediction or forecasting”.
It is clear from the above definitions that Regression Analysis is a statistical device with
the help of which we are able to estimate the unknown values of one variable from known values
of another variable. The variable which is used to predict the another variable is called
independent variable (explanatory variable) and, the variable we are trying to predict is called
dependent variable (explained variable).
The dependent variable is denoted by X and the independent variable is denoted by Y.
The analysis used in regression is called simple linear regression analysis. It is called
simple because three is only one predictor (independent variable). It is called linear because, it is
assumed that there is linear relationship between independent variable and dependent variable.

Types of Regression:-
There are two types of regression. They are linear regression and multiple regression.

Linear Regression:
It is a type of regression which uses one independent variable to explain and/or predict the
dependent variable.

Multiple Regression:
It is a type of regression which uses two or more independent variable to explain and/or
predict the dependent variable.

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Regression Lines:
Regression line is a graphic technique to show the functional relationship between the two
variables X and Y. It is a line which shows the average relationship between two variables X and Y.
If there is perfect positive correlation between 2 variables, then the two regression lines
are winding each other and to give one line. There would be two regression lines when there is no
perfect correlation between two variables. The nearer the two regression lines to each other, the
higher is the degree of correlation and the farther the regression lines from each other, the lesser is
the degree of correlation.
Properties of Regression lines:-
1. The two regression lines cut each other at the point of average of X and average of Y ( i.e
and )
2. When r = 1, the two regression lines coincide each other and give one line.
3. When r = 0, the two regression lines are mutually perpendicular.

Regression Equations (Estimating Equations)

Regression equations are algebraic expressions of the regression lines. Since there are two
regression lines, therefore two regression equations. They are :-
1. Regression Equation of X on Y:- This is used to describe the variations in the values
of X for given changes in Y.
2. Regression Equation of Y on X :- This is used to describe the variations in the value of
Y for given changes in X.
Least Square Method of computing Regression Equation:
The method of least square is an objective method of determining the best relationship
between the two variables constituting a bivariate data. To find out best relationship means to
determine the values of the constants involved in the functional relationship between the two
variables. This can be done by the principle of least squares:
The principle of least squares says that the sum of the squares of the deviations between
the observed values and estimated values should be the least. In other words, will be
the minimum.
With a little algebra and differential calculators we can develop some equations (2
equations in case of a linear relationship) called normal equations. By solving these normal
equations, we can find out the best values of the constants.

Regression Equation of Y on X:-

Y = a + bx
The normal equations to compute ‘a’ and ‘b’ are: -

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Regression Equation of X on Y:-
X = a + by
The normal equations to compute ‘a’ and ‘b’ are:-

Qn:- Find regression equations x and y and y on x from the following:-

X: 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Y: 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
Sol: Regression equation x on y is:

x = a + by
Normal equations are:

Computation of Regression Equations

x y x2 y2 xy
25 18 625 324 450
30 24 900 576 720
35 30 1225 900 1050
40 36 1600 1296 1440
45 42 2025 1764 1890
50 48 2500 2304 2400
55 54 3025 2916 2970

280 = 7a+ 252 b ------------( 1)

10920 = 252a+10080 b -----------(2)

Eq. 1 36 10080 = 252a + 9072b -------------(3)

10920 = 252a + 10080b ------------- (2)
(2) (3) 840 = 0 + 1008 b

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1008 b = 840

b = = 0.83

Substitute b = 0.83 in equation ( 1 )

280 = 7a + (252 0.83)

280 = 7 a + 209.16

7a+ 209.116 = 280

7a = 280-209.160

a = = 10.12
Substitute a = 10.12 and b =0.83 in regression equation:

Regression equation Y on X is:

y = a + bx
Normal Equations are:-

252 = 7a + 280 b ------- (1)

10920 = 280 a+ 11900 b ------- (2)

(1) 40 10080 = 280 a + 11200 b ------- (3)

10920 = 280 a+ 11900 b ------- (2)

(2) – (3) 840 = 0 + 700 b

700 b = 840

b= = 1.2

Substitute b = 1.2 in equation (1 )

252 = 7a + (280x1.2)
252 = 7a + 336
7a + 336 = 252
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7a = 252 – 336 = -84

a= = -12

Substitute a = -12 and b = 1.2 in regression equation

y = -12+1.2x
Qn:- From the following bivariate data, you are required to: -
(a) Fit the regression line Y on X and predict Y if x = 20
(b) Fir the regression line X on Y and predict X if y = 10
X: 4 12 8 6 4 4 16 8
Y: 14 4 2 2 4 6 4 12

Computation of regression equations

x y x2 y2 xy

4 14 16 196 56

12 4 144 16 48

8 2 64 4 16

6 2 36 4 12

4 4 16 16 16

4 6 16 36 24

16 4 256 16 64

8 12 64 144 96

Regression equation y on x
y = a + bx
Normal equations are:

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48 = 8a + 62 b (1)

332 = 62a + 612 b (2)

e
-1052 b = 320

b=

Substitute b = -0.304 in eq (1)

48 = 8a + (62 x -0.304)
48 = 8a + -18.86
48 + 18.86 = 8a
a = 66.86

a = = 8.36

Substitute a = 8.36 and b = -0.304 in regression equation y on x :

y = 8.36 + -0.3042 x
y = 8.36 – 0.3042 x

If x = 20, then,

y=8.36 – (0.3042x20)

= 8.36 – 6.084

= 2.276

(b) Regression equation X on Y:

X=a + by
Normal equations:

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62 = 8a + 48 b .(1)
332 = 48 a + 432 b .(2)

332 = 48 a + 432 b (2)

eq
144 b = -40

b= = - 0.2778
Substitute b = -0.2778 in equation (1)

62 = 8a + (48
62 = 8a + -13.3344
62+13.3344 = 8 a
8a = 75.3344

a= = 9.4168

Substitute a = 9.4168 and b = -0.2778 in regression equation:

x = 9.4168 + -0.2778 y
x = 9.4168 + -0.2778 y
If y=10, then
x=9.4168 – (0.2778x10)
x= 9.4168 – 2.778

x = 6.6388

Regression Coefficient method of computing Regression Equations:

Regression equations can also be computed by the use of regression coefficients.

Regression coefficient X on Y is denoted as bxy and that of Y on X is denoted as byx.
Regression Equation x on y:

x - = bxy (y - )

i.e x - =

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Regression Equation y on x:

y - = byx (x - )

i.e y - =

Properties of Regression Coefficient:

1. There are two regression coefficients. They are bxy and byx
2. Both the regression coefficients must have the same signs. If one is +ve, the other will
also be a +ve value.
3. The geometric mean of regression coefficients will be the coefficient of correlation.
r=

4. If x and are the same, then the regression coefficient and correlation coefficient will be
the same.

Computation of Regression Co-efficients

Regression co-efficients can be calculated in 3 different ways:
1. Actual mean method
2. Assumed mean method
3. Direct method

Actual mean method:-

Regression coefficient x on y (bxy ) =

Regression coefficient y on x (b yx ) =

Where x = x–
y = y-

Assumed mean method:

Regression coefficient x on y (bxy)

Regression coefficient y on x (byx)

Where dx = deviation from assumed mean of X

dy = deviation from assumed mean of Y
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Direct method:-

Regression Coefficient x on y
(bxy )

Regression Coefficient y on x

(byx)
Qn:- Following information is obtained from the records of a business organization:-
Sales ( in ‘000): 91 53 45 76 89 95 80 65

Advertisement Expense
( in ‘000) 15 8 7 12 17 25 20 13
You are required to:-
1. Compute regression coefficients under 3 methods
2. Obtain the two regression equations and
3. Estimate the advertisement expenditure for a sale of Rs. 1,20,000
Let x = sales
y = Advertisement expenditure

Computation of regression Coefficients under actual mean method

x y x- y- xy x2 y2
91 15 16.75 0.375 6.28 280.56 0.14

53 8 -21.65 -6.625 140.78 451.56 43.89

45 7 -29.25 -7.625 223.03 855.56 58.14

76 12 1.75 -2,625 -4.59 3.06 6.89

89 17 14.75 -2.375 35.03 217.56 5.64

95 25 20.75 10.375 215.28 430.56 107.64

80 20 5.75 5.375 30.91 33.06 28.89

65 13 -9.25 -1.625 15.03 85.56 2.64

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= = = 74.25

= = = 14.625

Regression coefficient x on y

=
= 2.61

Regression coefficient Y on X
(

=
= 0.28

Computation of Regression Coefficient under assured mean method

x y x-70 y-15 (dy) dxdy
(dx)
91 15 21 0 0 441 0
53 8 -17 -7 +119 289 49
45 7 -25 -8 +200 625 64
76 12 6 -3 -18 36 9
89 17 19 2 +38 361 4
95 25 25 10 +250 625 100
80 20 10 5 +50 100 25
65 13 -5 -2 +10 25 4

Regression Coefficient x on y
(bxy)

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=
=
= 2.61

Regression coefficient y on x
(byx)

=
=

= 0.28

Computation of Regression Coefficient under direct method

x y xy x2 y2

91 15 1365 8281 225

53 8 424 2809 64

45 7 315 2025 49

76 12 912 5776 144

89 17 1513 7921 289

95 25 2375 9025 625

80 20 1600 6400 400

65 13 845 4225 169

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Regression coefficient x on y
(bxy)

= 5294

2031

= 2.61

Regression coefficient y on x
(byx) =

= 0.28

3) a) Regression equation X on Y:

(x- ) = bxy (y- )

(x-74.25) = 2.61 ( -14.625)

(x-74.25) = 2.61 y-38.17
x = 74.25 – 38.17+2.61y
x = 36.08 + 2.61y

b) Regression equation y pm x:

(y-y) = byx (x- )

(y-14.625) = 0.28 (x-74.25)

y =14.625 = 0.28

y = 14.625 – 20.79 + 0.28

y = -6.165+0.28

y =0.28

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4) If sales (x)is Rs. 1,20,000, then

Estimated advertisement Exp (y) = (0.28x120)-6.165
= (33.6 – 6.165
= 27.435
i.e Rs. 27,435
Qn: In a correlation study, the following values are obtained:

Mean

Standard deviation 2.5 3.5

Coefficient of correlation 0.8
Find the regression equations
Sol: Regression equation x on y is:

x- = bxy (y- )

x- =

x - 65 = 0.8 (y-67)

x - 65 = 0.5714 (y-67)
x - 65 = 0.5714y-38.2838
x = 65 – 38.2838+0.5714y
x = 26.72 + 0.5714y
Regression equation y on x is:

y- = byx (x- )

y- =

y - 67 = 0.8 (x-65)

y - 67 = 1.12 (x-65)
y = 67 – (1.12 x65) = 1.12 x

y = 67.72.8 + 1.12

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y = -5.8 +1.12x
y = 1.12x - 5.8
Qn: Two variables gave the following data

= 20, = 4, r = 0.7

= 15, =3

Obtain regression lines and find the most likely value of y when x=24
Sol: Regression Equation x on y is

(x - ) = bxy (y - )

(x - ) =

(x - 20) = 0.7x (y-15)

(x - 20) = (y-15)

(x - 20) = 0.93(y-15)
x = 20 + 0.93y – 13.95
x = 20 - 13.95 + 0.93y
x = 6.05 + 0.93y

Regression Equation y on x is

(y - ) = byx (x - )

(y - ) =

(y - ) = 0.7 (x - 20)

(y -15) = 0.525(x – 20)

y – 15 = 0.525 -10.5
y = 15-10.5+ 0.525x
y =4.5+0.525x

If X = 24, then
y = 4.5 + (0.525×24)

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y = 4.5 + 12.6
y = 17.1

Qn: For a given set of bivariate data, the following results were obtained:

= 53.2, = 27.9, = -1.5 and = -0.2

Find the most probable value of y when x = 60. Also find ‘r’.
Sol: Regression Equation y on x is:

(y - ) = (x- )

(y - 27.9) = -1.5 (x-53.2)

(y - 27.9) = -1.5x + 79.8

y = 79.8+27.9 – 1.5

y = 107.7 – 1.5
If x = 60, then

y = 107.7 – (1.5 60)

= 107.7-90
= 17.7

=- =- = -0.5477

Correlation Regression

1 It studies degree of relationship It studies the nature of relationship between

between variables variables

2 It is not used for prediction purposes It is basically used for prediction purposes

3 It is basically used as a tool for It is basically used as a tool for studying

determining the degree of relationship cause and effect relationship

4 There may be nonsense correlation There is no such nonsense regression

between two variables

5 There is no question of dependent and There must be dependent and independent

independent variables variables

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CHAPTER - 4
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
INTRODUCTION
Probability refers to the chance of happening or not happening of an event. In our day
today conversations, we may make statements like “ probably he may get the selection”, “possibly
the Chief Minister may attend the function”, etc. Both the statements contain an element of
uncertainly about the happening of the even. Any problem which contains uncertainty about the
happening of the event is the problem of probability.

Definition of Probability
The probability of given event may be defined as the numerical value given to the likely
hood of the occurrence of that event. It is a number lying between ‘0’ and ‘1’ ‘0’ denotes the
even which cannot occur, and ‘1’ denotes the event which is certain to occur. For example, when
we toss on a coin, we can enumerate all the possible outcomes (head and tail), but we cannot say
which one will happen. Hence, the probability of getting a head is neither 0 nor 1 but between 0
and 1. It is 50% or ½

Terms use in Probability.

Random Experiment
A random experiment is an experiment that has two or more outcomes which vary in an
unpredictable manner from trial to trail when conducted under uniform conditions.
In a random experiment, all the possible outcomes are known in advance but none of the
outcomes can be predicted with certainty. For example, tossing of a coin is a random experiment
because it has two outcomes (head and tail), but we cannot predict any of them which certainty.

Sample Point
Every indecomposable outcome of a random experiment is called a sample point. It is
also called simple event or elementary outcome.
Eg. When a die is thrown, getting ‘3’ is a sample point.
Sample space
Sample space of a random experiment is the set containing all the sample points of that
random experiment.
Eg:- When a coin is tossed, the sample space is (Head, Tail)
Event
An event is the result of a random experiment. It is a subset of the sample space of a
random experiment.
Sure Event (Certain Event)
An event whose occurrence is inevitable is called sure even.
Eg:- Getting a white ball from a box containing all while balls.
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Impossible Events
An event whose occurrence is impossible, is called impossible event. Eg:- Getting a white ball
from a box containing all red balls.
Uncertain Events
An event whose occurrence is neither sure nor impossible is called uncertain event.
Eg:- Getting a white ball from a box containing white balls and black balls.

Equally likely Events

Two events are said to be equally likely if anyone of them cannot be expected to occur in
preference to other. For example, getting herd and getting tail when a coin is tossed are equally
likely events.
Mutually exclusive events
A set of events are said to be mutually exclusive of the occurrence of one of them excludes the
possibiligy of the occurrence of the others.

Exhaustive Events:
A group of events is said to be exhaustive when it includes all possible outcomes of the random
experiment under consideration.

Dependent Events:
Two or more events are said to be dependent if the happening of one of them affects the
happening of the other.
PERMUTATIONS
Permutation means arrangement of objects in a definite order. The number of arrangements
(permutations) depends upon the total number of objects and the number of objects taken at a time
for arrangement.
The number of permutations is calculated by using the following formula:

Factorial

n = Total number of objects

r = Number of objects taken at a time for arrangement
If whole the objects are taken at a time for arrangement, then number of permutations is
calculated by using the formula :

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=n!
Question:-
A factory manager purchased 3 new machines, A, B and C. How many number of times he can
arrange the 3 machines?
Solution :

r= 3
Here ‘n’ and ‘r’ are same

= 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6.

Question :
In how many ways 3 people be seated on a bench if only two seats are available.
Solution

r= 2

= = = 6 ways

Computation of Permutation when objects are alike:-

Sometimes, some of the objects of a group are alike. In such a situation number of permutations
is calculated as :-

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number of alike objects in first category

= number of alike objects in second category
If all items are alike, you know, they can be arranged in only one order

ie ,

Question:
Find the number of permutations of letters in the word ‘COMMUNICATION’

Solution

C = 2, 0 = 2; M = 2 ; U = 1; N = 2;
1 = 2; A =1; T=1

= 194594400 times

COMBINATIONS
Combination means selection or grouping of objects without considering their order. The number
of combinations is calculated by using the following formula:

=
Question
A basket contains 10 mangoes. In how many ways 4 mangoes from the basket can be selected?
Solution

n = 10
r=4

= = =

= 210 ways

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Questions
How many different sets of 5 students can be chosen out of 20 qualified students to represent a
school in an essay context ?
Solution

n = 20
r=5

= = =

= 15504 Sets

DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ON PROBABILITY

Different Approaches/Definitions of Probability
There are 4 important schools of thought on probability :-

1. Classical or Priori Approach Objective Probability

2. Relative frequency or Empirical Approach Approach
3. Subjective or Personalistic Approach
4. Modern or Axiomatic Approach
1. Classical or Priori Approach
If out of ‘n’ exhaustive, mutually exclusive and equally likely outcomes of an experiment;
‘m’ are favourable to the occurrence of an event ‘A’, then the probability of ‘A’ is defined as to
be .

P(A) =

According to Laplace, a French Mathematician, “ the probability is the ratios of the

number of favourable cases to the total number of equally likely cases.”

P(A) =

Question
What is the chance of getting a head when a coin is tossed?

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Solution
Total number of cases = 2
No. of favorable cases = 1
Probability of getting head =

Question
A die is thrown. Find the probability of getting.
(1) A ‘4’
(2) an even number
(3) ‘3’ or ‘5’
(4) less than ‘3’

Solution
Sample space is (1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
(1) Probability (getting ‘4) =

(2) Probability (getting an even number) = =

(3) Probability (getting 3 or 5) = =

(4) Probability (getting less than ‘3’) = =

Question
A ball is drawn from a bag containing 4 white, 6 black and 5 yellow balls. Find the
probability that a ball drawn is :-
(1) White (2) Yellow (3) Black (4) Not yellow (5) Yellow or white

Solution

(1)P (drawing a white ball) =

(2) P (drawing a yellow ball) = =

(3) P (drawing a black ball) = =

(4) P (drawing not a yellow ball) = =

(5) P (drawing a yellow or white ball) = =

Question
There are 19 cards numbered 1 to 19 in a box. If a person drawn one at random, what is
the probability that the number printed on the card be an even number greater than 10?
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Solution
The even numbers greater than 10 are 12, 14, 16 and 18.
=
P (drawing a card with an even number greater than 10)
Question
Two unbiased dice are thrown. Find the probability that :-
(a) Both the dice show the same number
(b) One die shows 6
(c) First die shows 3
(d) Total of the numbers on the dice is 9
(e) Total of the numbers on the dice is greater than 8
(f) A sum of 11

Solution
When 2 dice are thrown the sample space consists of the following outcomes :-
(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,3) (2,5) (2,6)
(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
(a) P(that both the dice shows the same number) = =

(b) P (that one die shows 6) = =

(c) P (that first die shows 3) = =

(d) P (that total of the numbers on the dice is 9) = =

(e) P (that total of the number is greater than 8) = =

(f) P (that a sum of 11) = =

Problems based on combination results

Question
A box contains 6 white balls and 4 green balls. What is the probability of drawing a green ball?

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Solution

Probable number of cases =

Total number of cases =

P(drawing a green ball) =

= =

Question
What is the probability of getting 3 red balls in a draw of 36 balls from a bag containg 5
red balls and 46 black balls?

Solution

Favourable number of cases =

Total number of cases =

P(getting 3 white balls)=

= =

= = =

Question
A committee is to be constituted by selecting three people at random from a group
consisting of 5 Economists and 4 Statisticians. Find the probability that the committee will
consist of :
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(a)3 Economists
(b) 3 Statisticians
(c)3 Economists and 1 Statistician
(d) 1 Economist and 2 Statistician

(a) P (Selecting 3 Economists) =

= =

= =

(b) P(Selecting 3 Statisticians) =

(c) P (Selecting 2 Economists

and 1 Statistician) =

= =

= =
(d) P(Selecting 1 Economist
and 2 Statistician =

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= = =

Questions
A committee of 5 is to be formed from a group of 8 boys and 7 girls. Find the probability that the
committee consists of at least one girl.

Solution
P(one girl & 4 boys) or P(2 girls & 3 boys)
P (that committee consists of
at least one girl) = or P(3 girls & 2 boys) or P(4girls & 1 boy)
or P(5 girls)

= =

This problem can be solved in the following method also.

P(that the committee consists
= 1 – P (that the committee consists of all boys
of at least one girl)

=1–( )

=1– = 1-

=1-

= =

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Limitations of Classical Definition:
1. Classical definition has only limited application in coin-tossing die throwing etc. It fails to
answer question like “What is the probability that a female will die before the age of 64?”
2. Classical definition cannot be applied when the possible outcomes are not equally likely.
How can we apply classical definition to find the probability of rains? Here, two
possibilities are “rain” or “no rain”. But at any given time these two possibilities are not
equally likely.
3. Classical definition does not consider the outcomes of actual experimentations.

Relative Frequency Definition or Empirical Approach

According to Relative Frequency definition, the probability of an event can be defined as
the relative frequency with which it occurs in an indefinitely large number of trials.
If an even ‘A’ occurs ‘f’ number of trials when a random experiment is repeated for ‘n’ number of
times, then P(A) =

For practical convenience, the above equation may be written as P(A) =

Here, probability has between 0 and 1,

i.e. 0 P(A) 1

Question
The compensation received by 1000 workers in a factory are given in the following table :-
Wages: 80-100 100-120 120-140 140-160 160-180 180-200
No. of
10 100 400 250 200 40
Workers:
Find the probability that a worker selected has
(1) Wages under Rs.100/-
(2) Wages above Rs.140/-
(3) Wages between Rs. 120/- and Rs.180/-
Solution

P(that a worker selected has wages under Rs.140/-) = =

P(that a worker selected has wages above Rs.140/-= =

P(that a worker selected has wages between 120 and 180) = =

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Subjective (Personalistie) Approach to Probability
The exponents of personalistie approach defines probability as a measure of personal
confidence or belief based on whatever evidence is available. For example, if a teacher wants to
find out the probability that Mr. X topping in M.Com examination, he may assign a value between
zero and one according to his degree of belief for possible occurrence. He may take into account
such factors as the past academic performance in terminal examinations etc. and arrive at a
probability figure. The probability figure arrived under this method may vary from person to
person. Hence it is called subjective method of probability.
Axiomatic Approach (Modern Approach) to Probability
Let ‘S’ be the sample space of a random experiment, and ‘A’ be an event of the random
experiment, so that ‘A’ is the subset of ‘S’. Then we can associate a real number to the event ‘A’.
This number will be called probability of ‘A’ if it satisfies the following three axioms or
postulates :-
(1) The probability of an event ranges from 0 and 1.
If the event is certain, its probability shall be 1.
If the event cannot take place, its probability shall be zero.
(2) The sum of probabilities of all sample points of the sample spece is equal to 1.
i.e, P(S) = 1
(3) If A and B are mutually exclusive (disjoint) events, then the probability of occurrence of
either A or B shall be :

P(A B) = P(A) + P(B)

THEOREMS OF PROBABILITY
There are two important theorems of probability. They are :
1. Addition Theorem
2. Multiplication Theorem

Addition Theorem
Here, there are 2 situations.
(a) Events are mutually exclusive
(b) Events are not mutually exclusive

(a) Addition theorem (Mutually Exclusive Events)

If two events, ‘A’ and ‘B’, are mutually exclusive the probability of the occurrence of either ‘A’
or ‘B’ is the sum of the individual probability of A and B.
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

i.e., P(A B) = P(A) + P(B)

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(b)Addition theorem (Not mutually exclusive events)
If two events, A and B are not mutually exclusive the probability of the occurrence of
either A or B is the sum of their individual probability minus probability for both to happen.
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)

i.e., P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A B)

Question
What is the probability of picking a card that was red or black?

Solution
Here the events are mutually exclusive

P(picking a red card) =

P(picking a black card) =

P (picking a red or black card) = + =1

Question

The probability that a contractor will get a plumping contract is and the probability that
he will not get an electric contract is . If the probability of getting at least one contract is , what
is the probability that he will get both the contracts?
Solution

P(getting plumbing contract) =

P(not getting electric contract) =

P(getting electric contract) = 1 - =

P(getting at least one contract) = P (getting electric contract) +

P(getting plumbing contract) - P(getting both)

i.e., = + - P(getting both)

P(getting both contracts) = + -

= =

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Question
If P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.6, P(A B) = 0.2, find:-

(a) P(A B)
(b) P(A’)

(c) P(A B’)

(d) P(A’ B’)

Solution
Here the events are not mutually exclusive:-

(a) P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A B)

= 0.5 + 0.6 – 0.2
= 0.9
(b) P(A’) = 1- P(A)
= 1 – 0.5
=0.5

(c) P(A B’)

= P(A) – P(A B)
= 0.5 – 0.2
= 0.3

(d) P(A’ B’) = 1 – P(A B)

= 1- [P(A) + P(B) – P(A B)

= 1 – (0.5 + 0.6 – 0.2)
= 1- 0.9
= 0.1

MULTIPLICATION THEOREM
Here there are two situations:
(a) Events are independent
(b) Events are dependent

(a)Multiplication theorem (independent events)

If two events are independent, then the probability of occurring both will be the product of
the individual probability
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P(A and B) = P(A).P(B)

i.e., P(A B) = P(A).P(B)

Question
A bag contains 5 white balls and 8 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from the bag
and is then replaced. Again another one is drawn. Find the probability that both the balls are
white.
Solution
Here the events are independent

P(drawing white ball in I draw) =

P(drawing white ball in II draw) =

P(drawing white ball in both draw) = ×

Question
Single coin is tossed for three tones. What is the probability of getting head in all the 3 times?
Solution
P(getting head in all the 3 times) = P(getting H in 1 st toss) × P(getting Head in 2nd toss) ×
P(getting H in 3rd toss)

= × ×

(b)Multiplication theorem (dependent Events):-

If two events, A and B are dependent, the probability of occurring 2 nd event will be
affected by the outcome of the first.

P(A B) = P(A).P(B/A)

Question
A bag contains 5 white balls and 8 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from the bag.
Again, another one is drawn without replacing the first ball. Find the probability that both the
balls drawn are white.
Solution

P(drawing a white ball in Ist draw) =

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P (drawing a white ball in IInd draw) =

Question

The probability that ‘A’ solves a problem in Maths is and the probability that ‘B’ solves it is .
If they try independently find the probability that :-
(i) Both solve the problem.
(ii) at least one solve the problem.
(iii) none solve the problem.

Solution
(i) P(that both solve the problem) = P(that A solves the problem)×
P(that B solves the problem)

= × = =

(ii) P(that at least one

= P(that A or B solves the problem)
solve the problem)
= P(A solve the problem +
P(B solve the problem –
P(A and B solve the problem)

= + -( × )

= + -

= =

(iii) P(that none solve the problem) =1-P(at least one solve the problem)
= 1 – P(A or B solve the problem)
=1- [P(A solve the problem +
P(B solve the problem) -
P(A & B solve the problem)]

= 1-

= 1-( )
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= 1- ( )

=1- = =

Question
A university has to select an examiner from a list of 50 persons. 20 of them are women
and 30 men. 10 of them know Hindi and 40 do not. 15 of them are teachers and remaining are
not. What is the probability that the university selecting a Hindi knowing woman teacher?

Solution
Here the events are independent.
P(selecting Hindi knowing = P(selecting Hindi knowing person,
Woman teacher) woman and teacher
P(selecting Hindi Knowing persons =

P(selecting woman) =

P (selecting teacher) =

P(selection Hindi knowing =

Woman teacher

= =

Question
‘A’ speaks truth in 70%cases and ‘B’ in 85% cases. In what percentage of cases they likely to
contradict each other in stating the same fact?
Let P(A) = Probability that ‘A’ speaks truth.

P(A’) = Probability that ‘A’ does not speak truth

P(B) = Probability that ‘B’ speaks truth

P(B’) = Probability that ‘B’ does not speak truth

P(A) = 70% = 0.7

P(A’) =30% =0.3

P(B) = 85% = 0.85

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P(B’) = 15% = 0.15

P (A and B contradict each other) = P(‘A’ speaks truth and ‘B’ does not
OR, A does not speak truth & B
speaks
=P(A & B’) (A’ &B)
=(0.7 ×0.15) + (0.3 ×0.85)
=0.105 + 0.255
= 0.360

Percentage of cases in in
which A and B contradict = 0.360 ×100
each other = 36 %

Question
20% of students in a university are graduates and 80% are undergraduates. The
probability that graduate student is married is 0.50 and the probability that an undergraduate
student is married is 0.10. If one student is selected at random, what is the probability that the
student selected is married?
P(selecting a married student) = P(selecting a graduate married
student or selecting an undergraduate
married student)
= P(Selecting a graduate & married OR
selecting un undergraduate & married)
= (20% ×0.50) + (80% ×0.10)
= ( × 0.50) + ( × 0.10)

= (0.2 × 0.50) + ( 0.8 × 0.1)

= 0.1 +0.08
= 0.18
Question
Two sets of candidates are competing for the position on the board of directors of a
company. The probability that the first and second sets will win are 0.6 and 0.4 respectively. If
the first set wins, the probability of introducing a new product is 0.8 and the corresponding
probability if the second set wins is 0.3. What is the probability that the new product will be
introduced?

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Solution
P(that new product will P(that new product is introduced by first set OR the
be introduced) = new product is introduced by second set)
= P (Ist set wins & Ist introduced the new produced OR
IInd set wins the new product)
= (0.6 × 0.8) + (0.4 × 0.3)
= 0.48 + 0.12
= 0.60

Question
A certain player say Mr. X is known to win with possibility 0.3 if the truck is fast and 0.4 if the
track is slow. For Monday there is a 0.7 probability of a fast track and 0.3 probability of a slow
track. What is the probability that Mr. X will win on Monday?
Solution
P(X will won on Monday) = P(to win in fast track OR to win in slow track)
= P (to get fast track & to win
OR
to get slow track & to win)
= (0.7 × 0.3) + (0. 3 × 0. 4)
= 0.21 + 0.12
= 0.33

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Multiplication theorem states that if two events, A and B, are dependent events then, the
probability of happening both will be the product of P(A) and P(B/A).
i.e., P(A and B) or
= P(A).P(B/A)
P(A B)
Here, P (B/A) is called Conditional probability

P(A B) = P(A).P( )

i.e., P(A).P( ) = P(A B)

P( ) =

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Similarly, P( )) =

If 3 event, A, B and C and dependent events, then the probability of happening A, B and C is :-

P(A B C) = P(A).P( ) .P( )

i.e., P(A).P( ). P( ) = P(A B C)

P( ) =

Question

If P(A) = , P(B)= and P(A B) = , find:-

(a) P(A/B)
(b) P(B/A)

Solution
Here we know the events are dependent

(a)P(A/B) = = = × = =

(b) P(B/A) =

= = × = =

Inverse Probability
If an event has happened as a result of several causes, then we may be interested to find out the
probability of a particular cause of happening that events. This type of problem is called inverse
probability.
Baye’s theorem is based upon inverse probability.
BAYE’S THEOREM:
Baye’s theorem is based on the proposition that probabilities should revised on the basis of
all the available information. The revision of probabilities based on available information will
help to reduce the risk involved in decision-making. The probabilities before revision is called
priori probabilities and the probabilities after revision is called posterior probabilities.

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According to Baye’s theorem, the posterior probability of event (A) for a particular result
of an investigation (B) may be found from the following formula:-

P(A/B) =

Steps in computation
1. Find the prior probability
2. Find the conditional probability.
3. Find the joint probability by multiplying step 1 and step 2.
4. Find posterior probability as percentage of total joint probability.
Question
A manufacturing firm produces units of products in 4 plants, A, B, C and D. From the past
records of the proportions of defectives produced at each plant, the following conditional
probabilities are set:-
A: 0.5; B: 0.10; C:0.15 and D:0.02
The first plant produces 30% of the units of the output, the second plant produces 25%, third 40%
and the forth 5%
A unit of the products made at one of these plants is tested and is found to be defective. What is
the probability that the unit was produced in Plant C.

Solution

Computation of Posterior probabilities

Conditional Joint Posterior

Machine Priori Probability
Probabilities Probability Probability

A 0.30 0.05 0.015 = 0.1485

B 0.25 0.10 0.025
= 0.2475

C 0.40 0.15 0.060 =0.5941

D 0.05 0.02 0.001 =0.0099

0.101 1.0000
==== =====

Probability that defective unit was produced in Machine C = 0.5941

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Question
In a bolt manufacturing company machine I, II and III manufacture respectively 25%, 35% and
40%. Of the total of their output, 5%, 4% and 2% are defective bolts. A bolt is drawn at random
from the products and is found to be defective. What are the probability that it was manufactured
by :-
(a)Machine I
(b) Machine II
(c)Machine III
Solution

Computation of Posterior probabilities

Conditional Joint Posterior

Machine Priori Probability
Probabilities Probability Probability

I 0.25 0.05 0.0125 0.362

II 0.35 0.04 0.0140 0.406
III 0.40 0.02 0.0080 0.232
0.0345 1.000
==== =====
P(that the bolt was manufactured by Machine I) = 0.362
P(that the bolt was manufactured by Machine II) = 0.406
P(that the bolt was manufactured by Machine III) = 0.232
Question
The probability that a doctor will diagnose a particular disease correctly is 0.6. The
probability that a patient will die by his treatment after correct diagnosis is 0.4 and the probability
of death by wrong diagnosis is 0.7. A patient of the doctor who had the disease died. What is the
probability that his disease was not correctly diagnosed?
Solution

Computation of Posterior probabilities

Nature of Priori Conditional Joint Posterior

Diagnosis Probability Probabilities Probability Probability

Correct 0.6 0.4 0.24 = 0.462

Not correct 0.4 0.7 0.28
= 0.538
0.52
1.000

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Probability that the disease was not correctly diagnosed = 0.538

Question
There are two Urns, one containing 5 white balls and 4 black balls; and the other
containing 6 white balls and 5 black balls. One Urn is chosen and one ball is drawn. If it is white,
what is the probability that the Urn selected is the first?

Solution

Computation of Posterior probabilities

Probability of
drawing white
No. of ball Conditional Joint Posterior
Urn Probabilities Probability Probability
(Priori
Probability)

Ind = 0.2778 = 0.5046

= 0.2727 = 0.4954
IInd
0.5505 1.00

P(that the white balls drawn is from Urnn I = 0.5046

=====

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CHAPTER - 5

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
(THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION)

DEFINITION
Probability distribution (Theoretical Distribution) can be defined as a distribution obtained
for a random variable on the basis of a mathematical model. It is obtained not on the basis of
actual observation or experiments, but on the basis of probability law.
Random variable
Random variable is a variable who value is determined by the outcome of a random
experiment. Random variable is also called chance variable or stochastic variable.
For example, suppose we toss a coin. Obtaining of head in this random experiment is a random
variable. Here the random variable of “obtaining heads” can take the numerical values.
Now, we can prepare a table showing the values of the random variable and corresponding
probabilities. This is called probability distributions or theoretical distribution.
In the above, example probability distribution is :-

Obtaining of heads Probability of

obtaining heads
X
P(X)

0
1

P(X) = 1

Properties of Probability Distributions:

1. Every value of probability of random variable will be greater than or equal to zero.
i.e., P(X) 0
i.e., P(X) Negative value

2. Sum of all the probability values will be 1

P(X) = 1
Question
A distribution is given below. State whether this distribution is a probability distribution.

X: 0 1 2 3 4

P(X): 0.01 0.10 0.50 0.30 0.90

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Solution
Here all values of P(X) are more that zero; and sum of all P(X) value is equal to 1
Since two conditions, namely P(X) 0 and P(X) = 1, are satisfied, the given distribution is a
probability distribution.
MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION
(EXPECTED VALUE)
If X is a random variable assuming values , , , , with corresponding
probabilities , , , , then the operation of X is defined as + +
+ +
E(X) =
Question

A petrol pump proprietor sells on an average Rs. 80,000/- worth of petrol on rainy days
and an average of Rs. 95.000 on clear days. Statistics from the meteorological department show
that the probability is 0.76 for clear weather and 0.24 for rainy weather on coming Wednesday.
Find the expected value of petrol sale on coming Wednesday.
Expected Value
=
E(X)
= (80.000 × 0.24)+(95000 × 0.76)

= 19.200 + 72.200

= Rs. 91,400
Question
There are three alternative proposals before a business man to start a new project:-

Proposal I: Profit of Rs. 5 lakhs with a probability of 0.6 or a loss of Rs. 80,000 with
a probability of 0.4.

Proposal II: Profit of Rs. 10 laksh with a probability of 0.4 or a loss of Rs. 2 lakhs
with a probability of 0.6

Proposal III: Profit of Rs. 4.5 lakhs with a probability of 0.8 or a loss of Rs. 50,000
with a probability of 0.2

If he wants to maximize profit and minimize the loss, which proposal he should prefer?
Solution
Here, we should calculate the mathematical expectation of each proposal.

Expected Value E(X) =

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Expected value of
= (5,00.000 × 0.6) +(80.000 × 0.4)
Proposal I
= 3,00.000 – 32,000
= Rs. 2,68,000
======
Expected value of
= (10,00.000 × 0.4) +(-2,00.000 × 0.6)
Proposal II
= 4,00.000 – 1,20.000
= 2,80,000.
======
Expected value of
= (4,50,000 × 0.8) +(-50,000 × 0.2)
Proposal III
= 3,60,000 – 10,000
= 3,50,000
======
Since expected value is highest in case of proposal III, the businessman should prefer the proposal
III.

Classification of Probability Distribution

Probability Distribution

Discrete probability Continuous Probability

Distribution Distribution

Normal
Binomial Poisson
Distribution
Distribution distribution

Discrete Probability Distribution

If the random variable of a probability distribution assumes specific values only, it is
called discrete probability distributions. Binomial distribution and poisson distribution are
discrete probability distributions.

Continuous Probability Distributions:-

If the random variable of a probability distribution assumes any value in a given interval,
then it is called continuous probability distributions. Normal distributions is a continuous
probability distribution.

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CHAPTER - 6
BIONOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
Meaning & Definition:
Binomial Distribution is associated with James Bernoulli, a Swiss Mathematician.
Therefore, it is also called Bernoulli distribution. Binomial distribution is the probability
distribution expressing the probability of one set of dichotomous alternatives, i.e., success or
failure. In other words, it is used to determine the probability of success in experiments on which
there are only two mutually exclusive outcomes. Binomial distribution is discrete probability
distribution.
Binomial Distribution can be defined as follows: “A random variable r is said to follow
Binomial Distribution with parameters n and p if its probability function is:
P(r) = nC r prqn-r
Where, P = probability of success in a single trial
q=1–p
n = number of trials
r = number of success in ‘n’ trials.
Assumption of Binomial Didstribution OR
(Situations where Binomial Distribution can be applied)
Binomial distribution can be applied when:-
1. The random experiment has two outcomes i.e., success and failure.
2. The probability of success in a single trial remains constant from trial to trial of the
experiment.
3. The experiment is repeated for finite number of times.
4. The trials are independent.
Properties (features) of Binomial Distribution:
1. It is a discrete probability distribution.
2. The shape and location of Binomial distribution changes as ‘p’ changes for a given ‘n’.
3. The mode of the Binomial distribution is equal to the value of ‘r’ which has the largest
probability.
4. Mean of the Binomial distribution increases as ‘n’ increases with ‘p’ remaining
constant.
5. The mean of Binomial distribution is np.
6. The Standard deviation of Binomial distribution is
7. If ‘n’ is large and if neither ‘p’ nor ‘q’ is too close zero, Binomial distribution may be
approximated to Normal Distribution.
8. If two independent random variables follow Binomial distribution, their sum also
follows Binomial distribution.
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Qn: Six coins are tossed simultaneously. What is the probability of obtaining 4 heads?
Sol: P(r) = nC r prqn-r
r=4
n=6
p=½
q=1–p=1–½=½
4 6-4
p( r = 4) = 6C4 ( ½ ) ( ½ )

= x (½)4+2

= x (½)6

= x

=
= 0.234
Qn: The probability that Sachin Tendulkar scores a century in a cricket match is . What is
the probability that out of 5 matches, he may score century in : -
(1) Exactly 2 matches
(2) No match
Sol: Here p =

q=1- =

P(r) = nC r prqn-r
Probability that Sachin scores centuary in exactly 2 matches is:
2 3
p (r = 2) = 5 C2

= x x

= x x

= = 0.329

(1) Probability that Sachin scores centuary in no matches is:

0 5-0
p (r = 0) = 5 C0

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5
= x1 x

= x1x

=
= 0.132
Qn: Consider families with 4 children each. What percentage of families would you expect to
have :-
(a) Two boys and two girls
(b) At least one boy
(c) No girls
(d) At the most two girls
Sol: p (having a boy) =

p (having a girl) =
n=4
a) P (getting 2 boys & 2 girls) = p (getting 2 boys) = p (r = 2)

P(r) = nC r prqn-r
2 4-2
p (r = 2) = 4 C2
2 2
= x X
2+2
= x
4
= X

= X

= =

% of families with 2 boys & 2 girls = x 100

= 37.5%
b) Probability of having at least one boy
= p (having one boy or having 2 boys or having 3 boys or having 4 boys)

= p (having one boy) + p (having 2 boys) + p (having 3 boys)

+ p (having 4 boys)
= p (r=1) + p (r = 2) + p(r = 3) + p (r = 4)

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r n-r
P(r) = nC r p q
1 4-1
p (r = 1) = 4 C1
4
=4X =4 X =
2 4-2
p (r = 2) = 4 C2

= 6 X =
3 4-3
p (r = 3) = 4 C3
4
=4X =4 X =
4 4-4
p (r = 4) = 4 C4
4 0
= 4 C4
4+0 4
=1X =1X

=1 X =

p(r = 1 or r=2 or r=3 or r=4) =

% of families with at least one boy = x 100 = 93.75%

c) Probability of having no girls = p (having 4 boys)
4 4-4
p (r = 4) = 4 C4
4+0
= x

= x

% of families with at least no girls = x 100 = 6.25%

d) Probability of having at the most 2 girls
= p (having 2 girls or having 1 girl or having no girl)
= p (having 2 boys or having 3 boys or having 4 boys)
= p (r =2) + p (r =3) + p (r = 4)
2 4-2
p (r = 2) = 4 C2

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3 4-3
p (r = 3) = 4 C3

=
4 4-4
p (r = 4) = 4 C4

4 0
= 4 C4

4
= 1X

p(having at the most 2 girls) =

% of families with at the most 2 girls = x 100 = 68.75%

Mean and Standard Deviation of Binomial Distribution

Mean of Binomial Distribution = np
Standard Deviation of Binomial Distribution =

Qn: For a Binomial Distribution, mean = 4 and variance = . Find n.

Sol: Mean = np = 4
Standard Deviation =
Variance = Standard Deviation 2
2
=
= npq
npq =
Divide npq by np to get the value of q

i.e. =q

q = =

= x = =

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q =
p =1–q

=1- =
np =4
nx =4

n =4

n =4x =6

Qn: For a Binomial Distribution, mean is 6 and Standard Deviation is . Find the parameters.

Sol: Mean (np) = 6

Standard Deviation ( ) =

npq = 2

q =

p=1–q

=1- =

np = 6

nx =6

n= =6x =9

Value of parameters:

p= q= n=9

Qn: In a Binomial Distribution consisting 5 independent trials, probability for 1 and 2

successes are 0.4096 and 0.2048 respectively. Find the parameter p.
Sol: As there are 5 trials, the terms of the Binomial Distribution are:-
p (r = 0) ; p (r = 1); p (r = 2); p (r = 3); p (r = 4) and p (r = 5)

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p (r = 1) = 0.4096

p (r = 2) = 0.2048
r n-r
p (r = 1) = nC r p q = 5 C1 p1q5-1 = 5pq4 = 0.4096
r n-r
p (r = 2) = nC r p q = 5 C2 p2q5-2 = 10p2q3 = 0.2048

Divide the first term by the second term

i.e., =

4p = q

4p = 1 – p

4p + p = 1

5p = 1

p=

Fitting a Binomial Distribution

Steps:
1. Find the value of n, p and q
2. Substitute the values of n, p and q in the Binomial Distribution function of nC r prqn-r
3. Put r = 0, 1, 2, .. in the function nC r prqn-r
4. Multiply each such terms by total frequency (N) to obtain the expected frequency.

Qn: Eight coins were tossed together for 256 times. Fit a Binomial Distribution of getting
heads. Also find mean and standard deviation.

Sol: p (getting head) = p =

q=1- =

n=8

Binomial Distribution function is p(r) = nC r prqn-r

Put r= 0, 1, 2, 3 .. 8, then are get the terms of the Binomial Distribution.

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No. of heads P (r) Expected Frequency

i.e. r P (r) x N
N = 256
0 8
0 8 C0 =1x1x = 1
1 7
1 8 C1 =8x = 8
2 6
2 8 C2 = 28 x = 28
3 5
3 8 C3 = 56 x = 56
4 4
4 8 C4 = 70 x = 70
5 3
5 8 C5 = 56 x = 56
6 2
6 8 C6 = 28 x = 28
7 1
7 8 C7 =8x = 8
8 0
8 8 C8 =1x = 1
Mean = np
=8x =4

Standard Deviation =

= = = 1.4142

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CHAPTER - 7
POISSON DISTRIBUTION
Meaning and Definition:

Poisson Distribution is a limiting form of Binomial Distribution. In Binomial

Distribution, the total number of trials are known previously. But in certain real life situations, it
may be impossible to count the total number of times a particular event occurs or does not occur.
In such cases Poisson Distribution is more suitable.
Poison Distribution is a discrete probability distribution. It was originated by Simeon
Denis Poisson.
The Poisson Distribution is defined as:-

p (r) =

Where r = random variable (i.e., number of success in ‘n’ trials.

e = 2.7183
m = mean of poisson distribution
Properties of Poisson Distribution
1. Poisson Distribution is a discrete probability distribution.
2. Poisson Distribution has a single parameter ‘m’. When ‘m’ is known all the terms can
be found out.
3. It is a positively skewed distribution.
4. Mean and Varriance of Poisson Distribution are equal to ‘m’.
5. In Poisson Distribution, the number of success is relatively small.
6. The standard deviation of Poisson Distribution is .
Practical situations where Poisson Distribution can be used
1. To count the number of telephone calls arising at a telephone switch board in a unit of
time.
2. To count the number of customers arising at the super market in a unit of time.
3. To count the number of defects in Statistical Quality Control.
4. To count the number of bacterias per unit.
5. To count the number of defectives in a park of manufactured goods.
6. To count the number of persons dying due to heart attack in a year.
7. To count the number of accidents taking place in a day on a busy road.

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Qn: A fruit seller, from his past experience, knows that 3% of apples in each basket will be
defectives. What is the probability that exactly 4 apples will be defective in a given
basket?

Sol: p (r) =

m=3

p (r = 4) = =

= 0.16804
Qn: It is known from the past experience that in a certain plant, there are on an average four
industrial accidents per year. Find the probability that in a given year there will be less
than four accidents. Assume poisson distribution.
Sol: p (r<4) = p(r = 0 or 1 or 2 or 3)
= p (r = 0) + p (r =1) + p (r = 2) + p (r = 3)

P (r) =

m=4

p (r = 0) = = = 0.01832

p (r = 1) = = = 0.07328

p (r = 2) = = = 0.14656

p (r = 3) = = = 0.19541

p (r < 4) = 0.01832 + 0.07328 + 0.14656 + 0.19541

= 0.43357
Qn: Out of 500 items selected for inspection, 0.2% are found to be defective. Find how many
lots will contain exactly no defective if there are 1000 lots.
Sol: p = 0.2% = 0.002
n = 500
m = np = 500 x 0.002 = 1

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p (r) =

p (r = 0) = = = 0.36788

Number of lots containing no defectives if there are 1000 lots = 0.36788 x 1000
= 367.88
= 368

Qn: In a factory manufacturing optical lenses, there is a small chance of for any one lense
to be defective. The lenses are supplied in packets of 10. Use Poisson Distribution to
calculate the approximate number of packets containing (1) one defective (2) no defective
in a consignment of 20,000 packets. You are given that e -0.02 = 0.9802.
Sol: n = 10
p = probability of manufacturing defective lense = = 0.002
m = np = 10 x 0.002 = 0.02

p (r) =

p (r = 1) = = = 0.019604

No. of packets containing one defective lense = 0.019604 x 20,000

= 392

p (r = 0) = = = 0.9802

No. of packets containing no defective lense = 0.9892 x 20,000

= 19604
Qn: A Systematic sample of 100 pages was taken from a dictionary and the observed frequency
distribution of foreign words per page was found to be as follows:
No. of foreign words per page (x) : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency (f) : 48 27 12 7 4 1 1
Calculate the expected frequencies using Poisson Distribution.

Sol: p (r) =

Here first we have to find out ‘m’.

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Computation of mean (m)

x f fx
0 48 0
1 27 27
2 12 24
3 7 21
4 4 16
5 1 5
6 1 6
N = 100 fx = 99

= = = 0.99

m = 0.99

Poisson Distribution =

Computation of expected frequencies

x p (x) Expected frequency Nx p(x)

0 100 x 0.3716 = 37.2

= 0.3716

1 100 x 0.3679 = 36.8

= 0.3679

2 100 x 0.1821 = 18.21

= 0.1821

3 100 x 0.0601 = 6
= 0.0601

4 100 x 0.0149 = 1.5

= 0.0149

5 100 x 0.0029 = 0.3

= 0.0029

6 100 x 0.0005 = 0.1

= 0.0005

Hence, the expected frequencies of this Poisson Distribution are:-

No. of foreign words per page : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Expected frequencies (Rounded): 37 37 18 6 2 0 0

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CHAPTER - 8

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution. It was first developed by
De-Moivre in 1733 as limiting form of binomial distribution. Fundamental importance of normal
distribution is that many populations seem to follow approximately a pattern of distribution as
described by normal distribution. Numerous phenomena such as the age distribution of any
species, height of adult persons, intelligent test scores of students, etc. are considered to be
normally distributed.

Definition of Normal Distribution

A continuous random variable ‘X’ is said to follow Normal Distribution if its probability
function is:

P (X) = xe ( )2

= 3.146

e = 2.71828

= mean of the distribution

= standard deviation of the distribution

Properties of Normal Distribution (Normal Curve)

1. Normal distribution is a continuous distribution.

2. Normal curve is symmetrical about the mean.
3. Both sides of normal curve coincide exactly.
4. Normal curve is a bell shaped curve.
5. Mean, Median and Mode coincide at the centre of the curve.
6. Quantities are equi-distant from median.
Q3 – Q2 = Q2 – Q1
7. Normal curve is asymptotic to the base line.
8. Total area under a normal curve is 100%.
9. The ordinate at the mean divide the whole area under a normal curve into two equal parts.
(50% on either side).
10. The height of normal curve is at its maximum at the mean.
11. The normal curve is unimodel, i.e., it has only one mode.
12. Normal curve is mesokurtic.
13. No portion of normal curve lies below the x-axis.
14. Theoretically, the range of normal curve is – to + . But practically the range is
- 3 to +3 .

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15. The
T area undder normal curve
c is disttributed as follows:
f
± 1 coverrs 68.27% area
a
± 2 coverrs 95.45% area
a
± 3 coverrs 98.73% area.
a

Importance (or usees) of Norm

mal Distribu
ution

The normal distributionn is of cen

T ntral importtance in statistical an
nalysis becaause of the
followingg reasons:-

1. T
The discretee probabiliity distribu utions such h as Bino omial Distrribution an nd Poissonn
D
Distribution tend to normmal distribuution as ‘n’ becomes laarge.
2. Almost
A all sampling
s distributions conform to o the normaal distributio on for largee values off
‘n
n’.
3. Many
M tests of
o significaance are bassed on the assumption n that the parent popullation from
w
which samplles are draw wn follows normal
n distrribution.
4. The
T normal distribution
d n has numerrous mathem matical propperties whicch make it popular
p andd
co
omparativelly easy to manipulate.
m
5. Normal
N distrribution findds applicatio
ons in Statisstical Qualitty Control.
6. Many
M distribbutions in soocial and ecconomic daata are apprroximately normal.
n Foor example,
biirth, death, etc. are norrmally distriibuted.

Area und
der Standaard Normall Curve

In
n case of noormal distribution, prob bability is determined
d on the basiis of area. But to findd
out the arrea we havee to calculatte the ordinaate of 2 – sccale.

T scale to which the standard

The s dev
viation is atttached is caalled 2-scalee.

Z=

Qn: Fin
nd p(z > 1.88)

Sol: z > 1.8 meanss the area abbove 1.8; i.ee., the area to
t the right of 1.8

A upto 1.88 (Table vaalue of 1.8) = 0.4641

Area

T
Total area onn the right side = 0.5

Area to thhe right of 1.8 = 0.5 – 0.4641

0

= 0.0359
9

p (z
( > 1.8) = 0.0359
0

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Qn: Find p(z < -11.5)

Sol: z < -1.5 meanns the area to the left of

o -1.5

A betweenn o and -1.55 (Table vallue of 1.5) = 0.4332

Area

T
Total area onn the left sidde = 0.5

Area to thee left -1.5 = 0.5 – 0.433

32

= 0.0668

Qn: Find p(z < 1..96)

Sol: z < 1.96 meaans the entirre area to th

he left of +1.96

T
Table value of
o 1.96 (Areea between 0 and 1.96)) = 0.4750

T
Total area onn the left sidde of normaal curve = 0..5

Area to thee left of 1.966 = 0.4750 + 0.5

= 0.9750
0

p(z < 1.966) = 0.9750

Qn: Find p(-1.78 < z < 1.78))

Sol: -1
1.78 < z < 1.778 means the entire area beetween -1.78 and +1.78

T
Table value off 1.78 (Area between
b 0 and
d 1.78) = 0.46
625

Area betweeen -1.78 and +1.78

+ = 0.46
625 + 0.4625

= 0.9250

p(-1.78 < z < 1.78) = 0.9250

Qn: Find p (1.52 < z < 2.01))

Sol: 1..52 < z < 2.011 means areaa between 1.52 and 2.01

T
Table value off 1.52 (Area between
b 0 and
d 1.52) = 0.43
357

T
Table value off 2.01 (Area between
b 0 and
d 2.01) = 0.47
778

Area betweeen 2.01 and 1.52

1 = 0.4778
8 – 0.4357 = 0.0421
0

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Qn: Find p (-1.522 < z < -0.755)

Sol: -1
1.52 < z < -00.75 means area betweeen -1.52 an
nd -0.75

T
Table value of
o 0.75 (Areea between 0 and -0.75
5) = 0.2734

T
Table value of
o 1.52 (Areea between 0 and -1.52
2) = 0.4357

Area between -0.75 annd -1.52 = 0.4357

0 – 0.2
2734

= 0.1623

p (-1.52 < z < -0.75) = 0.1623

Qn: Assume the mean heighht of soldieers to be 68

A 8.22 inchess with a varriance of 10.8 inches.
H many soldiers of a regiment of
How o 1000 wou uld you expeect to be ov
ver six feet tall?
t

Sol: 6 feet = 12 x 6 = 72 inchhes

G
Given = 688.22 inches

V
Varriance = 10.8 inchess

X = 72
7 inches

Z=

= = = 1.15023

T
Table value of
o 1.15 = 0.3749

A above 1.15
Area 1 (abovee 6 feet) = 0.5 – 0.3749

= 0.125
0

Number of
o soldiers who
w have ov
ver 6 feet talll out of 100
00 = 0.125 x 1000 = 12
25

Qn: An aptitude test was coonducted forr selecting officers

A o in 4 bank from
m 1000 students. The
av
verage scorre is 42 and the Standarrd Deviation
n is 24. Assume norm mal distibtion
n for scores
an
nd find:-

(aa) The num

mber of canddidates whosse score excceed 58.
(bb) The num
mber of canddidates whosse score lie between 30
0 and 66.

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Sol: (aa) Given N = 10000

= 42

= 24
X = 58

Z=

= = = 0.667
0

Tablee value of 0.667 (Area between 0 and

a 0.667) = 0.2486

A above 0.667 = 0.5

Area 5 – 0.2486
= 0.2514
0

Number of
o students whose
w scoree exceed 58 = 0.2514 x 1000
= 251.4
= 251 stud
dents

(b) Given
n N = 1000
1
= 42
4
= 244
X1 = 30
X2 = 66

Z=

Z1 = = = = - 0.5

Z2 = = = =1

T
Table value of
o 0.5 (Areaa between 0 and -0.5) = 0.1915
T
Table value of
o 1 (Area between
b 0 and
a +1) = 0.3413

Area betw
ween -0.5 annd +1 = 0.19
915 + 0.341
13
= 0.5
5328

Number of
o students whose
w scoree lie between 30 and 66
6 = 0.5328 x 1000
= 532.8
= 533 stu
udents

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Fitting of a Normal Distribution

Procedure :

1. Find the mean and standard deviation of the given distribution. (i.e., and )
2. Take the lower limit of each class.
3. Find Z value for each of the lower limit.
Z=
4. Find the area for z values from the table. The first and the last values are taken as 0.5.
5. Find the area for each class. Take difference between 2 adjacent values if same signs
and take total of adjacent values if opposite signs.
6. Find the expected frequency by multiplying area for each class by N.

Qn: Fit a normal distribution of the following data:

Marks : 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

No. of students : 4 22 48 66 40 16 4

Sol:

Computation of mean and standard deviation

Marks Mid (m) No. of d
d’ fd’ d’2 fd’2
(x) Point students (f) (m – 35)
10 – 20 15 4 -20 -2 -8 4 16
20 – 30 25 22 -10 -1 -22 1 22
30 – 40 35 48 0 0 0 0 0
40 – 50 45 66 10 1 66 1 66
50 – 60 55 40 20 2 80 4 160
60 – 70 65 16 30 3 48 9 144
70 – 80 75 4 40 4 16 16 64
N = 200 fd’ =180 fd’2 =472

= Assumed mean + +C

= 35 + x 100

= 35 + 9

= 44

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= xC

= x 10

= x 10

= x 10

= x 10

= 1.245 x 10 =

Computation of expected frequencies

Area under Area for each Expected frequency
Lower class limit Z=
normal curve class (4) x 200
1 2 3 4 5
10 -2.73 0.5000 - -
20 -1.93 0.4732 0.0268 5
30 -1.12 0.3686 0.1046 21
40 -0.32 0.1255 0.2431 49
50 +0.48 0.1844 0.3099 62
60 +1.29 0.4015 0.2171 43
70 +2.09 0.4817 0.0802 16
80 +2.89 0.5000 0.0183 4
Total 200

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CHAPTER - 9

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Statistical Inference:
Statistical inference refers to the process of selecting and using a sample statistic to draw
conclusions about the population parameter. Statistical inference deals with two types of
problems.
They are:-
1. Testing of Hypothesis
2. Estimation
Hypothesis:
Hypothesis is a statement subject to verification. More precisely, it is a quantitative
statement about a population, the validity of which remains to be tested. In other words,
hypothesis is an assumption made about a population parameter.
Testing of Hypothesis:
Testing of hypothesis is a process of examining whether the hypothesis formulated by the
researcher is valid or not. The main objective of hypothesis testing is whether to accept or reject
the hypothesis.
Procedure for Testing of Hypothesis:
The various steps in testing of hypothesis involves the following :-
1. Set Up a Hypothesis:
The first step in testing of hypothesis is to set p a hypothesis about population parameter.
Normally, the researcher has to fix two types of hypothesis. They are null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis:-
Null hypothesis is the original hypothesis. It states that there is no significant
difference between the sample and population regarding a particular matter under
consideration. The word “null” means ‘invalid’ of ‘void’ or ‘amounting to nothing’. Null
hypothesis is denoted by Ho. For example, suppose we want to test whether a medicine is
effective in curing cancer. Hence, the null hypothesis will be stated as follows:-
H0: The medicine is not effective in curing cancer (i.e., there is no significant
difference between the given medicine and other medicines in curing cancer
disease.)
Alternative Hypothesis:-
Any hypothesis other than null hypothesis is called alternative hypothesis. When a null
hypothesis is rejected, we accept the other hypothesis, known as alternative
hypothesis. Alternative hypothesis is denoted by H1. In the above example, the
alternative hypothesis may be stated as follows:-
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H1: The medicine is effective in curing cancer. (i.e., there is significant difference
between the given medicine and other medicines in curing cancer disease.)

2. Set up a suitable level of significance:

After setting up the hypothesis, the researcher has to set up a suitable level of
significance. The level of significance is the probability with which we may reject a null
hypothesis when it is true. For example, if level of significance is 5%, it means that in the long
run, the researcher is rejecting true null hypothesis 5 times out of every 100 times. Level of
significance is denoted by (alpha).
= Probability of rejecting H0 when it is true.
Generally, the level of significance is fixed at 1% or 5%.
3. Decide a test criterion:
The third step in testing of hypothesis is to select an appropriate test criterion. Commonly
used tests are z-test, t-test, X2 – test, F-test, etc.
4. Calculation of test statistic:
The next step is to calculate the value of the test statistic using appropriate formula. The
general fromfor computing the value of test statistic is:-
Value of Test statistic = Difference
Standard Error
5. Making Decision:
Finally, we may draw conclusions and take decisions. The decision may be either to
accept or reject the null hypothesis.
If the calculated value is more than the table value, we reject the null hypothesis and
accept the alternative hypothesis.
If the calculated value is less than the table value, we accept the null hypothesis.

Sampling Distribution
The distribution of all possible values which can be assumed by some statistic, computed
from samples of the same size randomly drawn from the same population is called Sampling
distribution of that statistic.
Standard Error (S.E)
Standard Error is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic.
Standard error plays a very important role in the large sample theory. The following are the
important uses of standard errors:-
1. Standard Error is used for testing a given hypothesis

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2. S.E. gives an idea about the reliability of a sample, because the reciprocal of S.E. is a
measure of reliability of the sample.
3. S.E. can be used to determine the confidence limits within which the population
parameters are expected to lie.

Test Statistic
The decision to accept or to reject a null hypothesis is made on the basis of a
statistic computed from the sample. Such a statistic is called the test statistic. There are different
types of test statistics. All these test statistics can be classified into two groups. They are
a. Parametric Tests
b. Non-Parametric Tests
PARAMETRIC TESTS
The statistical tests based on the assumption that population or population parameter is
normally distributed are called parametric tests. The important parametric tests are:-
1. z-test
2. t-test
3. f-test
Z-test:
Z-test is applied when the test statistic follows normal distribution. It was
developed by Prof.R.A.Fisher. The following are the important uses of z-test:-
1. To test the population mean when the sample is large or when the population
standard deviation is known.
2. To test the equality of two sample means when the samples are large or when the
population standard deviation is known.
3. To test the population proportion.
4. To test the equality of two sample proportions.
5. To test the population standard deviation when the sample is large.
6. To test the equality of two sample standard deviations when the samples are large or when
population standard deviations are known.
7. To test the equality of correlation coefficients.

Z-test is used in testing of hypothesis on the basis of some assumptions. The important
assumptions in z-test are:-
1. Sampling distribution of test statistic is normal.
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2. Sample statistics are dose the population parameter and therefore, for finding standard
error, sample statistics are used in place where population parameters are to be used.
T-test:
t-distribution was originated by W.S.Gosset in the early 1900.
t-test is applied when the test statistic follows t-distribution.
Uses of t-test are:-
1. To test the population mean when the sample is small and the population s.D.is unknown.
2. To test the equality of two sample means when the samples are small and population S.D.
is unknown.
3. To test the difference in values of two dependent samples.
4. To test the significance of correlation coefficients.
The following are the important assumptions in t-test:-
1. The population from which the sample drawn is normal.
2. The sample observations are independent.
3. The population S.D.is known.
4. When the equality of two population means is tested, the samples are assumed to be
independent and the population variance are assumed to be equal and unknown.

F-test:
F-test is used to determined whether two independent estimates of population
variance significantly differ or to establish both have come from the same population. For
carrying out the test of significance, we calculate a ration, called F-ratio. F-test is named in
honour of the great statistician R.A.Fisher. It is also called Variance Ration Test.
F-ratio is defined as follows:-

F=

where =

While calculating F-ratio, the numerator is the greater variance and denominator is the smaller
variance. So,
F = Greater Variance
Smaller Variance

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Uses of F-distribution:-
1. To test the equality of variances of two populations.
2. To test the equality of means of three or more populations.
3. To test the linearity of regression

Assumptions of F-distribution:-
1. The values in each group are normally distributed.

2. The variance within each group should be equal for all groups. ( )
3. The error (Variation of each value around its own group mean) should be
independent for each value.

TYPES OF ERRORS IN TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS:

In any test of hypothesis, the decision is to accept or reject a null hypothesis. The four
possibilities of the decision are:-
1. Accepting a null hypothesis when it is true.
2. Rejecting a null hypothesis when it is false.
3. Rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true.
4. Accepting a null hypothesis when it is false.
Out of the above 4 possibilities, 1 and 2 are correct, while 3 and 4 are errors. The error
included in the above 3rd possibility is called type I error and that in the 4th possibility is called
type II error.

Type I Error
The error committed by rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true, is called Type I error.
The probability of committing Type I error is denoted by (alpha).

= Prob. (Type I error)

= Prob. (Rejecting H0 when it is true)

Type II Error
The error committed by accepting a null hypothesis when it is false is called Type II error.
The probability of committing Type II error is denoted by (beta).
= Prob. (Type II error)
= Prob. (Accepting H0 when it is false)

Small and Large samples

The size of sample is 30 or less than 30, the sample is called small sample.

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When the size of sample exceeds 30, the sample is called large sample.

Degree of freedom
Degree of freedom is defined as the number of independent observations which is obtained
by subtracting the number of constraints from the total number of observations.
Degree of freedom = Total number of observations – Number of constraints.

Rejection region and Acceptance region

The entire area under a normal curve may be divided into two parts. They are
rejection region and acceptance region.
Rejection Region:
Rejection region is the area which corresponds to the predetermined level of
significance. If the calculated value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region, we
reject the null hypothesis. Rejection region is also called critical region. It is denoted by
(alpha).
Acceptance Region:

Acceptance region is the area which corresponds to 1 – .

Acceptance region = 1 – rejection region

= 1- .

If the calculated value of the test statistic falls in the acceptance region, we accept the null
hypothesis.

TWO TAILED AND ONE TAILED TESTS:

A two tailed test is one in which we reject the null hypothesis if the computed value of the
test statistic is significantly greater or lower than the critical value (table value) of the test statistic.
Thus, in two tailed test the critical region is represented by both tails of the normal curve. If we
are testing hypothesis at 5 % level of significance, the size of the acceptance region is 0.95 and
the size of the rejection region is 0.05 on both sides together. (i.e. 0.025 on left side and 0.025 on
right side of the curve).

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In
n one tailedd test, the reejection region will be located in only one taail of the no ormal curve
which maay be eitherr left or righht, dependin ng on the allternative hyypothesis. S Suppose if the
t level off
significan
nce is 5% %, then in case of one tailed testt the size of the rejectionn
region is 0.05 either falling in thhe left side only or in th
he right sid
de only or inn the right siide only.

TESTIN
NG OF GIIVEN POP
PULATIO
ON MEAN
T test is used
This u to test whether thee given pop
pulation mean is true or
o not. In otther words,
this tesst is used to cheeck wheth her the difference
d between sample mean m andd
populatio
on mean iss significannt or it is only due to sampling fluctuattions. Herre we cann
apply z-test of t-test.
Procedurre:
1. Set the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference betw
ween samplee mean andd
po
opulation mean.
m
H0 : µ = µ0
H1 : µ µ0
2. Decide
D the teest criterionn.
If sam
mple is largee, apply Z-ttest
If sam
mple is smaall, but popu
ulation stand
dard deviatiion is known
n, apply z teest
If sam
mple is smaall and popu
ulation stand
dard deviatio
on is unkno
own, apply t-test.
t
3. Apply
A the formula
Z or t = Differeence
SE

= wherre Sam
mple mean
µ = Population meean
SE = Stanndard Errorr
SE is com
mputed as follows:-
fo

SE = (when poppulation staandard deviaation is kno

own; samplee may be larrge or smalll).

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SE = (when population standard deviation is unknown & sample is large).

SE = (when population standard deviation is known and sample is small).

where = Population S.D.; S = Sample S.D.; n = Sample size;

4. Fix the degree of freedom.
For Z-test: Infinity
For t-test: n-1
5. Obtain the table value at level of significance for degree of freedom.
6. Decide whether to accept or reject the H0. If calculated value is less than the table value,
we accept the H0 otherwise reject it.
Qn: A sample of 900 items is taken from a population with S.D.15. The mean of the
sample is 25. Test whether the sample has come from a population with mean 26.8.
Sol: H0 : µ = 26.8
H1 : µ 26.8
Since sample is large apply z-test.

Z = =

SE = = = = 0.5

= = 3.6
The value of z at 5% level of significance for infinity d.f. is 1.96. As the calculated value
is more than the table value , we reject the H0. There is significant difference sample mean and
population mean.
We conclude that the sample has not come from the population with mean 26.8.
Qn. The mean life of 100 bulbs produced by a company is computed to be 1570 hours with
S.D. of 120 hours. The company claims that the average life of bulbs produced by the
company is 1600 hours. Using 5% level of significance, is the claim
acceptable?
Sol: H0 : µ = 1600
H1 : µ 1600
Since sample is large apply z-test.

Z =

SE = = = =

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= = 2.5
Table value at 5% level of significance and infinity d.f. is 1.96. As the
calculated value is greater than the table value, we reject the H0. There is significant difference
between mean life of sample and mean life of population.
Company’s claim is not acceptable
Qn. The price of shares of a company on the different days in a month were found to be
66,65,69,70,69,71,70,63,64 and 68. Discuss whether mean price of shares in the month is
65.
Sol. H0 : µ = 65
H1 : µ 65
Since small sample, apply t-test.

t =

= =

= = 67.5

Computation of Standard deviation

X X- (X- )
66 -1.5 2.25
65 -2.5 6.25
69 1.5 2.25
70 2.5 6.25
69 1.5 2.25
71 3.5 12.25
70 2.5 6.25
63 -4.5 20.25
64 -3.5 12.25
68 0.5 0.25
70.50

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2
Standard deviation (S) =

= =

= 2.655

S.E =

= = =
= 0.885

= =
= 2.8249
Table value at 5% level of significance and 9 d.f. = 2.262. Calculated value is
more than table value.
We reject the null hypothesis.
We conclude that the mean price of share in the month is not 65/-.
Qn. The mean height obtained from a random sample of 36 children is 30 inches. The
standard deviation of the distribution of height of the population is known to be 1.5 inches.
Test the statement that the mean height of the population is 33 inches at 5% level of
significance. Also set up 99% confidence limits of the mean height of the population.
Sol. H0 : µ = 33
H1 : µ 33
Since small sample is large, apply z-test.

z =

= 30
µ = 33

SE = = = = 0.25

= = = 12

Table value at 5% level of significance & infinity d.f. = 1.95.

Calculated value is greater than table value.
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We reject the H0
We conclude that this mean height of population is not 33 inches.
99% confidence level = 1% significance level.
Table value of Z at 1% level of = 2.576 ]]

significance and infinity d.f.

Limits of Population = 2.576 SE

= 30 (2.576 x 0.25)
= 30 0.644
= 29.356 and 30.644
Qn. An investigation of a sample of 64 BBA students indicated that the mean time spend on
preparing for the examination was 48 months and the S.D. was 15 months. What is the
average time spent by all BBA students before they complete their examinations.
Sol. Here, the students are asked to compute the population mean. In other words, the
confidence limits of population mean.
Table value of z at 5% level of = 1.96
significance and infinity d.f.

Confidence limits of µ = µ 1.96 SE

S.E. = = = = 1.875

Confidence Limits of µ = 48 1.96 x 1.875

= 48 3.675
= 44.325 and 51.675
Average time spent by all BBA students before competing their examinations is between
44.325 months and 51.675 months.
Qn. A typist claims that he can take dictations at the rate of more than 120 words per minute.
Of the 12 tests given to him, he could perform an average of 135 words with a S.D. of 40.
Is his claim valid. (use 1% level of significance).
H0 : µ = 120
H1 : µ 120
Since small sample is large, apply z-test.

t = =

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SE = = = = = 12.06

= = = 1.24

Table value of ‘t’ at 1% level of = 2.718

significance and 11 d.f.

Calculated value is less than table value.

We accept the null hypothesis i.e, µ = 120
We conclude that his claim of taking dictation at the rate of more than 120 words per
minute is not valid.
Qn. A factory was producing electric bulbs of average length of 2000 hours. A new
manufacturing process was introduced with the hope of increasing the length of the life of
bulbs. A sample of 25 bulbs produced by the new process were examined and the average
length of life was found to be 2200 hours. Examine whether the average length of bulbs
was increased assuming the length of lives of bulbs follow normal distribution with
= ( 0.05).
Sol. H0 : µ = 2000
H1 : µ 2000
Since sample is small, apply test.
z =

SE = = = 60.

t = = = 3.33
Table value of ‘t’ at 5% significance level and 24 d.f. = 1.711
Calculated value is greater than the table value.
We reject the null hypothesis and accept alternative hypothesis. So we conclude that
the new manufacturing process has increased the life of bulbs, i.e, µ = 200.

TESTING OF EQUALITY OF TWO SAMPLE MEANS

This test is used to test whether there is significant difference between two sample means.
It there is no significant difference, we can consider the samples are drawn from the same
population.
Procedure:
1. Set up null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the tow means.

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H0 : µ1 = µ2
H1 : µ1 µ2
2. Decide the test criterion:
If sample is large, apply z – test
If sample is small, but population S.D. is known, apply z-test.
If sample is small and population S.D. is unknown, apply t-test.
3. Apply the formula:

Z or t = =

SE is computed as follows:

It population S.D. are known and equal, S.E. =

It population S.D. are known but different, S.E. =

It population S.D. are unknown and samples are large, then assuming
population S.D. are different,

S.E. =

It population S.D. are unknown and samples are small, then assuming
population S.D. are equal,

S.E. =

4. Fix the degree of freedom:

For Z-test : Infinity
For t-test:
5. Obtain the table value.
6. Decide whether to accept or reject the H0.
Qn: Fifty children were given special diet for a certain period and control group of 50 other
children were given normal diet. Their average gain in weight were found to be 7.2 kgs
and 5.7 kgs respectively and the common S.D. for gain in weight was
2 Kgs. Assuming normality of the distributions whould you conclude that the diet really
promoted weight?
Sol: H0 : Special diet does not promote weight; µ1 = µ2
H1 : Special diet promotes weight; µ1 µ2

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Since samples are large, apply z- test.

Z = =

SE =

= = =

= = 0.4

Table value of Z at 5% level of significance and infinity degree of freedom is 1.645.

Calculated value is greater than the table value.
We reject the null hypothesis; and accept H1. i.e. µ1 µ2.
So we conclude that the special diet really promotes weight.
Qn. The mean weight of a sample of 80 boys of class was found to be 65 kg with a S.D. of 7
Kg. Another sample of 85 boys of class X shows a mean weight of 69 Kg. with a S.D. of
5 Kg. Can the two samples be considered as drawn from the same population whose S.D.
is 6 Kg. Test at 5% level of significance.
Sol. Here population S.D. are given equal.
H0 : There is no significant difference in mean weight of 2 samples; µ 1 = µ2
H1 : There is significant different in mean weight of two samples; µ1 µ2
Samples are large, apply z- test.

Z = =

SE =

= = =

= = 0.9349.

Table value of Z at 5% level of significance and infinity d.f. = 1.96.

Calculated value is greater than the table value.
We reject the H0 and accept H1.

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So, we conclude that the samples are not drawn from the population having the S.D. of 6
Kg.
Qn. Elective bulbs manufactured by X Ltd. and Y Ltd. gave the following results.

X Ltd. Y Ltd.
No. of bulbs used 100 100
Mean life in hours 1300 1248
Standard deviation 82 93

Using S.E. of the difference between mean, state whether there is any significant
difference in the life of the two makes.
H0 : µ 1 = µ 2

H1 : µ 1 µ2

Z =

SE =

= = =

= = 12.399.

= .

Table value of Z = 1.96.

Calculated value is greater than the table value.

We reject the H0
So we conclude that there is significant difference in the average life of bulbs of 2 makes.
Qn. The average number of articles manufactured by two machines per day and 200 and 250
with S.D. 20 and 25 respectively on the basis of 25 days’ production. Can you regard both
the machines are equally efficient at 1% level of significance?.
Sol. H0 : µ 1 = µ 2

H1 : µ 1 µ2

Z =

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Here population S.D. are not known and samples are small .

S.E. =

Degree of freedom = n1 + n2 – 2
= 25 + 25 – 2 = 48
Table value of ‘t’ at 1% level of significance and infinity d.f. = 2.576.
Calculated value is greater than the table value.
We reject the null hypothesis.
i.e, µ1 µ2
So we conclude that the machines are not equally efficient.
Qn: Given below are the gains in weights of dogs on two diets, X and Y
Diet X: 15 22 20 22 18 14 22
Diet Y : 14 24 12 20 32 21 30 20 22 25
Test at 5% level, whether the two diets differ significantly with regard to increase in
weight.
Sol: :
:
Since samples are small, apply t - teat

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t=

As mean and S.D. are not given, first we have to find out the same of the 2 groups.

Computation of mean and S.D. of Diet X

(i.e., and )

X d (X-20)

15 -5 25

22 2 4

20 0 0

22 2 4

18 -2 4

14 -6 36

22 2 4

d = -7 = 77

=A+

= 20 + = 20 + -7 = 19

= =

= = 3.1623

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Computation of mean and S.D. of Diet X

(i.e., and )

X d (X-20)

14 -6 36
24 4 8
12 -8 64
20 0 0
32 12 144
21 1 1
30 10 100
20 0 0
22 2 4
25 5 25

d = 20 = 390

=A+

= 20 + = 20 + 2 = 22

= =

= = 5.9161

S.E. =

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= =

= = 2.6079

TESTING OF EQUALITY OF TWO SAMPLE STANDARD DEVIATIONS

This test is used to test whether there is any significant difference between the standard
between the standard deviation of two samples.

Procedure:

1. Set the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between two standard
deviations.

:
:
2. Decide the test criterion:
If sample is large, apply Z – test
If sample is sample, apply F – test
3. Apply the formula:
If Z test:
Z= =

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SE = (When population S.D. are known)

SE = (When population S.D. are not known)

If F – test:

(Larger value must be numerator and

F= smaller must be denominator)

4. Fix the degree of freedom

For Z – test: Infinity

For F – test:

5. Obtain the table value.

6. Decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
Qn: A sample of 60 items has S.D of 5 and another sample of 80 items has S.D
of 4.5. Can you assert that the two samples belong to the same
population?

Sol: :

:
Since samples are large, apply Z - test.

Z=

SE =

= =

= =
= 0.5787

Z = = = 0.8640

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Table value of Z at 5% level of significance
and infinity degree of freedom
= 1.96
Calculated value is less than the table value.

We accept the null hypothesis.

So, we conclude that there is no significant difference between standard deviation and the
two samples belong to the same population.
Qn: The S.D. of two samples of sizes 10 and 14 from two normal populations
are 3.5 and 3 respectively. Examine whether the S.D of the populations are
equal.

Sol: :
:
Since samples are small, apply F-test.

F=

= = = = 13.61

= = = = 9.69

F = = 1,405

Degree of freedom is ( , ) = (10-1, 14-1)

= (9, 13)
Table value of F at 5% level of significance and (9, 13) d.f. = 2.72
Calculated value of F is smaller than the table value.
We accept the i.e.,
So we conclude that the S.D. of the populations are equal.

Qn: Two random sample were drawn from two normal populations and their
values are :-

A: 66 67 75 76 82 84 88 90 92

B: 64 66 74 78 82 85 87 92 93 95 97

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Examine whether the standard deviations of the population are equal.
Sol: Here, first we find out the standard deviations

Computation of S.D. of 2 samples

Sample A Sample B
X d (X-75) X d (X-82)

66 -9 81 64 -18 324

67 -8 84 66 -16 256

75 0 0 74 -8 64

76 1 1 78 -4 16

82 7 49 82 0 0

84 9 81 85 3 9

88 13 169 87 5 25

90 15 225 92 10 100

92 17 289 93 11 121

d = 45 = 959 95 13 169

97 15 225

d=11 = 1309

S.D =

SD of sample A = =

= = 9.03

SD of sample B = =

= = 10.86

:
:
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Since sample are small, apply F-test

F=

= = = = 91.7325

= = = = 129.734

F = = 1.414

Table value of F at 5% level of significance of (10, 8) d.f = 3.34

Table value is greater than the calculated value.
We accept the
So, we conclude that the S.D. of the populations are equal.

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CHAPTER 10

NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS

A non-parametric test is a test which is not concerned with testing of parameters. Non-
parametric tests do not make any assumption regarding the form of the population. Therefore,
non-parametric tests are also called distribution free tests.
Following are the important non-parametric tests:-
1. Chi-square test
2. Sign test
3. Signed rank test (Wilcoxon matched pairs test)
4. Rank sum test (Mann-whitney U-test and Kruskal-Wallis H test)
5. Run test
6. Kolmogrov-Smirnor Test (K-S-test)

CHI-SQUARE TEST
The value of chi-square describes the magnitude of difference between observed
frequencies and expected frequencies under certain assumptions. value ( quantity) ranges
from zero to infinity. It is zero when the expected frequencies and observed frequencies
completely coincide. So greater the value of , greater is the discrepancy between observed and
expected frequencies.
-test is a statistical test which tests the significance of difference between observed
frequencies and corresponding theoretical frequencies of a distribution without any assumption
about the distribution of the population. This is one of the simplest and most widely used non-
parametric test in statistical work. This test was developed by Prof. Karl Pearson in 1990.

Uses of - test
The uses of chi-square test are:-
1. Useful for the test of goodness of fit:- - test can be used to test whether there is
goodness of fit between the observed frequencies and expected frequencies.
2. Useful for the test of independence of attributes:- test can be used to test whether two
attributes are associated or not.
3. Useful for the test of homogeneity:- -test is very useful t5o test whether two attributes
are homogeneous or not.
4. Useful for testing given population variance:- -test can be used for testing whether the
given population variance is acceptable on the basis of samples drawn from that
population.

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-test as a test of goodness of fit:

As a non-parametric test, -test is mainly used to test the goodness of fit between the
observed frequencies and expected frequencies.
Procedure:-

1. Set up mull hypothesis that there is goodness of fit between observed and expected
frequencies.

2. Find the value using the following formula:-

Where O = Observed frequencies

E = Expected frequencies

3. Compute the degree of freedom.

d. f. = n – r – 1
Where ‘r’ is the number of independent constraints to be satisfied by the
frequencies

4. Obtain the table value corresponding to the lord of significance and degrees of freedom.
5. Decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. If the calculated value is less than
the table value, we accept the null hypothesis and conclude that there is goodness of fit. If
the calculated value is more than the table value we reject the null hypothesis and
conclude that there is no goodness of fit.
Qn:- A sample analysis of examination result of 200 students were made. It was found that 46
students had failed, 68 secured IIIrd class, 62 IInd class and the rest were placed in the Ist
class. Are these figures commensurate with the general examination results which is in
the ratio of 2 : 3: 3: 2 for various categories respectively?

Sol: : The figures commensurate with the general examination results.

: The figures do not commensurate with the general examination results.

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Computation of value:

O E O-E

46 200 = 40 6 36 0.9000

68 200 = 40 8 64 1.0667

62 200 = 40 2 4 0.0667

24 200 = 40 256 6.4000

-16

= 8.4334

= 8. 4334
The table value at 5% level of significance
and degree of freedom at 3. = 7. 815
(df = n – r- 1 =4 – 0 – 1 = 3)

The calculated value is more than the table value.

we reject the
we conclude that the analytical figures do not commensurate with the general
examination result. In other words, there is no goodness of fit between the observed and expected
frequencies.

Qn: Test whether the accidents occur uniformity over week days on the basis of the
following information:-

Days of the week: Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
No. of accidents: 11 13 14 13 15 14 18

Sol: : There is goodness of fit between observed and expected frequencies, i.e.,
accidents occur uniformly over week days.
: There is no goodness of fit between observed and expected frequencies; i.e.,
accidents do not accrue uniformly over week days

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Computation of value:

O E O-E

11 14 -3 9 0.6429

13 14 -1 1 0.0714

14 14 0 0 0.0000

13 14 1 0.0714
-1
15 14 1 0.0714
1
14 14 0 0.0000
0
18 14 16 1.1429
4

= 2.0000

The value of at 5% level of significance and

n – r- 1 = 7 – 0 – 1 = 6 d.f = 12.592

Calculated value if less than the table value.

we accept the null hypothesis. We may conclude that there is goodness of fit between
and expected frequencies. i.e., the accidents occur uniformity over week days.

– test as a test of independence:

– test is used to find out whether one or more attributes are associated or not.

Procedure:-
1. Set up null and alternative hypothesis.
: Two attributes are independent (i.e., there is no association between the
attributes)
: Two attributes are dependent (i.e., there is an association between the
attributes)

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2. Find the value.

3. Find the degree of freedom

d.f. = (r-1)(c-1)
Where r = Number of rows
c = Number of columns
4. Obtain table value corresponding to the level of significance and degree of freedom.
5. Describe whether to accept or reject the . If the calculated value is less than the table
value, we accept the and conclude that the attributes are independent. If the and
conclude that the attributes are dependent.
Qn: The following table gives data regarding election to an office:-
Economic Status
Attitude towards election
Rich Poor Total
Favourable 50 155 205
Non favourable 90 110 200
Total 140 265 405
Is attitude towards election influenced by economic status of workers?

Sol: : The two attributes, election and economic status are independent.
: The attributes, election and economic status are dependent.

Observed frequencies are 50, 90, 155 and 110

Computation of expected frequencies (2 2 contingency table)

Economic Status
Attitude Rich Poor Total
towards election
Favourable = 71 = 134 205

Not favourable = 69 = 405 200

Total 140 265 405

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Computation of value:

O E O-E

50 71 -21 441 6.21

90 69 21 441 6.39

155 134 21 441 3.29

110 131 -21 441 3.37

= 19.26

Table value of at 5% level of significance for 1 d.f. is 3.841 (d.f = (2-1)(2-1)=1.

Calculated value is greater than the table value. we reject the

Election and economic status are not independent (i.e., dependent)

Qn: In a sample study about the tea habit in two towns, following date are observed in a
sample of size 100 each:-
Town –A:-
51 persons were male, 31 were tea drinkers and 19 were male tea drinks.
Town – B :-
46 persons were male, 17 were male tea drinkers and 26 were tea drinkers.
Is there any association between sex and tea habits ?
If so, in which town it is greater?
Sol:- : The two attributes, sex and tea habits are independent.
: The two attributes sex and tea habits are dependent.
Town A:-
2 2 Contingency table of observed frequency

Sex
Male Female Total
Tea habits
Tea Drinkers 19 12 31

Not tea drinkers 32 37 69

Total 51 49 100

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Computation of expected frequencies (2 2 contingency table)

Sex
Male Female Total
Tea Habits
Tea Drinkers = 16 = 15 31

Not tea drinkers = 35 = 34 69

Total 51 49 100

Computation of value:

O E O-E

19 16 3 9 0.5625

32 35 -3 9 0.2571

12 15 -3 9 0.6000

37 34 3 9 0.2647

= 1.6843

Degree of freedom = (c-1)(r-1) = (2-1)(2-1) = 1

Table value of at 5% level of significance for 1 degree of freedom is 3.84. As the
calculated value is less than the table value we accept the null hypothesis in case of Town A. In
other words, sex and tea habits are independent (not associated) in Town A.
Town B:-
Contingency table of observed frequencies

Sex
Male Female Total
Tea habits

Tea Drinkers 17 9 26

Not tea drinkers 29 45 74

Total 46 54 100

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Computation of expected frequencies (2 2 contingency table)

Sex
Male Female Total
Tea Habits
Tea Drinkers = 12 = 14 26

Not tea drinkers = 34 = 40 74

Total 46 54 100

Computation of value:

O E O-E

17 12 5 25 2.083

29 34 -5 25 0.735

9 14 -5 25 1.786

45 40 5 25 0.625

5.229

Degree of freedom = (2-1)(2-1) = 1

The table value of at 5% level of significance for 1 degree of freedom is 3.84. As the
calculated value is more than the table value, we reject the . In other words, attributes sex and
tea habits are not independent (i.e., associated) in Town B.

– test as a test of homogeneity

– test is used to find whether the samples are homogeneous as far as a particular
attribute is concerned.
Steps:
1. Set up null and alternative hypotheses:
: There is homogeneity.
: There is no homogeneity (heterogeneity)

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2. Find the value.

3. Find the degree of freedom

d.f. = (r-1)(c-1)

4. Obtain the table value

5. Decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis.

Qn: From the adult population of four large cities, random samples were selected and the number
of married and unmarried men were recorded:
Cities
A B C D Total
Married
137 164 152 147 600

Single 32 57 56 35 180

Total 169 221 208 182 780

Is there significant variation among the cities in the tendency of men to marry.
Sol:- : The 4 cities are homogeneous.
: The 4 cities are heterogeneous.

Computation of expected frequencies

Sex
A B C D Total
Married Status
Married = 130 = 170 =160 =140 600

Single = 39 = 51 = 48 =42 180

Total 169 221 208 182 780

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Computation of value:

O E O-E

137 130 7 49 0.3769

32 39 -7 49 1.2564

164 170 -6 36 0.2118

57 51 6 36 0.7059

152 160 -8 64 0.4000

56 48 8 64 1.3333

147 140 7 49 0.3500

35 42 -7 49 1.1667

5.8010

Degree of freedom = (r-1)(c-1)

= (2-1)(4-1) = 1 3=3
The table value at 5% for 3 d.f. = 7.82
As the calculated value is less than the table value, we accept the . The cities are
homogeneous. So we conclude that there is no significant variation among cities in the tendency
of men to marry.

– test for Population Variance:

– test can be used for testing the given population when the sample is small.

Steps:-

1. Set up null and alternative hypotheses:

: There is no significant difference between sample variance and population
variance.
: There is significant difference between sample variance and population
variance.

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2. Find the value.

=
Where = Sample variance
= Population variance

3. Find the degree of freedom

d.f. = n-1
4. Obtain the table value
5. Decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis
Qn: The standard deviation of a sample of 10 observations from a normal
population was formed to be 5. Examine whether this is consistent with
the hypothesis that the standard deviation of the population is 5.3.

Sol: : There is no significant difference between sample standard deviation

and population standard deviation.
: There is significant difference between sample standard deviation and
population standard deviation.

= = = = 8.8999

Table value of at 5% level of significance of 9 d.f. = 16.9 calculated value of is less

than the table value , we accept in null hypothesis. So we conclude that there is no significant
difference between sample variance and population variance.

Limitations of Chi-square tests:-

1. It is not as reliable as a parametric test. Hence it should be used only when parametric
tests cannot be used.
2. value can not be computed when the given values are proportions or percentages.

WILCOXON MATCHED PAIRS TEST

SIGNED RANK TEST

Signed rank test was developed by Frank Wilcoxon. It is an important non-parametric

test. This method is used when we can determine both direction and magnitude of difference
between matched values.

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Here there are two cases:-

a) When the number of matched pairs are less than or equal to 25.

b) When the number of matched pairs are more than 25.

Case:1

When the number of matched pairs are less than or equal to 25

Procedure:-
1. Set up null hypothesis:
: There is no significant difference.
: There is significant difference.
2. Find the difference between each pair of values.
3. Assign ranks to the differences from the smallest to the largest without any regard to sign.
4. Then actual signs of each difference are put to the corresponding ranks.
5. Find the total of positive ranks and negative ranks.
6. Smaller value, as per steps 5 is taken as the calculated value.
7. Obtain the table value of Wilcoxon’s T-Table.
8. Decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis.

Qn: Given below is 16 pairs of values showing the performance of two machines A
and B. Test whether there is difference between the performances. Table value of
‘T’ at 5% significanterd is 25.

A: 73, 43, 47, 53, 58, 47, 52, 58, 38, 61, 56, 56, 34, 55, 65, 75
B: 51, 41, 43, 41, 47, 32, 24, 58, 43, 53, 52, 57, 44, 57, 40, 68

Sol: : There is no significant difference between the performance of 2

machines.
: There is significant difference the performance of 2 machines.

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1 2 3 4 5
Machine Machine Difference Rank of Difference Rank with signs
A B (3) = (1) – (2) (without signs) + Sign - Sign
73 51 22 13 13
43 41 2 2.5 2.5
47 43 4 2.5 4.5
53 41 12 11 11
58 47 11 10 10
47 32 15 12 12
52 24 28 15 15
58 58 0 - -
38 43 -5 6 - -6
61 53 8 8 8
56 52 4 4.5 4.5
56 57 -1 1 - -1
34 44 -10 9 - -9
55 57 -2 2.5 - -2.5
65 40 25 14 14
75 68 7 7 7
Total 101.5 -18.5

Calculated value of T = 18.5

Table value of Wilcoxon’s T table = 25
As the calculated value is less than the table value we accept the null hypothesis. i.e.,
there is no significant difference between the preference of machines A and B.
Case :2
When the number of matched pairs are more than 25
Procedure:-
1. Set up null hypothesis:
: There is no significant difference.
: There is significant difference.
2. Find the difference between each pair of values.
3. Assign ranks to the differences from the smallest to the largest without any regard to sign.
4. Then actual signs of each difference are put to the corresponding ranks.
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5. Find the total of positive ranks and negative ranks.
6. Apply Z test and compute the value of ‘Z’
Z=

Where T = Smaller value as per steps (5)

U=

7. Obtain table value of Z at specified level of significance for infinity degrees of

freedom.
8. Decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis.

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CHAPTER 11
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Definition of Analysis of Variance

Analysis of variance may be defined as a technique which analyses the variance of two or
more comparable series (or samples) for determining the significance of differences in their
arithmetic means and for determining whether different samples under study are drawn from same
population or not, with the of the statistical technique, called F – test.
Characteristics of Analysis of Variance:
1. It makes statistical analysis of variance of two or more samples.
2. It tests whether the difference in the means of different sample is due to chance or due to
any significance cause.
3. It uses the statistical test called, F – Ratio.
Types of Variance Analysis:
There are two types of variance analysis. They are:-
1. One way Analysis of Variance
2. Two way analysis of Variance
One way Analysis of Variance:
In one way analysis of variance, observations are classified into groups on the basis of a
single criterion. For example, yield of a crop is influenced by quality of soil, availability of
rainfall, quantity of seed, use of fertilizer, etc. It we study the influence of one factor, It is called
one way analysis of variance.
If we want to study the effect of fertilizer of yield of crop, we apply different kinds of
fertilizers on different paddy fields and try to find out the difference in the effect of these different
kinds of fertilizers on yield.
Procedure:-
1.Set up null and alternative hypothesis:
: There is no significant difference.
: There is significant difference.
2. Compute sum of squares Total (SST)

SST = Sum of squares of all observations -

3. Compute sum of squares between samples (SSC)

SSC =

4. Compute sum of squares within sample (SSE)

SSE = SST – SSC

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5. Compute MSC

MSC = =

6. Compute MSE

MSE = =

7. Compute F – ratio:

F=

8. Incorporate all these in an ANOVA TABLE as flows:

ANOVA TABLE
Source of Sum of Degree of Means square
F - Ratio
Variation Squares freedom
Between SSC C-1 F=
MSC =
Samples
Within SSE N-C
MSE =
Sample
Total SST N-1
9. Obtain table value at corresponding to the level of significance and for degree of freedom
of (C-1, N-C).
10. Decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
Qn: Given below are the yield (in Kg.) per acre for 5 trial plots of 4 varieties of
treatments.

Treatment

Plot name 1 2 3 4
A 42 48 68 80
B 50 66 52 94
C 62 68 76 78
D 34 78 64 82
E 52 70 70 66
Carry out an analysis of variance and state whether there is any significant difference in
treatments.

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Sol: : There is no significant difference in treatments.

: There is significant difference in treatments.

42 48 68 80 1764 2304 4624 6400

50 66 52 94 2500 4356 2704 8836

62 68 76 78 3844 4624 5776 6084

34 78 64 82 1156 6084 4096 6724

52 70 70 66 2704 4900 4900 4356

= 240 = 330 = 330 = 400 11,968 22,268 22,100 32,400

SST = Sum of squares of all items -

= (11,968+22,268+22,100+32,400) -

= 88,736 -

= 88,736 -

= 88,736 – 84,500 = 4,236

SSC =

= 11,520+21,780+21,780+32,000 – 84,500
= 87, 080 – 84, 500 = 2, 580

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ONE WAY ANOVA TABLE

Source of Sum of Degree of Means square

F - Ratio
Variation Squares freedom

Between 2,580 C-1= 3

MSC = =860
Samples

Within 1,656 N-C = 16 F= = 8.31

MSE = =103.5
Sample

Total 4,236 N-1= 19

Calculated value of F is 8.31.

Table value of F at 5% level of significance for (3.16) degree of freedom is 3.24.
As the calculated value is greater than the table value, we reject the null hypothesis. We
can conclude that there is significant difference in treatments. In other words, treatments do not
have the same effect.

Qn: The following data relate to the yield of 4 varieties of rice each shown on 5
plots. Find whether there is significant difference between the mean yield
of these varieties.

Treatment

Plot name 1 2 3 4
P 99 103 109 104

Q 101 102 103 100

R 103 100 107 103

S 99 105 97 107

T 98 95 99 106

Sol: Apply coding method. Subtract 100 from all the observations.

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(A) (B) (C) (D)

-1 3 9 4 1 9 81 16

1 2 3 0 1 4 9 0

3 0 7 3 9 0 49 9

-1 5 -3 7 1 25 9 49

-2 -5 -1 6 4 25 1 36

=0 =5 = 15 = 20 16 63 149 110

: There is no significant difference between the mean yield of different

varieties.
: There is significant difference between mean yield of varieties.

SST = Sum of squares of all items -

= (16+63+149+110) -

= 338 -

= 338 -

= 338 – 80 = 258

SSC =

= 0+5+45+80 – 80
= 50

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ONE WAY ANOVA TABLE

Source of Sum of Degree of Means square

F - Ratio
Variation Squares freedom

Between SSC = 50 C-1= 3

MSC = = 16.67
Samples

Within SSE = 208 N-C = 16 F= = 1.28

MSE = =13
Sample

Total SST = 258 N-1= 19

Calculated value of F is 1.28

Degree of freedom is (3.16)

Table value at 5% level of significance and (3.16) d.f. is 3.24.

As the calculated value is less than the table value, we accept the null hypothesis.

There is no significant difference between the mean yield of these varieties.

TWO WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Two way analysis of variance is used to test the effect of two factors simultaneously on a
particular variable.
Procedure:-
1. Set up null and alternative hypothesis.
: There is no significant difference between columns.
There is no significant difference between rows.
: There is significant difference between columns.
There is significant difference between rows.

2. Compute SST
SST = Sum of squares of all observations -
3. Compute SSC

SSC =

4. Compute SSR

SSR =

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Here , , etc denote the row totals

5. Compute SSE

SSE = SST – (SSC + SSR)

6. Compute MSC

MSC = =

7. Compute MSR

MSR = =

8. Compute MSE

MSE = =

9. Compute F – ratio in respect of columns

Fc =

10. Compute F – ratio in respect of rows

Fr =

11. Obtain the table value

12. Decide whether to accept or reject the :

TWO WAY ANOVA TABLE

Source of Sum of Degree of Means square
F - Ratio
Variation Squares freedom
Between SSC c-1 =
MSC =
Columns
Between Rows SSR r-1
MSE =
Residual SSE (c-1)(r-1) =
MSE =
Total SST N-1

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Qn: Apply the technique of analysis of variance to the following date relating
to yields of 4 varieties of wheat in 3 blocks:
Blocks

Varieties X Y Z
A 10 9 8
B 7 7 6
C 8 5 4
D 5 4 4
Carry two-way analysis of variance.
Sol:
X Y Z
Varieties Total Total

A( 10 9 8 27 100 81 64 245

B( ) 7 7 6 20 49 49 36 134

C( ) 8 5 4 17 64 25 16 105

D( ) 5 4 4 13 25 16 16 57

Total 30 25 22 77 238 171 132 541

: There is no significant difference between blocks.

There is no significant difference between varieties.
: There is significant difference between block.
There is significant difference between varieties.

SST = Sum of squares of all items -

= 541 -

= 541 -

= 541– 494.083 = 46.917

SSC =

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= 225+156.25+121 – 494.083
= 502.25 – 494.083 = 8.167

SSR =

= 243+133.333+96.333+56.333 – 494.083
= 34.916

TWO WAY ANOVA TABLE

Source of Sum of Degree of Means square

F - Ratio
Variation Squares freedom

Between SSC= 8.167 c-1= 2 MSC = =4.084 =

Columns

Between SSR=34.91 r-1= 3 MSE = = 11.639 = 6.39

Rows

Residual SSE= 3.834 (c-1)(r-1)=6 MSE = =0.639 =

= 18.21
Total SST= 46.917 N-1= 11

Between columns (blocks):-

Degree of freedom = (2, 6)
Calculated Value = 6.39
Table Value = 5.1433
As the calculated value is more than the table value, we reject the null hypothesis. It is
concluded that there is significant difference between blocks.
i.e., the mean productivity between blocks are not same.
Between rows (varieties):-
Degree of freedom = (3.6)
Calculated value = 18.21
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Table value = 4.7571
As the calculated value is greater than the table value, we reject the null hypothesis. This
means that there is significant difference in mean productivity of the varieties.
Qn: The following date presents the number of units of production per day turned
out by 5 different workers using 4 different types of machines:

Machine Type

Workers A B C D
1 44 38 47 36
2 46 40 52 43
3 34 36 44 32
4 43 38 46 33
5 38 42 49 39

(a) Test whether the mean productivity is the same for the different machine types.
(b) Test whether the 5 workers differ with respect to mean productivity.
Let us apply coding method. Let us subtract 40 from all the observations.

A B C D
Workers Total Total

1( 4 -2 7 -4 5 16 4 49 16 85

2( ) 6 0 12 3 21 36 0 144 9 189

3( ) -6 -4 4 -8 -14 36 16 16 64 132

4( ) 3 -2 6 -7 0 9 4 36 49 98

5( ) -2 2 9 -1 8 4 4 81 1 90

Total 5 -6 38 -17 20 101 28 326 139 594

: There is no significant difference in the mean productivity of machine

type.
There is no significant difference in the mean productivity of workers.
: There is significant difference between in the mean productivity of
machine type.

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There is significant difference between in the mean productivity of
workers.
SST = Sum of squares of all items -

= 594 -

= 594 - = 594 – 20 = 574

SSC =

=
1794
= - 20 = 358.8-20 = 338.8
5

X1 2 X2 2 X3 2 X4 2 X5 2 T2
SSR =
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N

52 212 142 02 82 202

=
4 4 4 4 4 20
25 441 196 64
= - 20
4
726
= - 20
4
= 181.5 – 20
= 161.50

TWO WAY ANOVA TABLE

Source of Sum of Degree of Means square
F - Ratio
Variation Squares freedom
Between SSC= 338.8 c-1= 3 MSC = 338 8 =112.93 112 93
3
Fc = =
Samples 6 142
161 5
18.39
Between SSR=161.5 r-1= 4 MSE = = 40.375
Rows 4
40 375
73 7
Fr = =
Residual SSE= 73.7 (c-1)(r-1)=12 MSE = = 6.142
6 142
12 6.57
Total SST= 574.0 N-1= 19

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Between Columns (Machine type)

Calculated value = 18.39
Degree of freedom = (3.12)
Table value of F = 3.49
As the calculated value is greater than the table value, we reject the H0 . Mean
productivity is not the same for different types of machines.

Between rows (workers):

Calculated Value = 6.57
Degree of freedom = (4.12)
Table value of F = 3. 2592
As the calculated value is greater than the table value, we reject the H 0
Mean productivity is not the same for different workers.

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