Computer Memory:

 Computer memory can be measured in terms of bits and bytes.

 So, 8 bits = 1byte
1024 bytes = 1 Kilo byte(1kb)

1024 kb = 1 Mega byte(1mb)

1024 mb = 1 Giga byte(1gb)

1024 gb = 1 Tera byte(1tb)

Memory devices, also known as storage devices, are electronic components or

systems that are used to store and retrieve data in computers and other digital
devices. These devices are essential for the functioning of modern technology,
as they allow for the long-term storage of data and program code. Memory
devices come in various forms, each with its own characteristics and use cases.
Here are some common memory devices:

Primary Memory (Primary Storage or Main Memory):

Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of computer memory
that serve different purposes within a computer system. Here's an overview of
each, along with their types:

Purpose: Primary memory is used for temporarily storing data that the
computer's CPU (central processing unit) is actively using during tasks and
program execution.
Characteristics: It is characterized by its high-speed data access, but it is
volatile, meaning it loses its data when the computer is powered off or restarted.

Note:
 Primary memory(pm) provides fast access to data and is used to store
data i.e currently in use by the processor. And capacity of pm is usually
within range of 16 to 32 gb.
 Secondary memory(sm) provides slower but larger storage for data i.e
not immediately needed by the processor. And capacity of sm is usually
within ranges from 200 gb to some tb.

Types of Primary Memory:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM is the most common

type of primary memory.
 It comes in two main types: DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and
SRAM (Static RAM). DRAM is used in most computers
and is slower but more cost-effective, while SRAM is faster
but more expensive and used in cache memory.
2. Read-Only Memory (ROM):
ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that contains firmware or
software that is permanently programmed during manufacturing.
 It typically stores essential code that the computer or device
needs to boot up, such as the BIOS (Basic Input/Output
System) in a computer.
 Data in ROM cannot be easily modified or deleted.
Its types are,
 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory):
Description: PROM is a type of ROM that allows users to
program (write) data onto it once. After programming, the data
becomes permanent and cannot be changed.
Use Cases: PROMs were used in the past for various applications,
including storing BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) firmware in
early computers.

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory):

Description: EPROM is similar to PROM but with the added
feature of erasability. It can be programmed and erased multiple
times using UV (ultraviolet) light exposure.
 Use Cases: EPROMs were used in early computer systems and
gaming consoles for firmware storage, allowing for updates by
erasing and reprogramming the memory.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory):
Description: EEPROM is an evolution of EPROM, allowing for
data to be electrically erased and reprogrammed at the byte level.
No UV light is required.
Use Cases: EEPROMs are commonly used in modern computers
and electronics for storing settings, configuration data, and
firmware that may require occasional updates.
3. Cache Memory: This is a small, high-speed memory located close
to the CPU. It's used to store frequently accessed data for faster
access and improved system performance.

Secondary Memory/Secondary Storage Devices:

Secondary storage devices are essential components in computing that provide
non-volatile, long-term storage for data, applications, and files. Unlike primary
memory (RAM), secondary storage retains data even when the power is turned
off. These devices serve various purposes, from data backup to providing ample
storage space for various applications. Here are some common secondary
storage devices:

Types:

1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD):

 Description: HDDs consist of spinning magnetic platters that store data.
Data is read and written using a read/write head that moves across the
platters.
 Advantages: High storage capacity, cost-effective.
 Disadvantages: Slower data access compared to SSDs, mechanical parts
can be susceptible to damage.
 Types: Internal Hard Disk and External Hard Disk.

2. Solid-State Drive (SSD):

 Description: SSDs use NAND flash memory to store data. They have no
moving parts, resulting in faster data access times.
 Advantages: Fast data access, durability, energy efficiency.
 Disadvantages: Generally, more expensive per gigabyte compared to
HDDs, limited write cycles for NAND flash memory.
3. USB Flash Drive (Thumb Drive):
 Description: USB flash drives are small, portable storage devices that
connect to a computer's USB port. They use flash memory for data
storage.
 Advantages: Portability, fast data access, durability.
 Disadvantages: Limited storage capacity compared to HDDs and SSDs.

4. Memory Cards (SD Cards, MicroSD Cards):

 Description: Memory cards are used in devices such as digital cameras,
smartphones, and tablets to store photos, videos, and other data.
 Advantages: Compact, portable, high-speed data access.
 Disadvantages: Limited storage capacity compared to HDDs and SSDs.

5. Optical Storage (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs):

 Description: Optical storage uses CDs, DVDs, or Blu-ray discs to store
data. Data is read and written using lasers.
 Use Cases: Data distribution, software installation, archival storage.

Types of CDs:

1. CD-Audio (Audio CD):

 Audio CDs are used to store music tracks.
 They typically have a capacity of 74 minutes and 80 minutes for
standard and extended-length versions, respectively.
 Audio CDs use the Red Book audio format.

2. CD-ROM (Read-Only Memory):

 CD-ROMs are used for storing computer data, including software,
documents, and multimedia content.
 They typically have a storage capacity of 650 MB or 700 MB.
 CD-ROMs use the Yellow Book data format.

3. CD-R (Recordable CD):

 CD-Rs allow users to write data onto a blank CD once. Once written, the
data is permanent and cannot be changed.
 CD-Rs use a dye-based recording layer to store data.

4. CD-RW (Rewritable CD):

  CD-RWs allow users to write and rewrite data on the same CD
multiple times.
 CD-RWs use a phase-change recording layer to store data, which can
be erased and rewritten.

Types of DVDs:

1. DVD-Video:
 DVD-Video discs are used to store movies and video content in
digital format.
 They use the MPEG-2 video compression standard and can
include audio tracks, subtitles, and interactive menus.
 DVD-Video discs are compatible with standard DVD players
and home theatre systems.

2. DVD-ROM (Read-Only Memory):

 DVD-ROMs are used for storing computer data, including
software, documents, and multimedia content.
 They typically have storage capacities ranging from 4.7
gigabytes (GB) for single-layer discs to 8.5 GB for dual-layer
discs.
3. DVD-R and DVD+R (Recordable DVD):
 DVD-R and DVD+R discs allow users to write data onto a
blank DVD once. Once written, the data is permanent and
cannot be changed.
 They are commonly used for data backup and video recording.
4. DVD-RW and DVD+RW (Rewritable DVD):
 DVD-RW and DVD+RW discs allow users to write and rewrite
data on the same DVD multiple times.
 They are used for data storage, video recording, and data
backup.
Software:
Software refers to a collection of programs, data, and instructions that tell a
computer how to perform specific tasks or functions. It is the non-tangible part
of a computer system that enables it to carry out various operations.
Purpose of software?
The purpose of software is multifaceted and extends across various domains and
industries. Software serves as a vital component of modern technology, enabling
us to achieve a wide range of tasks and objectives. Here are some key purposes
of software:
 Automation: Software automates repetitive tasks, reducing manual effort
and minimizing errors.

 Enhancing Productivity: Software tools like word processors,

spreadsheets, and project management applications boost individual and
organizational productivity.

 Communication: Software enables communication through email

clients, instant messaging apps, social media platforms, and video
conferencing tools.

 Entertainment: Software powers video games, multimedia applications,

streaming services, and creative content production tools.

 Information Management: Software facilitates information retrieval and

organization through web browsers, search engines, and content
management systems.

 Scientific Research: Software aids in data analysis, simulations,

modelling, and visualization for scientific research.

 Business Operations: Software manages financial, HR, inventory,

customer relationships, and supply chain operations in businesses.

 Healthcare: Software plays a critical role in electronic health records

(EHR), medical imaging, telemedicine, and patient management in
healthcare.
Software can be categorized into too many types:
1. System Software:
 Operating Systems (OS): Software that manages hardware resources and
provides essential services to other software applications. Examples
include Windows, macOS, Linux, and Android.
 Device Drivers: Software that enables communication between the
operating system and hardware devices such as printers, graphics cards,
and network adapters.
 Utilities: Tools for managing and maintaining the computer, including
antivirus software, disk utilities, and system optimization tools.

2. Application Software:
 Word Processing Software: Allows users to create and edit documents.
Examples include Microsoft Word and Google Docs.
 Database Software: Allows users to manage, organize, and analyze data
in structured databases. Examples include Microsoft Access and MySQL.
 Graphic Design Software: Used for creating and editing visual content,
including images, graphics, and multimedia. Examples include Adobe
Photoshop and Illustrator.
 Web Browsers: Software for accessing and browsing websites on the
internet. Examples include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and
Microsoft Edge.

3. Development Software:
 Integrated Development Environments (IDEs): Software tools that
provide a development environment for creating, debugging, and testing
code. Examples include Visual Studio and Eclipse.
 Text Editors: Simple software tools for writing and editing code.
Examples include Notepad++, Sublime Text, and Visual Studio Code.
 Version Control Software: Tools for managing and tracking changes to
code repositories, such as Git and SVN.
 Compiler and Interpreter Software: Converts high-level programming
languages into machine code. Examples include GCC (GNU Compiler
Collection) and Python interpreter.

4. Security Software:
 Antivirus Software: Protects against malware, viruses, and other
malicious software. Examples include Norton and McAfee.
 Firewalls: Software or hardware-based systems that control network
traffic to prevent unauthorized access and protect against cyberattacks.
 Encryption Software: Ensures data security by encrypting sensitive
information. Examples include BitLocker and VeraCrypt.
5. Educational Software:
 Educational Games: Games designed for learning purposes, often used in
schools and educational settings.
 e-Learning Platforms: Online learning management systems (LMS) used
for delivering courses and educational content.

6. Entertainment Software:
 Video Games: Interactive digital games for entertainment and recreation.
 Media Players: Software for playing audio and video files. Examples
include VLC Media Player and Windows Media Player.

7. Communication Software:
 Instant Messaging Apps: Tools for real-time text, voice, and video
communication. Examples include WhatsApp and Skype.
 Social Media Apps: Platforms for connecting and sharing content with
others, such as Facebook and Twitter.
Operating System:
An operating system (OS) is a fundamental software component that serves as
the core of a computer system, managing hardware and providing essential
services to both users and other software applications. It acts as an intermediary
between the user and the computer hardware, facilitating the execution of tasks
and the management of resources.

Purpose of an OS:
The purpose of an operating system (OS) is to act as an intermediary between
the computer hardware and the user or application software. It provides a range
of essential functions and services to ensure the efficient and secure operation of
a computer system.
Architecture of OS:

Here are some key functions and roles of an operating system:

 Resource Management: The OS manages computer hardware resources,
including the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM), storage
devices (hard drives and SSDs), input/output (I/O) devices (such as
keyboards, mice, and printers), and network resources. It allocates these
resources to various software programs and ensures efficient utilization.

 Process Management: The OS controls the execution of processes

(individual programs) and handles tasks such as scheduling processes,
managing their states (e.g., running, waiting, or terminated), and
providing mechanisms for inter-process communication.

 Memory Management: The OS oversees the allocation and deallocation

of memory space to running programs, ensuring that each program gets
 the required memory to operate. It also manages virtual memory,
allowing programs to use more memory than is physically available.

 File System Management: The OS provides a file system that organizes

and manages files and directories on storage devices. It handles file
creation, deletion, reading, writing, and access control.

 Input/Output Management: It manages the communication between

software and hardware I/O devices. This includes handling data transfer,
buffering, and error handling for devices like keyboards, mice, displays,
and network interfaces.

 User Interface: The OS often provides a graphical user interface (GUI)

or a command-line interface (CLI) through which users can interact with
the computer system and execute tasks.

 Security and Access Control: The OS enforces security policies, user

authentication, and access control mechanisms to protect data and
resources from unauthorized access or misuse.

 Networking: Many modern operating systems include networking

capabilities to support communication between computers and networked
devices, as well as internet connectivity.

Common examples of operating systems include:

 Microsoft Windows: Windows 10, Windows 11, and earlier versions.
 macOS: The operating system for Apple Macintosh computers.
 Linux: An open-source OS available in various distributions like Ubuntu,
Fedora, and CentOS.
 Unix: A family of operating systems, including various Flavors like
Linux, FreeBSD, and macOS (which is Unix-based).
 Android: An OS for mobile devices developed by Google.
 iOS: Apple's mobile operating system for iPhones and iPads.
Types of OS:
Each type of operating system serves specific purposes and is tailored to the
needs of the devices or systems it operates on. The choice of operating system
depends on the intended use, hardware constraints, and desired features.
1. Multi-User Operating Systems:
 Multi-user operating systems allow multiple users to interact with the
computer concurrently. Each user may have their own user account and
work independently. Examples include Unix-based systems, Linux
distributions, and server operating systems.

2. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS):

 RTOSs are designed for systems where time-critical tasks must be
processed within predefined timeframes. They are common in embedded
systems, robotics, and industrial automation.

3. Mobile Operating Systems:

 These operating systems are designed for mobile devices like
smartphones and tablets. Examples include Android (Google), iOS
(Apple), and Windows Mobile (Microsoft).

4. Network Operating Systems:

 Network operating systems are used to manage and coordinate network
resources. They are common in server environments and include
Windows Server, Linux server distributions, and Novell NetWare.

5. Distributed Operating Systems:

 Distributed operating systems manage a network of interconnected
computers and treat them as a single system. They provide features like
distributed file systems and process communication. Examples include
Sun Microsystems' Solaris and Google's Chrome OS.

6. Embedded Operating Systems:

 Embedded operating systems are designed for use in embedded systems
and devices, such as consumer electronics, appliances, and automotive
systems. Examples include Embedded Linux and FreeRTOS.

7. Time-Sharing Operating Systems:

 Time-sharing operating systems allow multiple users to share resources
by rapidly switching between tasks, giving each user the illusion of
having their own dedicated system. They were common in early
mainframe and batch processing environments.
 8. Cluster Operating Systems:
 Cluster operating systems manage clusters of interconnected computers
or servers to enhance performance, fault tolerance, and load balancing.

9. Multiprocessor Operating Systems:

 These operating systems are designed to run on computers with multiple
processors or cores, taking advantage of parallel processing capabilities
for improved performance.

10.Batch Processing Operating Systems:

 These OSs are designed for systems that process large volumes of data in
batch mode, without direct user interaction. They were common in early
mainframe and batch processing environments.

11.Mobile and IoT Operating Systems:

 These are lightweight operating systems designed for resource-
constrained devices in the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem. Examples
include RIOT OS and TinyOS.

12.Mainframe Operating Systems:

 Operating systems designed for mainframe computers, such as IBM's
z/OS and z/VM, are optimized for high reliability, performance, and
scalability.

MS word:

One of the most widely used programs of Microsoft Office suite, MS Word is a word
processor developed by Microsoft.

Since MS Word is one of the most used programs of the Office Suite, some basic information
regarding its creation and development has been given below:

History:

 Charles Simonyi, a developer and Richard Brodie, a software engineer, were the two
creators of MS Word
 This program was initially named “Multi-Tool Word” but later, was renamed as MS
Word
 It was introduced in 1983
 Word for Windows is available standalone or as a part of MS Office suite
 MS Word for Mac was introduced by Microsoft as Word 1.0 in 1985
 The extension for any word file is “.doc or .docx.”
 What is MS Word?

 Used to make professional-quality documents, letters, reports, etc., MS Word is a

word processor developed by Microsoft. It has advanced features which allow you to
format and edit your files and documents in the best possible way.

Where to find MS Word on your personal computer?

Follow these simple steps to open MS Word on your personal computer:

 Start → All Programs → MS Office → MS Word.

What are the uses of MS Word?

 MS Word enables users to do write-ups, create documents, resumes, contracts, etc.

This is one of the most commonly used programs under the Office suite.

How to create an MS Word document?

 To create an MS Word doc, follow the steps mentioned above to open Microsoft
Word. Then once the program is open, click on “File” followed by “New”. This opens
a new doc where something new can be created.

 Since it is used by people of all age groups, in schools, in colleges and for official
purposes, having proper knowledge of Microsoft Word is a must. The preview of the
MS Doc file once it is opened is given below:

Features of MS Word
Now let us read more about the features and components of an MS Word doc file in detail.
The image given below shows the different elements and categories which are available in

MS Word doc:

 Home
This has options like font colour, font size, font style, alignment, bullets, line spacing, etc. All
the basic elements which one may need to edit their document is available under the Home
option.

 Insert
Tables, shapes, images, charts, graphs, header, footer, page number, etc. can all be entered in
the document. They are included in the “Insert” category.

 Design
The template or the design in which you want your document to be created can be selected
under the Design tab. Choosing an appropriate tab will enhance the appearance of your
document.

 Page Layout
Under the Page Layout tab comes options like margins, orientation, columns, lines,
indentation, spacing, etc.

 References
This tab is the most useful for those who are creating a thesis or writing books or lengthy
documents. Options like citation, footnote, table of contents, caption, bibliography, etc. can
be found under this tab.

 Review
Spell check, grammar, Thesaurus, word count, language, translation, comments, etc. can all
be tracked under the review tab. This acts as an advantage for those who get their documents
reviewed on MS Word.

Apart from all the above-mentioned features, the page can be set in different views and
layouts, which can be added and optimised using the View tab on the Word document.
Margins and scales are also available for the benefit of the users.

When compared with MS PowerPoint, MS Word is more of reading while PPT is more of
visual and graphical representation of data.

Header and Footer:

In Microsoft Word, Headers and Footers are used to insert additional information such
as title, file name, date, page numbers, etc. The presence of both header and footer in the
Word document makes your document more professional and easier to read as well as
understand.

Headers appear at the top margin of the Word document, while Footers appear at
the bottom margin of the Word document.

To insert a header and footer in Microsoft Word, follow the below given basic steps -

Step 1: Open the new or an existing Word document in which you want to insert header and
footer. Skip 10sPlay Video Forward Skip 10s

Step 2: Go to the Insert tab at the top of the Ribbon.

Step 3: Click on either header or footer drop-down menu in the Header & Footer section.

Step 4: A Header or Footer drop-down menu will display on the screen with a list of built-in
Header or Footer options. Select your desired option from the Built-in list.
Step 5: A Design tab with Header & Footer option will appear at the top of the document (on
the Ribbon), as shown in the below screenshot.

Step 6: Type your desired information into the header or footer section.
Step 7: Once you type your desired text in the Header section, click on Close Header and
Footer under the Design section on the Ribbon or press the Esc key from the keyboard to
remove the dotted underline. Now, you can see that the Header is inserted to the Word
document.