AEX-202: Communication Skills and Personality Development (1+1)

UNIT-1
Communication : Meaning and Process of communication
Communication is central to all activities of human being. We spend 70-80 per cent of our time
in some kind of communication.

The term communication stems/derived from the Latin word “Communis” meaning
“Common”.

Thus, Communication is a conscious attempt to create common understanding between source

and receiver to share information, ideas, attitude etc

In simple words, communication is an act of exchange / sharing / transferring of information /

idea / message / technology etc.

In Agricultural Extension , communication is an act of exchange/ sharing/ transfer of

agricultural technologies.

Definitions of Communication :

According to Rogers and Shoemaker (1971)

Communication is the process by which messages are transferred from a source to a

receiver.

According to Leagans (1961)

Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts,
feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the
meaning, intent and use of messages.

Process of communication:

Communication is the process of transmitting information and common understanding from one
person to another.

It is a continuous process which has mutually exclusive and interrelated elements viz.Sender,
Message, Channel, Receiver
It gets the sender and receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages
It is constantly changing as the communication proceeds
It is a dynamic, ongoing, ever changing, continuous
act It has no beginning, end or fixed sequence of
events
It uses a set of media to transmit ideas, facts, feelings from one person to another.
It is explained as process of stimuli-response process
It is a two way process
Models of Communication process

Sociologists, Educationalists, Psychologists, and Anthropologists have described the process

through various models as given below. Their usefulness lies in the manner in which these are used.

Aristotle’s Model: It has three elements.

Speaker – The person who speaks.

Speech – The speech that the individual produces.

Audience – The person who listens.

Aristotle says that, all the three elements are essential for communication. These can be organised
to study the process through the person who speaks, the speech he produces and the audience who
listen. Such communication takes place in a face-to– face situation or in direct communication. The
speech is either a message/an idea/a thought/a feeling.

Shannon – Weaver Model: This model has five elements.

If we translate the Source into Speaker, theSignalinto Speech and Destination into Audience. We
have the Aristotle’s model plus two more elements i.e. a Transmitter which catches the message to
take it to its Destination through Receiver.Here the transmitter sends the message by showing
signals to receiver. This receiver intern takes to the destination where it is meant for. Ex.
Telegraph.

Westley and Maclean Model: This model also has five elements on the lines of Shannon –
Weaver Model.

Here sender encodes the message (giving codes to the message) which is passed through a
channel and then it is decoded (full message will be elaborated by removing the codes) and its
meaning is drawn after which the clear message will reach the receiver. Used in Army & Defense

Berlo Model: This model has six elements.

The difference from the Westley and Machean Model is that Berlo adds message to his model.

Rogers and Shoemaker Model: This model also has five elements.

According to them a Source (S) sends a Message (M) via certain Channels(C) to the Receiver (R),
which cause some Effect (E) i.e. is changing the existing behaviour pattern of receiver.

J. Paul Leagans Model:This model also has six elements.

A skillful communicator sends useful message through proper channel by effectively treating it to an
appropriate audience that responds as desired.
 UNIT-2
Structural and functional grammar- Meaning, and structuring sentence
Grammar is a systematic description of the ways language work – Glenn Legett
It teaches the laws of language and the right method of using it in speaking and writing
(Petternson)
Functional Grammar(FG) is a model of grammar motivated by functions.
The model was originally developed by Simon C. Dik at the University of Amsterdam in the
1970s, and has undergone several revisions ever since.
The latest standard version under the original name is laid out in the two-volume 1997 edition,
published shortly after Dik's death.
The latest incarnation features the expansion of the model with a pragmatic/interpersonal
module by Kees Hengeveld and Lachlan Mackenzie. This has led to a renaming of the theory to
"Functional Discourse Grammar". This type of grammar is quite distinct from systemic
functional grammar as developed by Michael Halliday and many other linguists since the
1970s.

The notion of "function" in FG generalizes the standard distinction of grammatical functions

such as subject and object. Constituents (parts of speech) of a linguistic utterance are assigned
three types or levels of functions:
1. Semantic function (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.), describing the role of participants in
states of affairs or actions expressed
2. Syntactic functions (Subject and Object), defining different perspectives in the presentation
of a linguistic expression
3. Pragmatic functions (Theme and Tail, Topic and Focus), defining the informational status of
constituents, determined by the pragmatic context of the verbal interaction

Sentence
A sentence is a group of words expressing complete thought and making complete sense
Sentence Structure
S: substantive, subject (noun/pronoun) –
(who/which) V: verb, predicate – action
O: object – (whom, what)
A: adjunct (answer to ‗how‘, ‗when‘, ‗where‘ etc.)
C: complement ( a word which completes the meaning of verbs of incomplete predication, like
‗to be‘ (am, is, was, were, will be etc.), ‗appear‘, ‗look‘, ‗elect‘, ‗appoint‘, ‗become‘ etc.
Note : A complement is either a noun or an adjective.

Kinds of sentences
-Declarative or Assertive sentence
A Sentence that makes Statement / assertion is called declaration Assertive sentence
-Interrogative sentence
A sentence asks question is called as Interrogative
-Imperative sentence
sentence that expresses a commend / request
-Exclamatory sentence
A sentence that expresses story feeling is called as exclamation

Parts of speech: The Parts of speech are the individual elements of the sentences, consisting of
nouns, pronouns, verbs, articles, adverbs, adjectives, preposition, conjunction and interjection.

Noun
• Noun is the most important part of the sentence. It signifies the name of any person,
place, thing or concept, in fact, anything of which we can have either thought or
idea.
Pronouns
• The pronoun is used for taking the place of one or more nouns of the purpose of
avoiding the needless repetition (which signifies person, place, object or
concept).
• Pronouns may be
– personal (representing persons i.e., I you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, us, them)
– relative (relating another pronoun like that which, who, whom)
– possessive (denoting possession i.e., mine, ours, yours, hers, its theirs)
Adjectives
• Adjectives are used to modify nouns and pronouns by describing some
qualitative features about them or adding pertinent in formation to that.
Verb
• Verb is a word that makes a statement about something by expressing an action or
state of being.
Adverbs
• Adverbs are used to modify, verbs, adjectives and other adverbs for giving
additional information. They indicate.
Articles
• The words “a”, “an” and “the” are called articles. They always come before a noun
and help to identify the person, place or thing. The articles are an important part of
speech because they perform the function of demonstrative adjectives
• The articles are of two types.
– The indefinite article (a/an)
– The definite article (the)
Preposition
• It is a word that shows the relationship between the objects, things, persons or conditions
• Preposition always appears before noun or its equivalent and demonstrates the
relation of end with the other.
a) Simple preposition are commonly used following a verb : at, by, for, from, in, off,
on out, through, till, to, up, with
b) Compound prepositions are generally formed by compounding a proposition with
verbs, adverbs or conjunctions.
Use of preposition
• At” is used with the names of small towns and places whereas “in” is used with the
names of big cities and countries. For example,
• “At” is used for point of time while “in” is used for a period of time. For example,
• “In” denotes rest within while “into” denotes motion inwards.
Conjunctions
• Conjunctions are words used to join other words, phrases or sentences. Conjunction
may be coordinating, correlative, subordinating or linking adverb.
Interjection
An interjection is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden emotion of mind like oh,
well, hello and alas. Interjections lie on their own, outside the structure of the rest of the
sentence.

Punctuations
Punctuation consists of a series of stops and symbols inserted in the sentences to mark off words
from one another to make them grammatically correct.

The full stop (.)

The “full stop” or “period” indicates the close of a complete sentence.
The comma (,)
It is used basically to group words that belong together and to separate those that do not.
Semicolon (;)
It is normally used to signify a break between independent clauses rather than break in the
sentence.
The following are its chief uses.
• It is used to separate longer co-ordinate clauses, which are similar in thought and are
not integrated by the use of words like, and but, yet. Its purpose is to give greater
emphasis to each clause, as it gives the speaker more time to dwell on each separately.
– E.g., Our factory has manufactured 8,000 units of finished product; they can
be dispatched tomorrow.
• It is used to divide clauses which are connected by some alternative conjunction (Here a
greater pause is needed as the mind requires a little more time to perceive the
alternative
– e.g., I met him as he was leaving his home; otherwise, I should not have
known where he lived.
The colon (:)
The colon is used to introduce a question, a problem or an explanation.
Its main uses are the following :
• It is used to introduce an additional remark in explanation or in confirmation of
a previous one
• e.g.,
– Strive above all things, to preserve health: There is no happiness in life without it
– The colon is used in numerical expression of time. E.g., 5:30 P.M
The question mark (?)
• The question mark is used after direct question : The General Manager said to the
Finance Manager, “Why has the bank loan not been arranged?”.
The exlamation mark (!)
• A note of exclamation is used after words or sentences which express strong
emotions. Hearty congratulations to all the staff members !
Alas ! We are undone.
What an excellent offer !
Quotation marks or inverted commas (“............”)
• Inverted commas are used to indicate the beginning and ending of a quotation. They are
also used to quote the exact words spoken by some one.
e.g., The executive director said “we must produce quality goods not only to survive but
thrive in competition”.

Apostrophe (')
• The apostrophe is used to show possession of noun or adjective
The chairman’s speech A Day’s pay.
The secretary’s office a Minute’s
work.
Hyphen (-)
• The hyphen is used to combine a word with a prefix
: Co-operative policy Ex-president.
Post-dated cheque Pro-American.
Dash (---)
It is used to mark a break or abrupt turn in a sentence E.g., 1. Communication – two-way
process – is essential for smooth running of an enterprise.
Management – The art of getting things done through others – is pervasive in all human
endeavors.
Brackets ( )
• Brackets are used to enclose matter such as clause or phrase, not belonging to
the sentence, but adding certain information to it.
E.g., The feasibility report (see page no. 14) shows that the project will break even at 30%
when costs incurred will be recovered.
 UNIT-3&4
Communication Skills: Encoding & Decoding skills, Verbal and
nonverbal communication- meaning, definitions, concepts and types

Communication skills:
Communication skills are the tools used to remove the barriers to effective communication.
Language skills viz., listening, reading, writing, and speaking (presentation) are the major
aspects of communication skills.
Encoding skills:
Encoding is the formulation of messages in the communicator’s mind, that is, the
communicator not only translates his purpose into a message but also decides on the medium
to communicate his planned message.
It is the process of changing the information into some form of logical and coded message
It involves selecting a language, medium of communication and selecting appropriate
communication form
Ex: Writing, speaking
Decoding skills:
Decoding is the process of converting a message into thoughts by translating the received
stimuli into an interpreted meaning in order to understand the message communicated
Ex: Reading, listening

Verbal Communication :

• Verbal communication is communication through spoken and written words.

• There are two types of verbal communication

– Oral communication
– written communication
• Oral communication may be face to face talks, telephonic talks, video conferencing
talks etc.
• Written communication can take the forms of letters, memos, reports etc.

Oral communication

• Oral communication occurs through spoken words, through speech either face to face or
through any electrical device such as phone, teleconferencing, public address system
etc.
Effective oral communication

The underlying principles/ Factors are to be considered for effective oral communication

1. Pronunciation : All the words should be pronounced correctly and clearly. Bad
pronunciation creates adverse image in the mind of the listener.

2. Self confidence: The person speaking must have self confidence which comes with
sufficient knowledge of the subject and overcoming inner inhibitions.

3. Concise and complete message: The message to be presented must be concise and
complete. Over-loaded message diverts the reader’s attention whereas under loaded
message misleads him.

4. Logical sequence: The speaker should present the message in logical sequences. Only
then his message will be more vivid and forceful.

5. Natural voice: The message should be presented in the natural voice. This voice should
be made pleasing and clear with practice, confidence and emotional content.

6. Tone: The tone of the message should be according to the situation so that the message
should not only be intelligible to the mind but also appealing to the heart.

7. Variations in the intonation pattern: The sound of the voice should not be steady and
flat. There should be variations in the intonation pattern i.e., both rising as well falling pitch,
according to the occasion. It definitely creates interest and maintains the attention of the
listeners.

Advantages of oral communication

1. Immediate clarification: In oral communication, the communicator can immediately

clarify the message if the receiver has any doubt. This is not possible in written
communication which requires certain time for feedback.

2. Speedy: Oral communication, whether face to face or through electrical or electronic

devices, is speedy. Unlike written communication, it does not require time to be spent on
dictating, drafting, printing, proof reading, revising and recopying.

3. Suitable for emergency: Since oral communication is the most speedy method of
communication, it is suitable for conveying emergency message.

Lesser formal: Oral communication is lesser formal as compared to written

communication. As a result, the concerned parties can exchange their opinions frankly
and fearlessly.
Group communication: Through oral communication, group communication is
possible. Therefore this type of communication is most used in conferences, meetings
and seminars where different persons can interact with one another.
 Personal quality: Through oral communication, effective impact can be made on the
receiver through personal quality and influence of the personality. Such advantage is
not possible in case of written communication.

Disadvantages of oral communication

1. No record: Since there is no documentary record of the oral communication, it does

not become legal evidence. It can be used for future or legal references, if it is tape-
recorded. But it is not possible in every case.

2. Lengthy message: If the message is lengthy the chances of its misunderstanding and
forgetting are very high. Lengthy message usually fail to retain listener’s attention, as
a result communication failure occur.

3. Distortions: In oral communication, misunderstanding and misinterpretation of

the message usually occur because of the distorted meanings by the receiver. The
main theme of the message is lost as a result of these distortions.

4. Speaker’s ineffectiveness: Speakers inability and ineffectiveness adversely affect the

creation and retention of the listener’s interest.

5. Limitations of human memory: Because of limitations of human memory, oral

Communication becomes ineffective. Human memory can not retain all the
spoken words even if they have been clearly heard and understood.

Oral communication takes place through any of the following medias :

• Face to face
• Teleconferencing
• Videoconferencing
• telephone
• Voice mail

Face to face communication

Face to face communication may be between two persons or among small group or gathering of
persons. It may also assume the form of speech or address by one person to an audience.

Benefits :

1. Control over listeners attention: Face to face communication provides the advantages
of exercising control over listeners’s attention. The speaker can effectively capture the
listener’s attention by making his message clear and interesting.

2. Effect of facial expressions : The speaker can make communication more vivid
and forceful by conveying through facial expressions, tone and pitch of the voice.
 3. Suitable for discussions: Face to face communication is most suitable for
discussion where instantaneous feedback is imperative.

Limitations:

• Inattentive listening: Most of the persons seem listening, but do not listen because
of wandering of mind to communication does not take place because of inattentive
listening.

• Difficulty in arranging personal contacts: If the various departments and persons are
working at different places, especially noticed in big organizations, it is very difficult
to arrange their personal contacts. It is rather expensive and time consuming process.

• Unproductive in unhealthy relations: Face to face communications sometimes

proves counter when the relations between the parties are unhealthy. It may lead to
further conflict and confrontation among them.

Teleconferencing

Teleconferencing is interactive group communication through telecommunication such as

telephone, computer based equipments or internet etc.

Advantages
• It potential to reduce the costs of group meetings. It can save travel costs.
• People who would not normally attend a distant meeting can easily participate
and present their views.
• Follow up to earlier meetings can be done with relative ease and little expenses.
Disadvantages

• However there are certain disadvantages of teleconferencing :

• Teleconferencing requires heavy investment and consequently is not suitable for

small size and scale business houses.

• Technical failures with equipment, can reduce the purpose of the conference.

• Lack of participant’s familiarity with the equipment, the medium itself and meeting
skills are common problems in the functioning of teleconferencing.

Video conferencing

Video conferencing allows group of people and individuals sitting at different locations to hold
interactive meetings by using telecommunications of audio and video.
Advantages

• The biggest advantage of video conferencing is that it offers the ability to meet
with people in remote locations.

• It can save travel costs.

Disadvantages

• The foremost disadvantages of video conferencing are the technical difficulties

associated with smooth transmissions that could result from software, hardware
or network failure.

• It also encourages the dependence upon the technical support staff.

Telephone

Telephone is one of the most frequency used means of oral communication in the present
business world. Most of the urgent matters are dealt with on phone.

Merits of telephone
• Through telephone, contact with persons sitting miles away is possible.
• It saves the time wasted in transmission.
• On telephone instantaneous feedback is possible.
Demerits

• Since telephone lacks visual feedback, it is difficult to reveal the moral of the receiver.
• Unlike face to face communication, on telephone it is very difficult to hold the
receiver’s attention for a long time.
• Telephone message does not provide a permanent record for legal purposes, unless
they are recorded on audio tapes.
Mobile phones

Mobile phones provide definite edge over fixed telephone when we talk of connectivity,
convenience and freedom to roam. The person holding mobile phones can be contacted at
anytime, at any place.

Advantages of mobile telephony

• Anytime, anywhere connectivity.

• Convenience and freedom to carry anywhere.
• Possibility of doing business during travel.
• Transfer of data along with transfer of voice.
• Internet access at any time.
Disadvantages of mobile telephony
• Wide spread use of cell phones has led to increased concerns about possible health
hazards.
• Use of mobile phones during driving increases the chances of accidents.
• Wider use of mobile phones is problem for environment.
Written communication
Written communication includes written words, graphs, charts, reports, diagrams, pictures etc.

Ex: Letters, memos, bulletins, reports etc.

Advantages

– Permanent records: Written communication stored for future reference or legal

document.

– Easier to understand: It is easier to understand than speech as it allows ample time to

the reader to read at his leisure, analyze and think about the message.

– Composing in advance: can be composed in advance before it is delivered.

– Accuracy: Written Communications are less response to errors.

– Wider access: Written messages being frequently circulated, have wide access to the
employees.

Disadvantages

• Time consuming process – Written communication involves time in writing, rewriting,

printing or proof reading the message to be communicated.

• Not suitable for the illiterate – Written communication is not suitable for
illiterate people .

• Formalism – Written communications, is more formal and rigid than

oral communications.

• Immediate feedback not possible –immediate instantaneous feedback is impossible.

1. Facsimile (Fax)

A facsimile or fax machine is one of the most useful media for transmission of written
especially visual; material such as diagram, copies, etc. Fax machines are connected with
telephone both at transmitting and receiving end.
Advantages of fax

• It is quick means of communication

• It can contain pictures as well as words.

• The recipient needs not to be at the receiving end to receive the message.

2. Electronic mail (E-mail)

E-mail is another instantaneous medium of communication. It transmits the written message via
computers connected on network.

Advantages of E-mail

• E-mail is easy quick and cheap means of communication.

• E-mail has created an easy communication link among executives and employees and
has facilitated to work at home beyond their duty hours.
• E-mail is the instantaneous means of communication at distant places at significantly
cheaper rates.
Difference between oral and written communication

Sl. No Characteristics Oral Written

1 Form of message Dynamic form fairly static form
2 Degree of precision usually not precise more precise
3 Speed speedy lacks speed
4 Appeal of message appeals to the audience appeals to the needy people
quickly
5 Effectiveness It can be made effective It is missing in written
with the use of gestures, communication
intonation, etc.
6 Feedback Immediate Slow
7 Retention of Message Receiver cannot retain all Retain the message for a
the messages long time
 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving

wordless(mostly visual) cues between people.

Non-verbal communication is communication of feelings, emotions, attitudes, and thoughts through body
movements / gestures / eye contact, etc.

It is the process of transmitting message through non-linguistic signs both spoken and written
and wordless communication.

Functions

• To establish and maintain interpersonal relationships.

• To express emotions like empathy, happiness, anger

etc. To accompany verbal message like speech

Types of non-verbal communication

1. Kinesics
2. Proxemics
3. Paralanguage
4. Physical context
5. Haptics
6. Chronemics
7. Artifacts
1. Kinesics
• Kinesics is the study of body movements, facial expressions, postures & gestures
Through facial expressions and eyes we can show happiness, anger, frustration, arrogance,
shyness, sadness, fear, etc.
Posture :
• Our posture and body shapes affect our thinking process, and give us an idea about the
attitude of the bearer towards the other persons.
• Postures indicate confidence, fear, aggressiveness, rejection, anxiety, etc.
Gestures :
Gestures are the physical movements of the body parts like arms, legs, hands and head.
– Ex: Hunching shoulders, stepping forward, pulling backward, turning on one
side or another, etc. convey certain moods and feelings.
2. Proxemics
• Proxemics is the study of how we use space around to communicate the message.
• It is the study of measurable distance between people as they interact
• Edward T. Hall coined this “Proxemics" and describes four types of informal spaces
to know human relationship.
• Intimate : physical contact : 3-6 inches: very close
8-12 Inches: close
12-20 Inches Near
• Social: 20 inches to 5 feet.
• Public: 6 feet to more than 100 feet
3. Paralanguage

• Paralanguage involves the study of voice quality, vocal characterizers, vocal

qualifiers, vocal segregates

• It concentrates on "how" of speaker's voice rather than "what" of the words.

4.Physical context

5. Haptics

• Haptics is the study of touching in communication situations.

• An interviewee with a weak handshake may leave a poor impression, whereas a

firm handshake conveys enthusiasm.

• A pat on the back that accompanies a verbal "well done"

6.Chronemics

• Chronemics is the study of the use of time.

• How we use time-like observing

– punctuality,

– amount of time spent

7.Artifactics

• Artifactics include the non-verbal message signals that an individual sends through
appearance, clothing, personal objects like, briefcases, etc.

• An individual's personal appearance makes the first impression.

• First impression is the - Best impression

HOW TO IMPROVE NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

• Take time to feel relaxed and free from stress

• Use video camera, digital camera to watch yourself.

• You can take the opinions of your elders or close friends.

• Concentrate on your tone of voice while speaking.

• Use good eye contacts to demonstrate interest in other people.

 UNIT-5
Listening Skills- Meaning, types and guidelines for effective listening.

Note Taking- Meaning, and methods of Note Taking

Effective communication is heavily dependent on effective listening. Listening is a

prerequisite for effective communication with others. A patience and attentive leasing is a
complement to a speaker. Good listening requires good hearing and the ability to hold attention
to the particular message. Hence the listening is one of the most difficult aspects of
communication. One cannot be an effective communicator unless effective listener. One has to
listen twice as much one talks.

Listening

Listening is a process of receiving, interpreting and reacting to the messages received

from the communication sender. Listening is a process involving awareness, reception, and
perception.
If you want to be a more effective listener then you must not only open the lines of
communication and relax but you must compel others to do the same. You only hear with your
ears (which are always open), but listen with your mind.

Perhaps the biggest oversight has been the least attention paid to listening in our
classroom instructions. Our primary attention has been on reading and writing. Very little
emphasis is paid on speaking and almost no attention to skills of listening. This is strange
because there is so much lecturing in colleges and schools. The only training listening has been
in the form of admonitions or commands: “Listen” or “Listen carefully”.

Types of Listening

1. Ignoring: Completely not listening to others.

2. Pretending: Yeah! Right, uh-huh are the some of the expressions of those who practice
pretending.
3. Fake listening: Many listeners mistake silence for listening. They steadfastly fix their eyes
on the speaker and try to project themselves as good listeners. In fact they miss many important
points.
4. Marginal listening: A poor listener is a marginal listener. Day dreamers, poor listening
habitués, wandering attention and avoiding understanding of complex points by finding escape
routes are the characteristics of marginal listeners.
5. Evaluative listening: This traps a listener into the temptation of passing hasty judgments or
unfounded evaluations about the speaker.
6. Selective listening: Hearing only certain part of the speech / conversation etc, and think that
is important to them.
7. Attentive listening: Paying attention and focusing energy on the words that are being said. It
is a process to observe and understand what is said and to assimilate the viewpoint of the
speaker. Listening to this type is more useful in solving complex problems.
8. Empathic listening or active listening: This is the highest from of listening. This listening
with intent to understand. The understanding of speakers frame of mind, their paradigm and
understand how they feel. This type of listeners practices a lot of mental paraphrasing.
Guidelines for Effective Listening:
Eye Contact : A listener must exhibit a behaviour of making eye contact. It encourages the
speaker.

Bodily Exhibitions : A listener must show himself that he is interested in listening. Non verbal
signs can be used to exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions, eye
contact etc convey certain things to the speaker.

Avoid Distracting Actions or Gestures ; Looking at one’s own watch, shuffle papers, playing
with pencil / pen, reading news paper/letters and other distracting activities should not
practiced.

Ask Questions : An effective listener always ask questions, clarifies doubts, seeks
explanations and ensures clear understandings

Paraphrase : Restating in one’s own words what the speaker is said is called paraphrasing

Listen Patiently : The speaker is entitled to be heard, even if you feel his approach is wrong

Avoid Premature Arguments : Do not interrupt the speaker by arguing about facts. That is not
so, prove it etc.

Indicate Acceptance : An occasional ‘yes’ or ‘I see’ or even a nod of the head indicates
attention

Avoid Fake Attention : Fake/pseudo listeners make the speaker believe that they are listening
or listened. They appear to be listening but not actually involved in the process of listening,
interpretation and understanding the message.
Listen to total Meaning : Listen to the total meaning of the message being communicated. Do
not assume and don’t pass judgement quickly.

Note Taking- Meaning, and methods of Note Taking

Note taking is one of the guidelines for effective listening.
It is a brief record of facts, speech etc.
It is filtering the received information

Reasons for taking a note:

- Making yourself to take note forces you to listen carefully and test your understanding of the
material
- When you are reviewing, note provide a gauge to what is important
- It is easier to remember
- Helps to remember
- To update information
Note taking systems / Methods
1. Cornell method: The Cornell method of note taking provides a systematic format
for condensing and organizing notes without recopying.

-5 R’s to be keep in mind are Record, Recall- Reduce, Review, Recite, Reflect,
2. Outline method: In this method, first lecture is listened or text is read, then notes
are written by structuring the writing in an organized pattern

3. Mapping method : Here, the text is read and comprehended and then ideas are
written with lines connecting them together in a graphically/ tree like structure

4. Charting method: It is a method of creating tables with rows and columns

5. Sentence method :Here, every new thought or fact is written on a separate line. This
method is usually followed in recording the minutes/ Proceedings of the meetings.

Steps for note taking:

- Listening: Follow the rules of thumb for good listening and apply active listening.
- Filter the information required
- Paraphrase (Restate)
- Noting
Suggestions taking note:
Each student should develop his or her own method of taking note.
A. Make the note brief.
1. Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a phrase where you can use a
word.
2. Use abbreviations and symbols, but be consistent.
B. Put most notes in your own words. However, the following should be noted exactly :
1. Formulas 2. Definitions 3. Specific facts
C. Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indention helps you distinguish major from
minor points.
D. If you miss a statement, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the information later.
E. Don't try to use every space on the page.
Tips for note taking
• Be alert and attentive to the main points
• Do not write down everything
• Use key words or very short sentence to save time
• Take accurate notes
• Apply uniform system of abbreviation
• Omit descriptions and full explanations

Instructors usually give clues to what is important to make note:

* Material written on the blackboard.
* Repetition
* Emphasis (tone of voice and gesture, amount of time the instructor spends on the points and
the number of examples cites.
* Word signals
* Summaries given at the end of class.
* Reviews given at the beginning of class.

Hints for note making:

1. Don't write down everything that you read or hear. Be alert and attentive to the main points.
Concentrate on the "meat" of the subject and forget the trimmings.
2. Notes should consist of key words or very short sentences.
3. Take accurate notes. You should usually use your own words
4. Think a minute about your material before you start making notes. Don't take notes just to be
taking notes! Take notes that will be of real value to you when you look over them at a later
date.
5. Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make sense to you. Use a
skeleton outline and show importance by indenting. Leave lots of white space for later
additions.
6. Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes short and to the point.
Condense your material so you can grasp it rapidly.
7. Don't worry about missing a point.
8. Don't keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in order and in one place.
9. Shortly after making your notes, go back and rework (not redo) your notes by adding extra
points and spelling out unclear items. Remember, we forget rapidly. Budget time for this vital
step just as you do for the class itself.
10. Review your notes regularly. This is the only way to achieve lasting memory.

-
 UNIT-6
Writing Skills: Meaning and techniques of writing
Writing is a craft

Good writer use, less and less to express more

One should follow 7 C’s of writing :
CLEAR ; CONCISE; CONCRETE ; CANDID ; COMPLETE; COURTEOUS; CORRECT

Writing Process

• Write quickly – Don't ponder over words; keep going; leave gaps if necessary; aim for
a natural flow

• Write in your own voice – Express yourself in your own way will help you to say what you
mean more exactly; if your reader can 'hear' your voice, reading will be easier

• Write without interruption – Try to find a time and place where you can think and
write without distractions

• Write without editing – Don't try to get it right first time – Resist the temptation to edit as you
go; you will tend to get stuck and waste time

• Keep to the plan of your outline – Use the sentences from your outline to focus what you want
to say – If you find yourself wandering from the point, stop and move on to the next sentence in
the outline

Techniques of writing
Effective writing style requires enormous and rigorous practice
Systematic approach for effective writing requires,

I. Preparation & planning

II. Writing
III. Checking

I) Preparation & Planning

The best way to prepare for writing is to answer series of Questions – 5W’s(Why, Who, What,
Where, When) and 1 H(How)
1. The WHY of writing: Why one wants to write about a particular subject. Is it to inform
the readers about something new? Or is it to explain and give more information about
something they already know? Or is it to tell how to solve a problem? or Is it to influence them
to adopt a new idea or methods ? or Is it to provide them with all the information they need to
take up some action? Answer these questions.
2. The WHO of writing: For whom are you going to write, is it for capsicum vegetable
growers, fruit growers, dairy farmers, poultry farmers or whom? Make sure that the ideas you
want to write about are sound and suitable for them to know and got benefited.
3. The WHAT of writing: Choose the topics or subject with adequate care. Think what they already
know about it, make the boundaries of the subject and confirm yourself to it.

4. The WHERE of writing: Where to publish, i.e., Newspapers, magazines, leaflets, bulletins, reports,
circular letters etc.

5. The WHEN of writing: It should be written at an appropriate time in the larger interest of the
farming community.

6. The HOW of writing: Writing should be brief, accurate, specific and convincing. Be practical, avoid
exaggeration and use words familiar to your readers. No one likes superior attitude. Make it personal and
lively, entertaining and interesting. Give examples and quote names of those farmers who have already
achieved better.

This helps to clarify certain issues before writing. Instead of preparing list of contents to be
covered in document, it is better to follow pattern plans. Pattern plans are increasingly popular
for organization of information. It allows to access info through associates as well a logical
connections.
‘Pattern plan’ harness creativity and link logically.
Steps in developing pattern plan:
1) Take plain sheet of paper & draw a circle in middle.
2) Write down subject (title) or picture in the circle.
3) Write down any idea connected with subject omit nothing.
4) Highlight the key ideas using different colours.
5) Group them around the key ideas using branches and twigs. Add and edit items.
6) Continue the process until pattern plan is complete. Now list key ideas as headings in a
logical sequence.

The advantages of pattern plans are:

* Rapidity: More ideas in shortest time
* Completeness: We can get whole picture of the subject at a glance.
* Efficiency: gather & structure material simultaneously.
* Individuality: It is our record of thinking. If it makes sense to us, it is much likely to make
sense to reader.
II) WRITING: Produce a 1st draft write fast-, write as you speak. It is not time to think but to
put words flow on to the page.
III) CHECKING: Follow the 10 point plan for checking
1. Paragraphs: Page should not have less than.2 paragraph breaks Use short para’s, isolate
action points. Use sub-heading & be consistent in layout. Open each para with topic sentence
i.e. it is short summarizing.
Use link words and phrases to guide the reader from one para to another Ex;- However,
moreover, As a result, in addition etc.
For smooth transition from one paragraph to another use the following link words:
Words of clarification
Words of contrast
Words of exemplify
Words of position
Words of result

2. Sentences: Short sentences are easier to read than long ones. Average length is 17 words per
sentence. 25 and above is difficult to understand.
3. Subject & Verb: Each sentence should have subject & verb. Verb must be finite, having
tense.
4. Sentence Land Scope: Put important ideas at the beginning or end of sentence as attention
will be more. Ideas buried in middle will risk being lost. Break long sentences to chunks of 5-10
words.
5. Passive-active Verbs: Beware of writing impersonally. Use of passive voice lacks personal
touch. Always use active voice.
6. Adjectives & Adverbs: Keep or use adjectives & adverbs which are absolutely necessary.
7. Accuracy: Use of right word for the right expression or action. Use Jargon in its rightful
place.
8. Brevity: Use short words; eliminate clinches Ex; As matter of fact, As such, By & large etc.
And watch out for tautology – why to say same thing twice Eg: True facts are, enclose here
with, declined to accept.
9. Clarity: Clarity is hall mark of plain English/ any language. The text written must leave no
room for ambiguity. Avoid vague phrase, loaded words; Replace abstract nouns with concrete
nouns.
10. Spelling & Punctuations: Spelling matters as it contributes to our professional & public
image. Do not use words unfamiliar to you, always use simpler, shorter words use dictionary for
correct usage of world. Beware of the spell checker. Use thesauri to improve vocabulary.
Punctuation provides expression & voice to words. Less punctuation is better.
General Guide lines for more readable writing
Use simple words and phrases : such as ‘improve’ instead of ‘ameliorate’ and ‘like’
instead of “in a manner or similar to”
Use short and familiar words : Such as ‘darken’ instead of ‘obfuscate’
Use personal pronouns : such as ‘you’ and ‘them’
Use illustrations, examples and charts
Use short sentences and paragraphs
Use active words : such as ‘manager said’ rather than ‘ It was said ‘ by the manager
Use only necessary words such as ‘bad weather condition prevented my trip’, the
word ‘condition’ is unnecessary. Say ‘bad weather prevented my trip’
Ten Commandments of Good Writing:
1. Realize that all good writing must have a clear purpose.
2. Recognize that less is more—too many words can bore my reader.
3. Understand that the most important information belongs at the beginning of my document.
4. Avoid all mistakes in grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
5. Think about what my readers want before beginning to write.
6. Make an impact on my readers by making my writing powerful.
7. Don’t use complex words when I can use simple ones.
8. Leave out all information that does not relate to my main purpose.
9. Use descriptive words to bring my writing to life.
10. Never assume that my readers know more than they do.
 UNIT-7 & 8
Oral presentation: Meaning, types, and factors affecting effective
oral presentation.
Oral presentation means delivering an address to a public

audience. It refers to public speaking and/or speech –making.

Oral presentation is presenting/ expressing one ‘s own ideas/ information before the audience.

It is a brief discussion of a defined topic delivered to a public audience in order to impart

knowledge or to stimulate discussion.

It is structured formal manner of communicating ideas.

Types:

-informal oral presentation

-formal types of oral presentation
Purpose :

• To inform: the basic purpose of presentation is to inform or to teach the audience

regarding the new schemes, new proposals or new products etc.

• To persuade: presentations have another distinctive purpose of persuading the audience

to believe in certain way

• To build good will: another purpose of the presentations is to entertain the audience

Need for oral presentations:

- Oral presentations are to impart knowledge by activating listeners, when we want to get our
idea/ technology shared, understood & accepted by people through verbal
communication integrated with visual communication”.

- It emphasizes more on informality and involvement of audience (two way interaction)

by stimulating & motivating them skill fully.

- It is not just to inform, but to persuade and transform them in terms of their behavior
not by hit but intentionally.
Kinds/ Types of presentations

• There are basically three kinds of presentations

– Monologue presentations
– Guided discussions
– Sales presentations
Kinds/ Types of presentations

1. Monologue presentations

• In monologue presentations, the speaker speaks without interruption and at the end
answers to the questions of the audience.

2. Guided discussions

• In the guided discussion, the speaker presents the questions or issues to both speaker and
audience and acts as facilitator to help the audience with the expert knowledge

• Compared to monologue presentations, guided discussions have following advantages:

– More audience response , More detailed analysis , More commitment to results

3. Sales presentation

A sales presentation is made to convince the audience for buying the products or
services or accepting the new idea.

• asks questions that raise their curiosity for the product to overcomes their negative
feelings towards product, finally convince to buy the product or service.

Factors affecting effective oral presentations

• Audience analysis: The speaker has to analyse the audience in advance to make his
presentation more effective

• Communication environment: Communication environment like proper arrangement

of the stage, lighting arrangement, background etc. to enhance the impact of the
presentation.

• Personal appearance: the personal appearance of the speaker like Well dressed , neatly
shaven etc has great impact on the audience.

• Use of visuals: like charts, posters, slides etc to make presentation more effective.

• Organization of presentation: Well organised information will make presentation

more effective to keep the audience happy which inturn boost the image of the speaker.

• Body language: A speaker having good eye contact with the audience likely to impress
more than a speaker reading out the hand outs.

• Answering the questions: A speaker who answers the questions and handles the
hostile questions with tact is likely to influence the audience more.
 Individual & Group presentation and Public speaking -Meaning and
procedure in presentation

Presentation is means of communication which can be adapted to various speaking situations,

such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting and briefing a team

Individual presentation
Individual presentation is presenting/ expressing one’s own ideas/ information before the
audience.
Group presentation involve presentation by the members of a group.
The success of such presentation depends upon their Plan & Coordination.
Procedure/ Guidelines
I. Before presentation
– Discuss the topic or theme in the group and
– Divide it among the members of the group.
– Practice the presentation as a group at least once.
- Create the useful visuals and the decide the point of shifting
II. During presentation
– Introduce all members one by one
– Enforce time limit strictly.
– Ensure that opening and closing is present.
– Answer audience question one by one.
III. At the end of the presentation
– Brief the presentation.
– Thank the audience as a team.
Group Presentation
• Group presentation involves presentation by the members of a group.
• The success of such presentation depends upon their plan and coordination.

Procedure/ Guidelines

With good communication and solid planning, you can give an effective group presentation
I. Before presentation
Drafting the Presentation

Listen to other group presentations. By hearing other presentations -- both solo presenters and group
presenters -- you’ll get a sense of what works. When listening to public speakers, note their timing,
emphasis, and word choice. Borrow from their presentations to craft your own style.

Be familiar with your audience. Who is going to hear the speech? How many people will be in the
audience? What do they know? What might they want to know? Tailor your group presentation around
these questions. Thinking ahead about these and other questions will ensure your group presentation is a
success.

Adopt the right tone. Your tone should be appropriate for your audience. Additionally, it should fit the
context of your presentation. It's best to avoid slang and informal language, keeping your presentation
professional and formal.

Incorporate visuals. There are a number of ways to incorporate visuals into your presentation, but the
easiest way is to use a software program such as PowerPoint, Prezi, Google Slides, or Keynote.

Draft your notes. You should not try to remember exactly what you’re going to say during your
presentation. Instead, each member of your group should write a few main points on some note cards
and consult them during their part of the presentation

Practice several times. After each member of the group has drafted their part of the presentation, meet
with each other to practice the presentation. If possible, practice in front of a group of family or friends.
Deliver your presentation just as you intend to in class.

Adjust each part of the presentation as needed. Solicit feedback from your test audience and from
your fellow group members. Ask if anything was confusing or needed more explanation. Incorporate
changes regarding your visuals, props, and speaking speed (as well as your content) into the final
presentation where appropriate.

• Discuss the topic or theme in the group and divide it among the members of the group.
• Practice the presentation as a group at least once.
• Create the useful visuals and the decide the point of shifting.
II. During presentation :
Stay calm. If you can interact with your classmates before going to present, you will feel more at ease
during the presentation. Look directly out and over the heads of the audience at a point toward the center
rear of the classroom in which you’re speaking. Get into the presentation and try to enjoy it.
Be audible. Project your voice to the back of the room to make sure everyone can hear you. Don’t
mumble or speak into your notes or the computer. If you want to emphasize something, raise your voice.
Use a lower volume when adding intensity

Use your hands to emphasize key points. For instance, when insisting that the internet is “the greatest
tool” in the hands of today’s historians, lightly bring your hand down on the lectern when you intone
each of the three words. This will give you a stage presence and drive home the main points you’re
explaining.

Use props, if they fit into your presentation. If possible, introduce props to illustrate your
points. For instance, you could bring a small piece of amethyst or quartz if presenting on rock
formations and pass it around the class. However, don't use too many props, as they can become
a distraction.

If you're using props, practice incorporating them ahead of time.

It's also a good idea to arrange who will handle the props. For example, the person
speaking at the time the prop is introduced may rely on another group member to
actually display the prop.
Use a story in your presentation. Listing fact after fact in a dry way can bore both you and
your audience. Open your presentation with a story to foreground how important your topic is.
For instance, if your presentation is on bicycle safety, you could present a story about someone
who was hit by car but survived because he was wearing a helmet.

People love stories, and your presentation will be more memorable if you incorporate a
story into your presentation. People connect through emotions, and a story can create
that emotional response.

Adopt a conversational style. By the time you present, you should feel confident about the whole
presentation. Smile! Don’t stare at your notes during the entire time you’re presenting. Glance at them
briefly and try to maximize the time you spend looking out at the audience. Keep your body language
open by keeping your hands at your sides or in front of you. Don’t cross your arms.
End with a strong conclusion. Summarize your main points. For instance, if you presented about the
dangers of drunk driving, you could list the main points of your presentation in a few simple sentences
by explaining, “Drunk driving is extremely costly. Not only could you hurt or kill yourself or someone
else, but you might crash your car and end up in prison. Don’t let that happen to you.” Thank the
audience for listening and allow the next group to present.

Working With Your Group

Select your group or teammates. If possible, select members of your group who are hardworking and
have excellent speaking skills. Do not choose to work with people who are lazy or who will probably not
do their part. Remember, your group is only as strong as its weakest member, and you will be evaluated
as a group, not as individuals.

Conduct preliminary research. If you are unsure what the content of each section should be, conduct
some preliminary research. For instance, if you and your fellow group members know nothing about
bats, each of you should take a day or two to look broadly at the subject of bats. Use the time to think
about what a logical structure for your presentation might be. Maybe you’ll conclude that your
presentation sections consist of an intro, a section on life cycle, a section on feeding habits, a section on
their sonar abilities, and a section on habitat, then a conclusion.
Divide your presentation into logical sections. A standard presentation model involves crafting a
presentation with an introduction, one or two middle sections, and a conclusion. [20] This structure is
highly flexible. For instance, if you have four group members, you can divide the middle section into
two equal parts. If you have five people in your group, you can divide the middle section of the
presentation into three parts.

Decide how you will prepare each section as a group. Start by asking each member what they want to
do, then match those preferences to your needs. For example, some people may prefer to conduct
research, while others prefer to make visuals. However, it's important that each member contribute to
each section so that you maintain the integrity of collaborative thinking. Similarly, it's important that
everyone does equal work.

Figure out how long each person should speak. When you’re working with a group, everyone needs to
speak for an equal amount of time. To figure out how long each person should speak, divide the total
time you have by the number of members in your group. Try to keep your presentation within the
allotted time

Collaborate with your group. Ensure that everyone understands the goals of both the overall project
and each specific group member’s task. [24] Gather with your fellow group members as soon as possible
after receiving or selecting your group’s overall topic and divvying up the subtopics. Together,
brainstorm what each part should be about and how it contributes to the overall structure of the
presentation.

Conduct research specific to your section of the presentation. Make suggestions to your fellow group
members regarding sources which might help them with their particular portion of the presentation. If
you come across info which could aid another member of your group, share it with them. Follow up on
suggestions you receive and gather the information you’ll need to draft your presentation

Check back with your group periodically. You should touch base with your fellow group members at
least once each week to ensure everyone is still on track. Use email, phone calls, text messaging, and
face-to-face meeting to keep the group in regular contact. If anyone needs help or if your group thinks a
certain part needs to be refocused, work closely with each member of your team so that everyone knows
what is being changed.

• Introduce all members one by one

• Enforced time limit strictly.
• Ensure that opening and closing is present.
• Answer audience question one by one.
III. At the end of the presentation
• Brief the presentation.
• Thank the audience as a team.

Checklist for group presentations:

In planning our presentation we have:

Found ways to keep the audience

interested Avoided including too much

content

Made it clear where we are going (at the start, linking sections etc.)

Made sure that each presenter states how their section fits in with the

rest

Developed clear and appropriate visuals (PowerPoint slides, diagrams etc.) and

handouts Worked out ways to involve the audience (e.g. invited comments, encouraged

questions) Allowed time for questions, and thought through what people might ask

Summarised appropriately, outlining key points

Worked out how we are going to gauge what the audience already knows

Rehearsed our presentation and given each other feedback (checked timing etc.)

Prepared index cards or skeleton notes to refer to (rather than reading notes in full)
Public speaking
Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate
manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners.
Public speaking is nothing but the speech made before the large gathering or mass/ public.
It is a process, an act and an art of making a speech before an audience.

The purpose of public speaking can range from simply transmitting information to motivating
people to act, to simple story.

Procedure for effective public speaking

I. Planning and preparation of the speech

1. Decide the purpose of speech
2. Making the audience analysis
3. Searching the relevant material
4. Organizing the speech
5. Reviewing the speech
II. Delivering the speech

1. Creating an effective introduction

2. Making the speech easy to understand
3. Taking care of visual elements
4. Keeping audience interest alive
5. Taking care of vocal elements : Speech should be natural soft and sweet
6. Making effective conclusion.
7. Handling question and answer session
8. Use body language
9. Overcome nervousness
 UNIT-9
Impromptu presentation-meaning, importance and procedure

The word ‘Impromptu’ means doing without any preparation

Impromptu presentation is the presentation given on the spot without a script lasting between
3-5 minutes
Importance:

Improve oral expression of thought

Develop confidence in public speaking

Think quickly on your feet

Develop leadership and communication skills

Procedure
* Give yourself time to prepare :
-Take deep breaths
-Rise slowly from your chair and walk slowly to the lectern (or stand behind and away from
your chair)
-Use this time to collect your thoughts and decide on the purpose and plan of your speech
- Think about the opening sentence
Remember: You don’t have to start the speech immediately
* Feel confident
-Look around at audience and smile. Stand tall.
-Don't slump, don't fidget, don't grasp the lectern, don't put hands in your pockets
-Speak and act in a confident manner
* Slow delivery
-Gives you time to think ahead
- The audience has time to absorb and react to what you are saying
-Helps you reduce umms and ahhs
*· Focus
-Keep the focus on the subject while talking
-Don't think of any negatives (eg being unprepared)
- Talk directly to the audience and adapt to their feedback
- Maintain good eye contact with the audience
-Be brief and to the point
- Don't ramble or say too much on the subject
-Speak at the audience's level
An impromptu speech is simply a mini-speech and therefore it has an Opening, a Body and a
Conclusion.
Opening
· Open by addressing the Chairman or Master of Ceremonies eg Mister/Madam Chairman
· Brief introduction/opening sentence – attention
getting Body
· Cover the main points (Try to find 1 or 2 central themes )
· Use clearly worded simple sentences and try to link the
themes Conclusion
· Be brief and look for an elegant closing that links back to the opening
· End by acknowledging the Chairman or Master of Ceremonies
Tips for Impromptu Presentation
1. Take a few moments to think about to plan an introduction and a conclusion.
2. Make a few notes for yourself on a card, phone, or I Pad. Or, text yourself a few
single words to remind yourself of the important ideas.
3. Consider the simple three part outline of an Introduction, Body, and Conclusion, and
fit your ideas into that pattern.
4. Remember the order or sequence of important points to present.
5. If you do not know what to say next, you can summarize and paraphrase .
6. the speaker should Talk like as if talking to the audience
 UNIT-10
Group Discussion- meaning, importance and tips for conducting
Group Discussion
Group discussion

It is a discussion among participants who have an agreed topic

It is a form of systematic and purposeful oral process characterized by the formal and structured
exchange of views on a particular topic, issue, problem or situation for developing information
and understanding essential for decision making or problem solving.
It is a methodology used by an organization to gauge whether the candidate has certain
personality traits and/or skills that it desires in its members. In this methodology, the group of
candidates is given a topic or a situation, given a few minutes to think about the same, and then
asked to discuss the topic among themselves for 15-20 minutes.

It is a very useful tool to screen the candidate’s potential as well as their skills.
GD may be used by an interviewer at an organization, colleges or even at different types of
management competitions.

Importance of group discussion:

-It helps in problem solving
-Decision making
-Personality assessment
The important qualities judged in a group discussion are:
Initiative
Subject knowledge
Time management
Communication skills
Leadership skills
Conflict handling skills
Ability to work a s team
Group acceptance
Persuasiveness
Open to other ideas
Tips for conducting Group Discussion
- understand the topic before attempting to contribute
- stock yourself with information
-try and get a chance to speak
-try to be the first and the last to speak
-structure arguments logically
-be confident but avoid being over confident
-listen carefully and speak only at the appropriate time
-speak loudly and clearly
-do not be deterred by other members aggression or submissive behavior
-accommodate diverse view points
-do not allow yourself to be divered by other peoples point
-try to contribute throughout the discussion
 UNIT-11
Field diary & Lab record : Meaning and procedure of keeping
Field diary

The field diary is the basic document which contain all the data collected. Facts and
interpretations are to be written separately and conversations to be noted in the vernacular
languages.

A field diary is a record of handwritten format with discrete (separate) entries arranged by date
to report on what happened in a day or other period.
It is personal statement of a researcher’s opinion about people and events he/ she comes in
contact with during field work.
Tips/ Points to be remembered for writing a field diary
1. Get a pen and buy a note book that has lot of pages since you will be writing constantly
2. Write the time and date on the top of the page and just go on making your entries for
the day.
3. Write about what you have done today, what you have experienced, people you have
interacted with, what was the interaction about
4. Be honest and truthful. Avoid fictionalization / imagination
5. Write on regular basis. You should write the field diary daily once without missing
what was happened in that day.
6. Add photos to your field diary.
7. Keep the diary in safe and secure place.

Advantages of keeping field diary

• Field diary helps to record the daily events & achievements
• Field diary helps to calculate of cost of cultivation by looking back the entries made
in the past
• Helps to look back what has been done in the past in the field and decide future
course of action
• Well maintained field dairy serves as legal proof
• By noting down the field diary every night, you will be forced to jog your mind as
you events of the field.
• Keeping a field diary also encourages honesty because rarely do people lie to their
field diary.
Procedure of keeping field diary:

a) Taking notes on the spot

b) Writing detailed diary

Daily field diary

It is instructed to write the field diary everyday in which

a) Detailed notes of observations

b) Field notes on discussion and conversations

c) Details of Interpersonal communication, gossips, fold history‘s similar events

d) Specific details of special events

Specific reference about the main field of study for instance, the details about the process of
message diffusion, various kinds of channels of communication were described in detail.

Field diary for Research Process documentation

The most useful tool for a process documenter is a field diary. The documenter uses a field
diary to record his or her observations and thoughts in an orderly fashion. Recording
observations and impressions enables a researcher to pick up clues about how the system is
operating.

A field diary should help the investigator understand the systems physical and social setting. It
should help describe who, what, why, where, when and how. Who refers to the people or
system being studied. What concerns the information gathered. Why, where, when and how
provide important details about the observation.

There is no special format in writing a field diary but entries should be written daily in
chronological order so information is not forgetten or changed because of forgetfulness. The
critical concern is that observations are recorded in a diary regularly.

Diary content should be organized into two categories.

1) Observations

2) Impressions

Observations should be objective, the documenter should only write down what she/he actually
saw or heard. Observations include descriptions of the physical setting (Climate, geographic
area and resources), the demographics settings (concentration, movement and general
characteristics of people) and the organizational setting (the different social levels in the system,
the communication network and the degree of complexity in the social system).
The researcher also observes individuals, small groups, families ethmic groups, villages and
government organizations. Observations can be made of situations and human actions,
including actors between farmers between farmers and government agencies and between
different government agencies.

The subjective impressions of the documenter make up the second category in a field diary.
Impressions should be clearly differentiated from observations. If for instance the researcher
observes a bitter argument between two farmers about water distribution in a canal, she/he
should write down what was actually seen and then write down his or her own impressions of
the vent. Impressions are important because they help the researcher evaluate and give meaning
to the observations. Thus, impressions should be recorded for all observations. As a result of
recording impressions, new ideas may emerge that may lead to a better understanding of the
irrigation system.

Lab record
It is a documentary material created and maintained in the laboratory.

It is an opportunity to show that learner understands what is going on in the experiment

Basic parts of lab record

1. Pre–lab :

The main idea is to give the reader an idea of what he / she is going to do in an
experiment

why the experiment is being done, its relevancy, materials required and technique to be
adopted.

2. In- lab:

Always record all the data and observations directly into lab record immediately
to keep an eye on what is actually happening in the experiment.
3. Post lab :

Record the data neat format and more readable. It should include all the formulas and
Statistical tests employed for calculations and analysis of data

Mention the Summary of the experiment what was done, which procedure adopted,
results and outcome
Procedure:

1. Determine the purpose of the record

2. Choose an appropriate method or plan for recording the information.
3. Select information to include
4. Enter information for accounting and any explanations
5. Use the information to make a determination, decision or judgment

Guidelines for Keeping a Laboratory Record

The following is a general description of how to keep a proper laboratory notebook.

Requirements for different teaching, research, clinical, or industrial labs will most likely vary.
Some institutions/labs will require less stringent record keeping, others will hold you to a very
strict protocol. A well kept notebook provides a reliable reference for writing up materials and
methods and results for a study. It is a legally valid record that preserves your rights or those of
an employer or academic investigator to your discoveries. A comprehensive notebook permits
one to reproduce any part of a methodology completely and accurately.

Choosing a notebook

For most purposes you may select a bound notebook, quadrille-ruled. A teaching lab may
require tear-out duplicate pages for making carbon copies. An engineering or industrial
research/development lab will likely require a specific type notebook with prenumbered pages
and places for date and investigator's and supervisor's signatures on each page. Pads of tear-out
graph paper or spiral bound notebooks without pre numbered pages are not acceptable. It must
be impossible to tear out a page without leaving evidence. It is safest to select something that is
clearly labeled as a laboratory notebook.

Preparing the Notebook

Please use a ball point pen for all entries, so that the marks will not smear nor will they be
erasable. Put your name, a telephone number and/or address, and project name or course
number on the outside front cover of the record. Put that same information on the first page
inside, or on the inside front cover. If your notebook does not include a prelabeled table of
contents section, then reserve the next several pages for a table of contents by labeling the top of
each page as Table of Contents and numbering each page. If your notebook does not have
prenumbered pages, you may wish to use lower case Roman numerals, as in a standard
publication. Next, number the next several pages with Arabic numerals in sequence, and you are
ready to begin recording data.

What to enter

Above all, it is critical that you enter all procedures and data directly into your notebook in a
timely manner, that is, while you are conducting the actual work. Your entries must be
sufficiently detailed so that you or someone else could conduct any procedure with only the
notebook as a guide. Few students (and not that many researchers for that matter) record
sufficiently detailed and organized information. The most logical organization of notebook
entries is chronological. If a proper chronological record is kept and co-signed by a coworker or
supervisior, it is a legally valid record. Such a record is necessary if you or your employer are to
keep your rights to your discoveries.

Depending on requirements set by a teacher, superivsor, company, or whatever, you may not
have to confine your notebook entries to lab notes only. On the other hand a student might
record your class lecture notes, lab lecture notes, ideas, questions, library research notes, and
notes that are part of any pre-lab preparation. The bare minimum entries for an academic lab
course, for each lab study, should include title of the lab study; introduction and objectives;
detailed procedures and data (recorded in the lab itself); summary.

We usually record a lot more information in a laboratory notebook than we would report in a
research paper. For example, in a published article we don't report centrifuge type, rpm, rotor
type, or which machine was used. However, if a procedure is unsuccessful you may want to
check to see that you used the correct rpm or correct rotor. Perhaps the centrifuge itself was
miscalibrated. You would need to know which machine you used. In a research paper one does
not report which person performed which tasks, because such information is useless to a third
party. However in the notebook it is important to note who was responsible for what procedure.
Again, you may need such information to troubleshoot your experiments.

Making entries

Someone else may need to consult your notebook sometime, so please make your entries clear
and legible. When you make your first entries of the day, start by entering the date, writing out
the month or abbreviation for the month (e.g., 5 Apr '04, or April 5, 2004, but not 4/5/04). The
use of numerals only can cause confusion. For example, in Europe the day comes before the
month. Thus April 5, 2004 would be written as 5/4/04.

When you start each new page of a notebook enter the date next to the page number. Each page
should be numbered and dated consistently. Most of us use the upper right corner of each page
for date and page number.

Depending on how your notebook is designed you may choose whether or not to use the backs
of pages. If you leave them blank, put a corner-to-corner line through them to void all blank
spaces. Some people use the backs for rough calculations, then void remaining blank space.
You might also decide to save space (and trees) and use both sides of each page. Obviously you
cannot use both sides with notebooks that are designed to make duplicate copies. In situations
where you turn in duplicate copies to a supervisor, you obviously must start each new set of
entries on a new page.

Write a title for each and every new set of entries. Distinct sets of entries should be separated by
using informative headings and by leaving a single space or two between individual sets of
entries. Specific information can be more readily located that way. For a new laboratory study,
write down a very brief introduction to the study, and list the objectives. If you have a specific
hypothesis, write it down. The object is to make it completely clear what you intend to do.

Record everything you do in the lab, even if you are following a published procedure. For
example, if you started by obtaining a quantity of tissue from an instructor, then write down that
you obtained tissue, describe it, note how much, what condition, etc. How much you write down
is up to you, but any relevant information should be there. For example, it doesn't matter much
if you received a chunk of liver in a red ice bucket or a black one. However, it does matter that
the material was on ice. If you change a protocol in any way or decide between alternative
methods, then the correct information must be recorded in the notebook.

If you make a mistake, put a line through the mistake and write the new information next to it.
Never erase or obliterate an entry. When you finish a page, put a corner-to corner line through
any blank parts that could still be used for data entry. Every bit of every page must be legible
and filled, either with information or with a mark that voids the section (see examples).

The summary

When you have finished a project, summarize what you have accomplished. You don't have to
draw conclusions, just indicate what sort of data or observations you collected, samples you
saved (and where and how you saved them), or any other relevant information that wraps up the
study. For a continuing study keep the summary extremely brief. In fact, if the notes are well
organized and it is obvious where the study left off, you need write nothing more than "To be
continued..." Summaries help maintain continuity. They indicate where the work left off and
how it might resume.

Are things getting too sloppy?

Perhaps your data records are scattered throughout the notebook, and you would like to
summarize them. Go ahead. You may re-enter tables or figures any time you wish to organize
your work a bit better. To prevent confusion over duplication of data you may put a line through
a table or figure you intend to re-draw, initial and date the change, and note the page on which
the reorganized data can be found. Just don't obscure any of the original entry.

Repeated procedures

So far you have been advised to record each step you perform in the laboratory, regardless of
whether the procedure is published somewhere. However, once you carry out a procedure, you
can refer to that part of your notebook, and only note changes you make. For example, the first
time you prepare a sequencing gel you should write down the exact formulation, how you mix
the gel, how long you let it cure, etc. The next time, just refer to the name of the procedure and
the appropriate page(s) of your notebook.

Loose materials

Suppose you enter raw data into a computer and have a printout with 400 pieces of data. or,
suppose you generate a graph using a software program. You might even have a silver-stained
gel that you wish to refer to frequently, or a fluoroescence photomicrograph that sums up your
results nicely. Some investigators prefer to attach such materials to the notebook itself, but too
many such items make a sloppy notebook and can stress the binding. Loose data should be kept
in a separate folder or notebook, with location noted in the book.

Table of Contents

Record all entries in the table of contents as you go along. You can organize it anyway you like
but it is advisable to include multiple levels in a table of contents, that is, indicate where a new
study starts and include subheadings for specific parts of a study, methods, sets of data, etc. The
idea is to enable someone (such a supervisor, grader, or yourself a year from now) to find
anything quickly. List each set of entries with dates and page numbers. If you are seriously anal-
retentive, you might record every experiment in chronological order, then use the remaining
blank space to cross reference the contents experiment by experiment.

For a teaching lab you might list each and every set of entries made in your notebook, in
chronological order, including complete and informative titles. Examples of sets of entries
include an introduction, a summary, a set of procedures for a specific preparation, a complete
data set, calculations for diluting samples or preparing assay standards, etc. A grader should be
able to find any specific entry quickly, without flipping through pages.

Notebook Checklist

As you record your activities in the laboratory, ask yourself, "Did I..."

Keep up with the table of contents?

Date each page?
Number each page consecutively?
Use continuation notes when necessary?
Properly void all blank pages or portions of pages (front and back)?
Enter all information directly into the notebook?
Properly introduce and summarize each experiment?
Include complete details of all first-time procedures?
Include calculations?
 UNIT-12
Indexing, Footnote and Bibliographic Procedures - meaning, types and procedure

Indexing
Indexing is a table of references in alphabetical or any other order

The word indexing is taken from the word “indicate” i.e. ay pointer or guide towards a body of
data or collection of records.
It is a table of references in alphabetical or any other order.
It is done in order to find out quickly any document for reference on a future day.
When documents are in thousands and kept for reference indexing helps in quick picking up
any later required, provided it is systematically and prop
Indexing is the process of deciding the caption, like name or subject matter, under which
documents are to be filed for the purpose of their easily location.

Importance of indexing:

- Helps to retrieve or retrieval

- Provides ready reference
- Helps to locate the relevant topic
- Save time and labour

Types of indexing:
1. Bound book index: In a bound book, a letter or alphabet is allotted to each page of the
book.
2. Loose- leaf book index system: the index pages are not bound in a book but are tied
with the help of rings made of metal.
3. Card index: the index of the files is maintained under different cards of uniform size.

4. Strip index: it is modified form of visible card and is used when brief information
about correspondents are required.

5. Wheel indexing system: a rotating wheel is attached to a stand. This system permits
flexibility and saving space and quick references.

Indexing Procedure

The indexing process begins at the page-proof stage. First, the indexer reads through the page
proof and underscores all the key words. The indexer should consider the complexity and scope
 of the book when choosing the pertinent facts for entries and when distinguishing between main
entries and subentries. The indexer should also keep the reader in mind: Where is the reader
most likely to look when seeking out a specific subject? Will a certain item listed as a subentry
become lost to a reader who might not look under the chosen main entry? Has the author coined
words or used special terms that the reader might not ordinarily consider? Are certain terms
used interchangeably throughout the book when they should be listed as one entry in the index?
In cases of ambivalence the indexer should make judicious use of cross references (See or See
also, followed by a complete listing of the referenced entry) to guide the reader to the correct
location.

After completing the task of marking up the page proofs, the indexer uses a spreadsheet
program such as Excel—using column A for main entries, column B for subentries, and so on—
and enters

The key word.

A subentry, or descriptive phrase about this key word (if the page references to the key word
accumulate) and should bear a logical, grammatical relationship to the key word.

The page number on which the key word appears. If the key word continues for several pages, this
should be indicated by listing the first and last page numbers with a hyphen in between (514-
516). Endnotes are referred to by page (on which the text of the note appears), the letter “n,” and
the note number, with no internal space (504n14). If a footnote is indexed, this is indicated by
listing an “n” after the page number (52n); if more than one note is on a page, then the note
number may be added (52n4). No digit should be omitted (514-516, not 514-16).

A tip: Use column D for page numbers in case you have sub-subentries, which would be entered in
column C. Use column E for cross-references.

During this stage, the indexer will be making ongoing, tentative decisions about the main entries,
subentries, and cross references. After all the entries have been made on the cards, alphabetizing
begins.

Alphabetizing We use the letter-by-letter method. For main entries this means that alphabetizing
begins with the first letter and continues until the first mark of punctuation. For example, the
entry “Abstraction” would go before “Abstract structure.” For subentries, alphabetizing begins
instead with the first key word—conjunctions and prepositions are bypassed.

Final Assessment Sort the data alphabetically, by column A, then B, and so on, and import or copy
and paste into Word. As a general rule, subentries are not necessary if there are fewer than six
page references to the main entry and are recommended if there are more. (We discourage the
use of sub-subentries.) The page numbers should be listed sequentially.

Typing the Index

The index manuscript should be double-spaced, with the subentries indented 1 tab space (.25 inch
is ideal) below the main entries. Main entries are capitalized (with the exception of proper
 nouns with lower-cased particles, such as “de Ville”), and subentries are lower-cased (with the
exception of proper nouns). Subentries should be indented 1 tab space, and runovers (entries
exceeding one line) can be set flush left (or, if you would prefer, use a hanging indent of 1/2
inch). Write out in full all inclusive numbers. Please review the sample typed index page for
correct format—note especially the different handling of cross references for main entries and
for subentries

Personal names should be listed in full (at least include the initials) even if the text reference is
more casual. Names that might confuse, such as New York, may be clarified with a
parenthetical note: “New York (state).” Acronyms that are commonly known may be listed and
alphabetized without definition.

Length of the Index Indexes vary greatly in length. A short index is OK if it is appropriate to the
book. In general, the number of index pages runs between 1/50 and 1/20 the number of text
pages. Index pages are set in two columns, in small type, so roughly, the index manuscript for a
300-page book could run from 20 (or less) to about 60 double-spaced, single column pages (for
a 6- to 15-page typeset index).

Footnote
• A footnote is a note of text placed at the bottom of a page in a book or a document
• It is a note of reference or comments/text written/placed at the foot/bottom of a page in a
book or document
• A mark or a number is put at the last word, or phrase of the point which is elucidated in
the footnote, and additional information is mentioned at the bottom of the page.
Footnotes are the acceptable method of acknowledging material which is not your own when
you use it in an essay.

Types of Footnote:

Basically, footnoted material is of three types:

1. Direct quotations from another author's work. (These must be placed in quotation marks).

2. Citing authority for statements which are not quoted directly.

3. Material of an explanatory nature which does not fit into the flow of the body of the text.

Purpose of footnote:

- To indicate the source of a fact, opinion, question, a diagram, figure or a picture in order
to make acknowledgements
- To provide additional data, introduce persons, theories and ideas
- Elucidate, elaborate, or validate an idea or a point
Procedure of writing footnote :
The footnote system of referencing uses a numeric reference to the citation in the body of the
text, with the citation details at the bottom of the page.
How to insert footnotes using Word XP
1. Place cursor where the footnote is to be inserted
2. From the menu bar, select Insert
3. Select reference>footnote and select options
4. The (next) numeric footnote will automatically be inserted and also placed at the bottom
of the page.
How to insert footnotes using Word 2000
1. Place cursor where the footnote is to be inserted
2. From the menu bar, select Insert>footnote and select options
3. The (next) numeric footnote will automatically be inserted and also placed at the bottom of
the page
In the text of an essay, material to be footnoted should be marked with a raised number
immediately following the words or ideas that are being cited.
The footnotes may be numbered in sequence on each page or throughout the entire essay.
I. Form and Content of Footnotes:
1. From a book:
1
W. J. Eccles, Frontenac The Courtier Governor (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Limited,
1959), 14.
[The information given in a footnote includes the author, the title, the place of publication, the
publisher, the date of publication and the page or pages on which the quotation or information is
found.]
2. From an article in a journal:
1
Peter Blickle, "Peasant Revolts in the German Empire in the Late Middle Ages," Social
History, Vol. IV, No. 2 (May, 1979), 233.
3. From a book containing quotations from other sources:
1
Eugene A. Forsey, "Was the Governor General's Refusal Constitutional?", cited in Paul Fox,
Politics: Canada (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Company of Canada Ltd., 1966), 186.
4. From a standard reference work:
1
Norman Ward, “Saskatchewan,” in The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., Vol. 3, 1935.
2
J. K. Johnson and P. B. Waite, “Macdonald, Sir John Alexander,” in The Dictionary of
Canadian Biography, Vol. 12, 599
5. From the Internet: In citing material read on the Internet, it is not sufficient to indicate the
website alone. You must provide information about author, title, and date of the document you
are using, as follows:
1
T. J. Pritzker, (1993). "An Early Fragment from Central Nepal" [Online]. Available:
http://www.ingress.com/~astanart/pritzker/pritzker.html [1995, June].
The final date [1995, June] is the date the website was consulted.
II. Rules to Remember in Writing Footnotes:
1. Titles of books, journals or magazines should be underlined or italicized.
2. Titles of articles or chapters—items which are only a part of a book--are put in quotation
marks.
III. Abbreviating in Footnotes:
The first time any book or article is mentioned in a footnote, all the information requested above
must be provided. After that, however, there are shortcuts which should be used:
(a) Several quotations in sequence from the same book:
The abbreviation to be used is "Ibid.," a Latin word meaning "in the same place." (Notice that
Ibid. is not underlined). Ibid. can be used by itself, if you are referring to the same page as the
previous footnote does, or it can be combined with a page number or numbers.
Example:
1
Gerald Friesen, The Canadian Prairies: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1984), 78.
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid., 351.
(b) Reference to a source that already has been cited in full form but not in the reference
immediately preceding, is made by using the author's last name (but not the first name or initials
unless another author of the same surname has been cited), the title--in shortened form, if
desired--and the page number.
Example:
1
William Kilbourn, The Firebrand (Toronto: Clark, Irwin and Company Limited, 1956), 35.
2
John L. Tobias, "Canada's Subjugation of the Plains Cree, 1879-1885," in Sweet Promises: A
Reader on Indian-White Relations in Canada, ed. J. R. Miller (Toronto: University of Toronto
Press, 1991), 224.
3
Kilbourn, The Firebrand, 87.
4
Tobias, "Canada's Subjugation of the Plains Cree," 226.
A footnote is normally flagged by a superscript number following that portion of the text the
note is in reference to:
– For the first footnote on the page,
 – For the second footnote, and so on.
– Occasionally a number between brackets or parentheses is also used [1],
typographical devices such as asterisk (*) or dagger (t) may also be used to point
to footnotes.
Purpose of Footnote
• The main purpose of a footnote is to acknowledge the source of any direct or indirect
quotation which you-have taken from another author or-authority.
• Footnotes can also be used to expand or supplement statements made in the body.
• to enable the reader to independently consult the sources used.
Bibliography
A list of books about or on a specific subject or by a specified author
It is a descriptive list of all the sources that may provide further information on the subject

Bibliography has French origin from the word "Bibliotheque" (Library).

• The two parts of this word i.e. Biblio (Listing) and graphy (doing things by means of
charts) mean together "the listing of information through charts".
• A bibliographer is another name for a Librarian.
• Bibliography means the systematic study and description of books.
• The purpose of bibliography is to organize information about materials on a given
subject so that Learners of the subject may have access to it.

Types of Bibliography
Systematic/Descriptive/Enumerative Bibliographies:
• The primary purpose is to organize detailed information, item by item culled from mass
of materials in a systematic way so that others can have access to useful information.
• It is compiling all the works of a given writer either a writer's list of his own works or a
biographers list of his subject writings.
2. Critical/Analytical Bibliography:
• It is the technique to study physical features of books.
• It consists of meticulous descriptions of the physical features of a number of books
including the paper, binding, printing. typography and production used.

Kinds of Bibliography
• Bibliography is of various kinds, which can be identified on the basis of the coverage,
content, periodicity and arrangement etc.
• In-fact, the Bibliography can be classified according to the Five Fundamental
Categories (viz. PM EST) as under:
1. Personality (i.e. Subject Factor)
2. Matter (i.e. Scope Factor)
3. Energy (i.e. Arrangement Factor)
4. Space (i.e. Geography Factor)
5. Time (i.e. Time Factor)
Bibliographic procedure

Bibliography should list the relevant sources used in the research for the paper. This list should
be arranged alphabetically by the surname of the author. (Unlike the footnote reference, the
surname is shown first, set off from the rest of the information.) The information required is:
author, title, place of publication, publisher and date of publication.

Essential components of bibliographic records:

For Print Sources
i. Author (it could be: a person as self-author(s) or as Editor(s), a corporate body, a government,
a conference, etc.).
ii. The date of publication (the year of publication, which to some kinds of material includes day
and month. But, where the year of publication is not seen, the copyright year is used but with a
“c” sign before the date (e.g. c2014). Where there is no date, the abbreviation “n.d”, for no date,
may be used. iii. Title
iv. Edition
v. Place of publication
vi. Publisher
vii. Volume, number and/or page numbers

For Non-print Sources (electronic materials)

To accurately cite and reference electronic sources of information, the following basic
information (which must appear in every likely credible electronic material) must be clearly
visible where available: i. Name of the Author or Editor (if available)
ii. Title of the page/article
iii. Title of the web page (look on the site’s home page)
iv. Type of medium (for example electronic journal, online)
v. Date on which the website was updated or the copyright date
vi. full internet address (URL) (for example http://www...)
vii. Date on which the website was accessed
Major or leading methods
*Harvard method , the American Psychological Association (APA), the Vancouver and the
Modern Language Association (MLA) methods.

1) Harvard Method

This method is also known as the “author-date method”. It is used primarily in the humanities
(see Table 1). Students and researchers in the academic departments and disciplines of the
humanities faculty are compulsorily requested to write and format there term papers, essays,
articles, projects and other researches on the Harvard method. This method has as general
characteristics the following:

i. Cite the author(s) name(s), date of publication and page in the text (e.g. Uzuegbu, 2012:21).
For more than one author (Uzuegbu, 2012:21; Ibegwam, 2014:14). etc.

ii. If author’s name(s) forms part of the sentence, put the date and page in bracket.

iii. Page(s) is necessary only in paginated works.

iv. Use comma to separate author from date but use colon to separate date from page number(s).
v. Quotations that are less than 40 words are integrated into a grammatically correct sentence
and should fit into a well-structured paragraph.

vi. If the quotation forms part of the sentence, the final punctuation mark follows the closing
bracket of its accompanying citation.

vii. Words omitted in the quotations are indicated with ellipses (. . .)

viii. Quotations that are more than 40 words are placed in an indented paragraph without
quotation marks.

ix. Citations made in the text are listed systematically (as we shall see later on) as references at
the last page of the write-up or as bibliography if it contains the list other relevant materials not
consulted and/or cited.

x. Entries on the reference or bibliography are arranged alphabetically.

xi. Only titles (for published works only) are italicized. Titles of non-published works are not
italicized.

xii. In the case of no identified author, the title of the work is used as author in text and
reference list.

2. APA Method

This method is used primarily in the social and behavioural science faculties (see Table 1).
Students and researchers belonging to departments and disciplines in the behaviourial sciences
are required to write and format there term papers, essays, articles, projects and other researches
on the APA method. Sample presentations and guides in this section is strictly in accordance
with the 6th edition (2nd printing) rules of APA, which is the latest edition of APA referencing
style as published in 2010. This method has as general rules the following:
i. Cite the author(s) name(s) and date of publication only. (Page number(s) is only required in
direct quotations and subsequent citing for paginated works.

ii. For cases that require inserting page, the page number is written for example as “p.5” or
“pp.12-17”.

iii. If author’s name(s) forms part of the sentence, put only the date in bracket.

iv. Use comma to separate author from date and page (for where page number is required) for
example: (Uzuegbu, 2012, p.5).

v. Quotations that are less than 40 words are integrated, grammatically, into the sentence, as a
paraphrase or as quotation that must fit into a well-structured paragraph.

vi. If the quotation forms part of the sentence, the final punctuation mark follows the closing
bracket of its accompanying citation.

vii. Words omitted in the quotations are indicated with ellipses (. . .)

viii. Quotations that are more than 40 words are placed in an indented paragraph without
quotation marks and not italicized.

ix. If authors to a work are two, three, four or five in number, at first citation the names
(surnames) of all authors should be stated and subsequently, the first author’s name should be
used followed by word “et al.” written out without italicizing it.

x. When there are six or more authors, use the last name of the first author followed by “et al”
for the first citation in the text, as well as subsequent citations.

xi. In the reference list, authors’ names are listed complete up to the seventh name but where
they are more than seven, the ellipses sign (. . .) is used after the sixth author and afterwards
insert the name of the last author.

xii. The conjunction letter “&” is used for joining authors in the reference list were required but
“and” is used for same purpose in the in-text citations.

xiii. Citations made in the text are listed systematically (as we shall see later on) as references at
the last page of the write-up or as bibliography if it contains the list other relevant works not
consulted and/or cited in the write-up.

xiv. Entries on the reference or bibliography are arranged alphabetically.

xv. At the reference entries, only titles of works are italicized.

3. The Vancouver Method

The Vancouver method is a type of numerical referencing method that is used primarily in
medicine, computer science and mathematics.

The followings are common with the Vancouver method:

i. A number is allocated to a source when it is referred to for the first time.

ii. The allocated number appears in the text in superscript or in square brackets.

iii. The number identifies the specific source and is used throughout the text to refer to the
specific source.

iv. In the case where the researcher still mentions the name of authors, the allocated number is
still used.

v. The complete reference to sources is placed at the end of the writing in a list that is ordered
numerically. This list is known as the reference list and contains only the sources cited in the
text.

vi. In the reference list no lines are indented, but one line is left open between the entries.

vii. Unlike in Harvard and APA methods, titles of works are not italicized and the year of
publication is placed at the very end of each entry.

viii. The titles of journals are abbreviated as prescribed by Index Medicus. For example, the
African Journal for Health Science is abbreviated to Afr J Health Sci.

ix. The Index Medicus list can be downloaded from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/libprog.html.

x. For punctuations in the reference list, the surname and initials of the authors are written
without any punctuation, for example Abiodun KE. The names of two or more authors are
simply separated by a comma and not by an ampersand.

xi. A citation that contains several authors will also require the allocation of more than one
number accordingly.

xii. If the in-text numbering style is the square bracket system (contrary to the superscript style),
page numbers to cited works can also (though not compulsory) be added, for example [2:45].

xiii. Quotations are dealt with in the same manner with Harvard and APA methods.
4. The MLA Method

This method of referencing is prescribed by the Modern Language Association. It is used

primarily in the humanities (linguistics and literary subjects). The followings are the features of
MLA method:

- The name of the author and the page numbers appear in brackets in the text.

- The date is of lesser importance in this referencing method and is not indicated in the text.

- The titles of the works play an important role ad must be indicated in the text where possible.
Some long titles can be abridged with the ellipses sign (…).

- All citations in the text are supplemented by a list of work at the end of the work. The list is
called “Works cited”.

- The list of Works cited is arranged alphabetically according to the surnames of the author or
titles of the sources.

- In the list of “Works cited”, the second and subsequent lines are indented and one line is left
open between entries.

- In MLA method, the names of the authors are written out in full in the “Works cited” list and
no initials are used.

- With regards to punctuations, the surname of the first author is written first followed by his or
her full names. The second author’s name(s) and surname are given in the normal order (first
the name(s), followed by the surname) and a comma is placed before the “and”, for example
Uzuegbu, Chimezie, and Cletus Okafor.

- In the MLA method, quotations are dealt with in the same way as in the Harvard, APA and
Vancouver methods. Thus, quotations of up to 40 words form part of the sentence and placed
within the punctuation marks of the sentence, while quotations of 40 words or more are placed
without quotation marks in an indented paragraph.

Bibliographic procedure followed for KJAS (Format) / Journal of Farm Science

References should be typed in double line space along with the body of the paper but starting on
a fresh page.

• These should be listed in the alphabetical and Chronological order.

 • In the text, the references should be cited as Hayman(1970) or (Hayman,1970), Sen and
Bhowal (1961) or (Sen and Bhowal, 1961), Tosh et al. (1978) or (Tosh et al., 1978),
when there are more than two authors.

While listing the References, the following examples should be followed [KJAS- Format]
Example for Bibliographic Procedure:
Journal
Singh, S.P., Rajendra Prasad and Singh, R.K., 2005, Path co-efficient analysis of seed
yield in coriander. Int. J. Agric. Sci.1 (1): 58-62.
Papers presented at symposium/seminar/workshop
Kulkarni, K.A., Kambrekar, D.N., Gundannavar, K.P., Devaraj, K. and Udikeri, S.S.,
2004, Biointensive integrated pest management for Bt cotton. Paper presented In:
Int. Symp. Strat. Sust.Cotton Prod. -A G Vis. UAS, Dharwad, November 23-25. p.
149.
Proceedings of annual meetings
Sochenck, N.C., 1965, Compatibility of fungicides with insecticides and foliar
nutrients. 57th Annu.Meet. Am. Phytopath. Soc. Florida, 3-7 Oct 1965.
Book
Yellmanda Reddy, T. and Sankara Reddy, G.H., 2005, Principles of Agronomy. Kalyani
Publishers, Ludhiana, India.
Report
Anonymous, 2002, Production of food grains. Surv. Ind. Agric. The Hindu Year Book,
Chennai. p 46 -47.
Annual Report
Anonymous, 2003, Annu. Rep. (2003-04). Uni. Agric. Sci. Dharwad. p 137.
www.kar.nic.in / maratavahini
• The papers cited in the text should only be include in the Reference
 UNIT-13
Reading and comprehension of general and technical articles- meaning, and
procedure

Reading skills are extremely important as they improve one’s ability to communicate
effectively. They are useful for immediate accomplishment like keeping upto date information,
improving writing ability. In fact, proficiency in reading is a prerequisite to good writing ability.
But reading alone will not help you unless you develop ability to comprehend what you have
read. Listening and reading are strictly individual traits and are often taken for granted. What
one effectively listens and reads becomes a valuable raw material for effective speaking and
writing.

Reading means:

- process of making meaning from written texts

Reading is the process of creating meaning that involves: (a) the reader's existing knowledge;
(b) the text information; and (c) the reading context
Kinds of Reading
There are two different kinds of reading. They are extensive reading and intensive reading.
-Extensive Reading:
-it as skimming and scanning activities
-Intensive Reading
-learners read a page to find the meaning and to be familiar with the strategies of writing.
It is useful to develop reading comprehension.
Reading process:
- Visual process: Eye movement, eye span and perception span
- Brain process: Word resources (or) vocabulary, background knowledge, general education
etc.
An average reader reads 250 words/minute A very good reader reads 500-600 wpm
An Exceptional reader reads 1000 or more wpm.
Reading may be efficient or inefficient and active or passive reading.

Good Reading depends upon:

Your sharpness of thinking
Your ability to remember & retain what you
read Your word power.
 Reading is concerned with:
- Decoding
- Comprehending (predicting, scanning and skimming)
- Text analysis (fluency, critical reading, identifying and distinguishing relationship)
- Response (action or reaction to message)
Different reading strategies and skills:
Vocabulary skills- Word meaning recognition skills, guessing the meaning from word
structure and context
Visual perception skills
Prediction techniques
Scanning skills
Skimming skills
Reading Procedure
For effective reading: you have to read twice
• First a quick reading to know the general meaning (over view) of the subject
• In the second reading, Make efforts to know the particulars details (what you
are looking ).
• You can understand details more effectively once you have grasped the central theme.
• This approach is very useful to study and subject.
• It is essential to develop following skills for effective reading :
– Decoding [Interpreting the subject]
– Comprehending [understanding]
– Text analysis [Overall analysing the gist of the subject]
– Response [Reaction of reader]

Comprehension
Comprehension is the process of eliciting and making meaning through interaction and
involvement with written language.

Comprehension is a process in which readers make meaning by interacting with text through
the combination of prior knowledge and previous experience, information in the text, and the
views of readers related to the text.

Comprehension is the main aim of reading.

Skills required for better comprehension:-
Word attack skill:- Ability to convert graphic symbols to intelligible language.
 Fluency skill:- Ability to see larger segment and phrases as whole as an aid to reading
and writing more quickly.
Critical Reading skill:- Ability to analyze, evaluate and synthesize what one reads.
Guidelines for reading and comprehending general and technical articles:
- Prepare for reading - Scan the text
- Skim the text - Read the text thoroughly
- Make notes - Review what you have read

Reading Comprehension procedure:

Successful readers try to use different strategies to make meaning as they read. They do not use
similar strategies; instead, they like to expand and practice those strategies that are beneficial to
them. Moreover, they are very flexible in the application of their strategies, they change from
strategy to strategy, and they apply various strategies with different types of texts.

-Activating and Using Background Knowledge

Readers activate their background knowledge and apply it to aid them comprehend what
they are reading. This knowledge consists of individuals’ experiences with the world together
with their concepts for how written text work, involving word recognition, print concepts, word
meaning, and how the text is formed .

- Generating and Asking Questions

Here readers ask themselves pertinent questions in reading the text. This strategy assists readers
to combine information, recognize main ideas, and summarize information. Asking appropriate
questions permits successful readers to concentrate on the most important information of a text.

- Making Inferences

Readers assess or draw conclusions from information in a text. In this strategy, writers do not
always provide full information about a topic, place, personality, or happening. Instead, they
provide information that readers can use to read by making inferences that integrate
information of the text with their previous knowledge. Through this process, readers can
improve their skills to make meaning. Being able to make inferences is an important factor for
readers’ successful reading.

- Predicting

Readers are able to gain meaning from a text by making educated guesses. Successful readers
apply forecasting to make their existing knowledge to new information from a text to obtain
meaning from what they read. Before reading, readers may apply what they know about a writer
to forecast what a text will be about. The title of a text can operate memories of texts with the
same content, permitting them to guess the content of a new text. During reading, successful
readers can make predictions about what will occur next, or what opinions the writer will offer
to support a discussion. Readers try to assess these predictions ceaselessly and change any
prediction that is not approved by the reading .
- Summarizing

Readers combine information in a text to elaborate in their own words what the text is about.
Summarizing is a significant strategy that allows readers to remember text rapidly. In this
strategy, readers can be aware of text structure, of what is significant in a text, and of how
opinions are related to each other. Effective summarizing of explanatory text includes things
like condensing the steps in a scientific process, the steps of development of an art movement,
or the episodes that result in certain important historical happenings. Effective summarizing of
narrative text includes things such as connecting happenings in a story line or recognizing the
elements that stimulate a character’s activities and conduct.

- Visualizing

Readers can make mental picture of a text to comprehend processes they face during reading.
This skill shows that a reader perceives a text. Readers who form a mental image as they read
are better able to remember what they have read than those who do not image
Visualizing is very important when it is used for narrative texts. When readers read narrative
texts, they can easily understand what is happening by visualizing the place, personalities,
or operations of a plan. It can also be used for the reading of expository texts. Readers
visualizing steps in a process or stages in a happening or forming an image that help them to
recall some abstract ideas or significant names.

- Comprehension Monitoring

In this strategy, readers have the ability to know when they comprehend what they read, when
they do not perceive, and to apply suitable strategies to make better their understanding.
Successful readers know and check their thought processes as they read. Strategies that
successful readers use to improve their understanding are called “fix-up” strategies. Particular
repair strategies involve rereading, reading ahead, explaining the words by looking them up in
a, or asking someone for assistance.
 UNIT-14
Precise writing, Summarizing and Abstracting-: Meaning, and procedure of
writing

Precise writing
It is a brief account of something without details or formalities presenting the document in a
clear and concise form.
• The word 'precise ' is derived from a latin word 'precism' which means 'to cut
short'.

• Therefore a 'precise ' is an abridged form of a passage in which the essential and
relevant details are retained where as, the in essential, irrelevant and superfluous
details are carefully excluded.

Although no specific length can be practiced but, it should not contain more than one-third of
the total number of words in the original passage.
Essentials for precise writing:
In direct form of speech
In own words
Focus to continuity of ideas/logical arrangement of ideas and thoughts
Restrict to one-third of the total length of the original passage.
Rules which govern the precise writing

Precise should always be written as a continuous passage in which the sequence of

ideas must be carefully maintained.

Precise must be written thinking that it is written for third person. Even if the original
passage is in the first person. The first person and second person pronouns should not be
used in the precise .

However 'we" being a common gender can be used if necessary.

It does not involve mere omission of certain parts of the original passage and then the
reproduction of the selected matter in the form of a paragraph, without any coherence
and logical unity.

PROCEDURE FOR PRECISE WRITING

The art of précis writing involves tremendous, conscious, rigorous efforts

 General rules to be followed in writing precise

1. Read the passage thoroughly to know the main theme of the topic around which facts and
arguments revolve.

2. Re-read the passage and underline the main ideas.

3. Recapture the main ideas and highlight them on plain page.
4. Restructure those points in well-connected and readable paragraph.
5. Rewrite these points in fewer possible words by :-
(a) Using your own language and narrating the message in concise form.
(b) Not reproducing the original sentences.
(c) Replacing clauses by phrases and phrases by one appropriate word.
Ex; once in a Blue Moon (Phrase), can be replaced as “Rare Event”
(d) Avoiding unnecessary repetition.
(e) linking all the sentences.
6. Review the passage to ensure that no important message is left.
7. Revise and recopy the message in final form of precise .

Summarizing
Summarizing is a brief statement of the main point of something without unnecessary details
and legal formalities. Hence writing summary is one of the most important study skills needed
by the professional and also entrepreneurs.
It is a process of condensing information without changing the original meaning and
focus of a passage.
Two kinds of summarizing are:
1. Summarizes old document, by
– extracting important sentences or
– by rephrasing and
– shortening the original text.
2. The second process summarizes across multiple
document. condensing retrieved information into smaller
units.

Summarizing like note taking is a production skill integrating both reading and writing skills. It
involves,
Reading strategy- to identify the central idea, the main points and important supporting
details.
 Summarizing techniques:
a) Selection- The process of choosing the information that is essential to the meaning
of the passage.
b) Rejection-process of removing all that is not important, unnecessary, and redundant.
c) Substitution- involves synthesis, sentence substitution and one word
substitution Outlining and paraphrasing
Procedure/ Steps in summarizing

1. Familiarize yourself with the material: Read the entire original text matter and Record
and underline the important one.
2. Select the important information: Go through each paragraph, sentence by sentence
to select essential information.
3. Paraphrase the information: paraphrasing or rewriting from the original text in your own
words
4. Write the draft copy: write the rough draft of the summary with clear sentenses and in a
logical Sequence.
5. Edit your version of summery: Eliminate needless words and repetition.

ABSTRACTING
Meaning & Importance

• An abstract is the mirror image of a paper. It is a summary of the information in

a document.

• It is the brief summary of the larger informative paper.

• It is the first part in the paper that is read. It is like a bit of orientation for
editors, reviewers and audience.

• Abstract of paper should tell the reader its relevance quickly, accurately and help
him whether to read entire content or not.

• Paper published in journal has abstract as heading after the title.

Types of Abstracts
There are two types of abstracts:
1. Informative Abstract:
– It is best suited for research paper. This type of abstract is often referred to as
an informational abstract.
– It can and should briefly state the problem, the methods used to study the
problem, principal data and conclusion.
2. Indicative abstract/ Descriptive abstract:
– This type of abstract is designed to indicate the content of the paper and scope of
the work done without giving information about the results and conclusions.
The Procedure/ steps in preparing abstract

1. Read the introductory paragraph of the study to identify objective.

2. Scan the summary and conclusions at the end for noting down the main findings of
the study.

3. Read through the text for information on methodology adopted, new data and any other
vital information.

4. Prepare a draft arranging the various items in the order: objective, new methodology,
or equipment employed, and major conclusion.

Modify and trim the paper to get the required size

Steps in writing a abstract:

Reread the article
Look specifically for main points of the article
Use the headings
Write a trough draft without looking back at what you are abstracting
Don’t merely copy key sentences from the article
Summarise information in a new way
Revise rough draft by dropping unnecessary information, correcting weaknesses
Use direct, straight forward sentences
Use enough data to support the
conclusions Use scientific names and not
local names
 UNIT-15
Organizing seminars and conferences- meaning, importance and steps in
organizing

Seminar
• Seminar is a group communication where one person makes his presentation to the
audience on a topic to address the present and pressing problems.
• Thus seminar is a mixture of speech and group discussion.
• During seminar one person acts as chairman of the session and conducts the seminar by
introducing the topic and the speaker.
• At the end of the session, he asks the audience to raise questions and ensures that the
discussion follows in the light of the theme/ Concept.
The Procedure / Steps in Organising Seminar
1. A specific theme, venture and schedule of the Seminar is decided in advance and papers
are called for presentations
2. They are asked to submit a short abstract of their presentation, which is reviewed by
experts.
3. There are one or more key note speakers (usually expert on that particular area) who
present their lecture that lasts for one hour
4. After keynote address, the technical session is held to present their work in short form
lasting for 5-15 minutes.
5. At the end of Seminar valedictory session, chaired by some expert is organized where
the ideas of different presenters are summed up.

Conference
Meaning & Importance
• A conference is researchers or practitioners gathering for presenting, discussing and
exchanging their views.
• Because of professionalism and wide spread knowledge, the role of conferences is
assuming of paramount importance.
Conferences are also held to impart training to the new entrants where they are exposed to
new experiences and are encouraged to speak to overcome their inhibitions and complexes

Advantages of Conference
• Enabling opportunities for delegates to listen to the opinions of highly experts from the
field.
• Offering opportunities for delegates to network with a wide range of people who share
with them an area of interest.
• Offering quick opportunities for researchers to establish idea and know the opinions of
the other persons about their idea.
• Offering chance for delegates to broaden perspectives on topics of high interest and
relevant areas.
• Drawing the attention of the government on present and pressing problems through
submission of its charter.

The Procedure / Steps in Organising Conference

1. A specific theme, venture and schedule of the conference is decided in advance and
papers are called for presentations
2. They are asked to submit a short abstract of their presentation, which is reviewed by
experts.
3. There are one or more key note speakers (usually expert on that particular area) who
present their lecture that lasts for one hour
4. Panel discussions, round tables on various issues, workshops may be held as part of the
conference.
5. After keynote address, the technical session is held to present their work in short form
lasting for 5-15 minutes.
6. At the end of conference valedictory session, chaired by some expert is organized where
the ideas of different presenters are summed up.
7. After conference, the various presentations are compiled in the form of "proceedings of
the conference" and are published.
 UNIT-16 & 17
Personality Development and Personality Theories

Personality:
The word personality comes from the Latin word persona which means the mask worn by
players in the theater.

Personality is the total quality of an individual.

It is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.
Personality consists of observable behaviour.
Personality is generally described as being made up the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors that make a person unique how he differs from others

Definition of personality

Personality is that which makes one effective, or gives one influence over others.
In the language of psychology it is one's social stimulus value. (May, M.A.)
A man's personality is the total picture of his organized behaviour, especially as it can be
characterized basis fellow men in a consistent way. ( Dashiell, J.F.)
Our personality is the result of what we start and what we have lived through. It is a 'reaction
mass' as a whole.(Watson, J.B.)
Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems
that determine his unique adjustments to his environment. (Allport, G.W.)
It can, therefore be defined as an individual's typical or consistent adjustments to his
environment. It is the most characteristic integration of an individual's structure, modes of
behaviour, interests, attitudes, capacities and aptitudes.
It is defined as an individual, typical or consistent adjustment to his environment.
Generally personality is defined as the deeply ingrained and relatively enduring patterns of
thought, feeling and behavior.

The elements of personality are called the traits of personality, it is the traits that make one
person different from another person in his behaviour.
Shyness and sociability are different traits and characteristic of an individual. All characteristics
which an individual possesses are his powers, needs, abilities, wants, habits, his goal and
aspirations. His patterns of behaviour to objects and persons continue his personality.
Personality development
Personality development is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with
others.

It is the relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish individuals from
one another.

Personality development includes activities that improve awareness and identity, develop talents and
potential, build human capital and facilitate employability, enhance quality of life and contribute to the
realization of dreams and aspirations

Importance of Personality development:

1. Grooms an individual holistically 2. Lends uniqueness to one’s identity
2. Builds confidence 4. Improves communication skills
5. Develops a positive attitude 6. Reduces stress and conflicts
7. Makes you look more convincing 8. Encourages people to interact with you
9. Enhances your motivation and the capacity to lead

At an individual level, personality development can be understood to include:

1. Awareness of self 7. Self-Knowledge

2. Building self-identity and self esteem 8. Spiritual Development
3. Talent development 9. Identifying potential
4. Acceptance of responsibility for self 10. Enhancing the quality of life
5. Improving physical and mental health 11. Aspiration fulfillment
6. Improving social abilities

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

1. Trait theory :

Trait theories look to identify specific traits that form the basis of personality and behavior
types.

Attempt to learn what traits make up personality and how they relate to actual behavior.

• A trait is basically a relatively stable characteristic that causes an individual to behave in

certain ways.

• The trait theory explains Aggression, Empathy & Sociability.

2. Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality:

Psychoanalytic theories were proposed by some well –known researchers into human mind and
behavior including Sigmund and Freud and Carl Jung.
 These theories attempt to understand behavior by looking at the unconscious mind and its desires,
which impact how people live there lives

Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality:

This theory of argues that human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component
parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego.

3. Behavioural personality theory

B.F. Skinner’s theory of behavior-
• Differences in our learning experiences are the main reason behind our individual differences
in our behavior.
• And we learn these patterns of behavior either directly or indirectly
• Skinner argued that we respond to every kind of reinforcement, and that our behavior
and personality traits can be shaped and controlled by the society.

• Humanistic theories
Humanistic theories see inherent desires for actualization and satisfaction of needs as
driving forces behind behavior.
Abraham Maslow's famous hierarchy of needs falls into this category ,stating that basic
needs drive human behavior until the needs are consistently met.
 Maslow’s theory of personality:
Abraham Maslow focused on the study of healthy people and he developed his
hierarchy of needs and as the person developed he or she would attempt to meet these
needs.
The inability to meet these needs caused anxiety and self actualization was threatened.

4. Social- cognitive theories of personality

Social cognitive theories see personality as the result of observational learning, through
which an individual observes others and consciously chooses to pursue behavior

Rotters theory of locus of control:

• His personality theory combines learning principles, modeling and cognition, and
the effects of social relationships.
• External locus of control- perception that chance or external forces beyond personal
control determine one’s fate.

Internal locus of control- perception that you control your own fate.
 UNIT-18
Attitude, Motivation and Perception : Meaning, Importance and Measurement

Attitude
• A complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and values and dispositions to act
in certain ways.

Importance of Attitude
• Attitude is a way of life. We have a choice everyday regarding the attitude we embrace for
that day. As they say, the only difference between a good day and a bad day, is your
attitude.
• Attitude determines outcome : Thus, a correct and a wilful attitude is the key to success.
Hence, in a nutshell, attitude to me is more important than facts. It is more important
than the past, than education, than the money, than circumstances, than failures, than
successes or reality.

Three components of attitude

1. Cognitive component : What a person thinks or believes about an
object Ex : I believe that jogging is good for me and helps me
keep fit.
2. Affective component : What a person feels about the attitude object, their
emotions Ex: I enjoy keeping fit and healthy, it makes me feel good.
3. Behavioural component : How a person acts or intends to act towards the attitude
object
Ex: I go jogging three times a week and also encourage my friends to go.

Techniques for Measuring Attitudes:

* Ranking
Requiring the respondent to rank order objects in overall performance on the basis of a
characteristic or stimulus.

An ordinal scale may be developed by asking respondents to rank order (from most preferred to
least preferred) a set of objects or attributes.

• Paired comparisons

- Paired Comparison •A measurement technique that involves presenting the respondent with two
objects and asking the respondent to pick the preferred object; more than two objects may be
presented, but comparisons are made in pairs.
* Rating

Asking the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object
possesses by indicating on a scale where he or she would rate an object.

-Likert scale and Semantic differential technique

-Simple Attitude Scale

Requires that an individual agree/disagree with a statement or respond to a single question.

This type of self-rating scale classifies respondents into one of two categories (e.g., yes or no).

-Category Scale

A more sensitive measure than a simple scale in that it can have more than two response categories.
Question construction is an extremely important factor in increasing the usefulness of these scales.

* Sorting

Presenting the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and requiring the respondent to arrange the
cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts.

Require that respondents indicate their attitudes or beliefs by arranging items on the basis of perceived
similarity or some other attribute.

* Choice

Asking a respondent to choose one alternative from among several alternatives; it is assumed that the
chosen alternative is preferred over the others.

Attitude measurement:

Direct measurement: Likert scale and Semantic differential

technique Indirect measurement: Projective techniques, implicit
association test

Likert scale: Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or
disagree with statements. Typical response alternatives: “strongly agree,” “agree,” “uncertain,”
“disagree,” and “strongly disagree.”

Semantic differential technique of Osgood et al (1957) : Asking a person to rate an issue or

topic on a standard set of bipolar adjectives (i.e., with opposite meanings) each representing a
seven point scale. Such as “good” and “bad,” anchoring the ends (or poles) of the scale. ◗ A
weight is assigned to each position on the scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or
+3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
Example:

Exciting : : : : : : Calm
Interesting : : : : : : Dull
Simple : : : : : : Complex
Passive : : : : : : Active
This reveals information on three basic dimensions viz., evaluation, potency and activity. Using
this information we can see if a person’s feeling (evaluation)towards an object is consistent with
their behavior.

Projective technique: It involves presenting a person with an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) or

incomplete stimulus. The stimulus requires interpretation from the person. Therefore, the
person’s attitude is inferred from their interpretation of the ambiguous or incomplete stimulus.
Example: Thematic Apperception Test (or TAT), Draw a person Task, Rorschach Inkblot test

Thematic Apperception Test (or TAT):

Here a person is presented with an ambiguous picture which they have to interpret. The
thematic apperception test (TAT) taps into a person’s unconscious mind to reveal the
repressed aspects of their personality.

The person must look at the picture(s) and tell a story. For example:
- What has led up to the event shown
- What is happening at the moment
- What the characters are thinking and feeling, and
- What the outcome of the story was

Draw a person Task :

Individual is instructed to draw a person, an object, or a situation so that cognitive,

interpersonal, or psychological functioning can be assessed. The test can be used to evaluate
children and adolescents for a variety of purposes (e.g. self-image, family relationships,
cognitive ability and personality).
 UNIT-19
Motivation: Meaning, Importance and Measurement

Motivation
Motivation refers to “the reasons underlying behavior”
Motive is an inner state that energises, actuates activates or moves
Motive means an urge, or combination of urge to include conscious or purposeful action. It is
goal directed.
Motivation is the process of initiating a conscious and purposeful action.
It is the psychological force that enables action
It is process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior.
Importance of motivation
Motivation is concerned with the arousal of interest in learning.
Mobilising the people
Motivation helps for the better
involvement Helps to avoid conflicts or
tensions
Helps to meet the goals
Increased productivity or higher level of
output Motivation brings need based approach
Measurement of motivation

An important aspect of determining how to measure motivation is understanding what type of

motivation one is attempting to capture.

Motivation can be measured by the degree to which goal-related concepts are accessible in
memory.

Cognitive and Affective Measures of Motivation

Behavioral Measures of Motivation

Most commonly used assessments of motivation that combine cognitive, affective, and
behavioral measures of motivation:

Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) designed to help identify the motivation behind a target
problem behavior.
 The Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS) used for the Assessment of Situational Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Motivation. The situational motivation refers to the “here and now” of motivation,
which represents the motivation experienced while engaged in a particular activity. The
SIMS is designed to assess the constructs of intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, and
external regulation.

- Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an

interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than
relying on any external pressure.
- Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Eg.
Rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment.

Instruments usually include questions organized under several subscales, such as interest,
attributions, self-perception and self-efficacy, preference for challenge, curiosity, mastery
orientation, persistence, and enjoyment of learning.
 UNIT-20
Perception : Meaning, Importance and Measurement

The word “perception” comes from the Latin words ‘perceptio’, ‘percipio’, and means
“receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, and apprehension with the mind or senses.

In common terminology, perception is defined by Longman Dictionary of Contemporary

English as
a) the way you think about something and your idea of what it is like;
b) the way that you notice things with your senses of sight, hearing etc.;
c) the natural ability to understand or notice things quickly.”1

It is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order
to give meaning to their environment.

Importance:

Perception of an individual determines one’s knowledge gain about any ideas and its
acceptance, adoption, continuance and rejection as well.

It also has a bearing with other requirements associated with the idea i.e. the psychological
object under consideration

Measuring perception:

The various factors that determine perception can be grouped as follows:

1. The sense organs: Perception depends upon the number, structure and function of the
available sense organs. For example, if colours are not developed in the retina there cannot be
perception of colour. Similarly absence of certain taste buds will limit one's taste perception.
2. Brain function: Perception depends on the nature of the brain function. This gives us various
frames of reference against which perception is made.
3. Past experience: Perception also depends on one's past experience: The few light sensations
that come from a ship are interpreted as a ship because of our past experience. We are able to
supplement a number of characteristics that are not sensed at the particular moment. Past
experience may also influence perception in the form of creating various kinds of prejudices and
assumptions regarding the object perceived.
4. Set or attitude: Perception also depends very much on one's set or attitude. This is the
subjective conditions.
5. Organic conditions: One's organic condition will also influence his perception. The
individual who is starving from hunger will easily perceive the eatable objects. One's motive
also determines his perception
Components to Perception

1. The Perceiver: a person whose awareness is focused on the stimulus, and thus begins to
perceive it. There are many factors that may influence the perceptions of the perceiver
viz. motivational state, emotional state, and experience. All of these factors, especially the
first two, greatly contribute to how the person perceives a situation. Oftentimes, the perceiver
may employ what is called a "perceptual defense," where the person will only "see what they
want to see" i.e. they will only perceives what they want to perceive even though the
stimulus acts on his or her senses.
2. The Target: the object of perception; something or someone who is being perceived. The
amount of information gathered by the sensory organs of the perceiver affects the
interpretation and understanding about the target.
3. The Situation: the environmental factors, timing, and degree of stimulation that affect the
process of perception. These factors may render a single stimulus to be left as merely a
stimulus, not a percept that is subject for brain interpretation.

Perception Process

The perception process consists of three stages: selection, organization, and interpretation.

Selection

Selection is the first stage in the process of perception, during which we convert the
environment stimuli into meaningful experience. It refers to choosing which of many stimuli
that will be processed.

Organization

The second stage in perception process is organization. After selecting information from the
outside world, we need to organize it in some way by finding certain meaningful patterns. It
involves collecting the information into some pattern.

Interpretation

The third stage in perception is interpretation, which refers to the process of attaching meaning
to the selected stimuli. It involves understanding the pattern.