ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL) 2017-2020 Batch

KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Coimbatore-641 021
(For the candidates admitted from 2016 onwards)
DEPARTMENT OF CS, CA & IT

CLASS: III- B. Sc (CS) SEMESTER : V

17CSU504A Oracle (SQL/PL-SQL) 3H – 3C

Instruction Hours / week: L: 3 T: 0 P: 0 Marks: Int : 40 Ext : 60 Total: 100

SCOPE
The Objective of Relational Database Management System including relational, object-
relational, and object-oriented systems, SQL standards, algebraic query languages,
integrity constraints, triggers, functional dependencies, and normal forms. Other topics
include tuning database transactions, security from the application perspective, and data
warehousing.

OBJECTIVES

 Understand the role and nature of relational database management systems

(RDBMS) in today's IT environment.
 Translate written business requirements into conceptual entity-relationship data
models.
 Convert conceptual data models into relational database schemas using the SQL
Data Definition Language (DDL).
 Query and manipulate databases using the SQL Data Manipulation Language
(DML).

UNIT-I
Introduction to Oracle as RDBMS SQL Vs. SQL * Plus: SQL Commands and Data
types, Operators and Expressions, Introduction to SQL * Plus.

UNIT-II
Managing Tables and Data: Creating and Altering Tables (Including constraints) ,Data
Manipulation Command like Insert, update, delete, SELECT statement with WHERE,
GROUP BY and HAVING, ORDER BY, DISTINCT, Special operator like IN, ANY,
ALL BETWEEN, EXISTS, LIKE, Join, Built in functions

UNIT-III
Other Database Objects - View, Synonyms, Index

UNIT-IV
Transaction Control Statements - Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Department of Computer Science, KAHE Page 1

 ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL) 2017-2020 Batch

UNIT-V
Introduction to PL/SQL SQL v/s PL/SQL, PL/SQL Block Structure, Language
construct of PL/SQL (Variables, Basic and Composite Data type, Conditions looping
etc.) TYPE and % ROWTYPE , Using Cursor (Implicit, Explicit)

Suggested Readings
1. Ivan Bayross. (2010). SQL, PL/SQL the Programming Language of Oracle. New
Delhi: BPB Publications.
2. Steven Feuerstein., & Bill Pribyl. (2014). Oracle PL/SQL Programming (6th ed.).
O'Reilly Media.
3. Rajeeb, C. Chatterjee. (2012). Learning Oracle SQL and PL/SQL: A simplified Guide.
New Delhi: PHI.
4. Ron Hardman.,& Michael Mclaughlin. (2005). Expert Oracle PL/SQL. Oracle Press.
5. Michael Mclaughlin. (2008). Oracle Database 11g PL/SQL Programming. Oracle
Press.
6. John Watson.,& Roopesh Ramklass. (2008). OCA Oracle Database11g SQL
Fundamentals I Exam Guide. Oracle Press.

Websites
W1: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/plsql/
W2: http://plsql-tutorial.com/

ESE MARKS ALLOCATION

Section A

1. 20 X1 = 20
20
(Online Examination)

Section B

2. 5X2 = 10
10

Section C

3 5X6 = 30 30
(Either ‘A’ or ‘B’ Choice)

Total 60

Department of Computer Science, KAHE Page 2

 2017 -2020 Batch
Lesson Plan

KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

(Deemed to be University)
(Established Under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956)
DEPARTMENT OF CS, CA & IT
LESSON PLAN

SUBJECT NAME: Oracle (SQL/PL-SQL)

SUBJECT CODE: 17CSU504A SEMESTER: V
STAFF: K. BANUROOPA CLASS: III B.Sc. CS A& B

Lecture
Reference
S.No Duration Topics Covered
Materials
(Hr)
Unit I
1. 1 Introduction to Oracle as RDBMS SQL Vs. SQL * Plus S1:10-14
2. 1 SQL Commands S1:23-25
3. 1 Data types S1-457:451
4. 1 Operators and Expressions S1-113:132
5. 1 Introduction to SQL * Plus. S1:26-33
6. 1 Recapitulation and Possible Questions Discussion
Total No of hours for Unit 1:6
Unit II
1 Managing Tables and Data: Creating and Altering
1. S1:461-473
Tables (Including constraints)
2. 1 Data Manipulation Command: Insert, S1:403-405
3. 1 Data Manipulation Command: Update, delete, S1:406-408
1 S1:103-113
4. SELECT statement with WHERE, GROUP BY
S1:287-291
1 SELECT statement with HAVING, ORDER BY, S1:294-296
5.
DISTINCT S1:136-141
6. 1 Special operators: IN, ANY, ALL W1
7. 1 Special operators: BETWEEN, EXISTS, LIKE, W2
8. 1 Join, Built in functions S1:309-331
9. 1 Recapitulation and Possible Questions Discussion
Total No of hours for Unit 2:9
Unit –III
1 Other Database Objects - View -CREATE VIEW, ALTER
1. S1: 487-495
VIEW, and DROP VIEW
2. 1 Retrieve Data from Views S1: 496-497
3. 1 Synonyms-Create Private and Public Synonyms S1: 498-500
4. 1 Index-Create and Maintain Indexes S1: 509-510
5. 1 Types of Index S1: 511-516
6. 1 Modifying and Dropping Indexes S1: 517-518

Prepared by K.Banuropa, Asst. Prof., Department of CS, CA & IT, KAHE 1

 2017 -2020 Batch
Lesson Plan

7. 1 Recapitulation and Possible Questions Discussion

Total No of hours for Unit 3:7
Unit – IV
1. 1 Transaction Control Statements - Database Transactions S1:427-428
2. 1 Commit S1:431-439
3. 1 Rollback W3
4. 1 Savepoint W3
5. 1 Recapitulation and Possible Questions Discussion
Total No of hours for Unit 4:5
Unit – V
1. 1 Introduction to PL/SQL SQL v/s PL/SQL S2:3-7,W4
2. 1 PL/SQL Block Structure S2:53-62
1 Language construct of PL/SQL (Variables, Basic and S2:63-74
3.
Composite Data type, etc.) S2:83-94
4. 1 Conditions, looping S2:105-116
5. 1 TYPE and % ROWTYPE S1:323-330,W5
6. 1 Using Cursor (Implicit, Explicit) S2:485-512
7. 1 Recapitulation and Possible Questions Discussion
8. 1 Previous year end-semester question paper discussion
Total No of hours for Unit 5:09
Total No. Of Hours Allocated: 36

SUGGESTED READINGS:

Suggested Readings
1. John Watson.,& Roopesh Ramklass. (2008). OCA Oracle Database11g SQL Fundamentals I
Exam Guide. Oracle Press.
2. Ivan Bayross. (2010). SQL, PL/SQL the Programming Language of Oracle. New Delhi: BPB
Publications.
3. Steven Feuerstein., & Bill Pribyl. (2014). Oracle PL/SQL Programming (6th ed.). O'Reilly
Media.
4. Rajeeb, C. Chatterjee. (2012). Learning Oracle SQL and PL/SQL: A simplified Guide. New
Delhi: PHI.
5. Ron Hardman.,& Michael Mclaughlin. (2005). Expert Oracle PL/SQL. Oracle Press.
6. Michael Mclaughlin. (2008). Oracle Database 11g PL/SQL Programming. Oracle Press.

Web Sites:
W1. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql-all-and-any/
W2. https://www.oracletutorial.com/oracle-basics/oracle-like/
W3. https://www.oracle-dba-online.com/sql/commit_rollback_savepoint.htm
W4. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/plsql/
W5. http://plsql-tutorial.com/

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL) COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A
BATCH: 2017-2020 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE AS RDBMS

UNIT I
SYLLABUS

Introduction to Oracle as RDBMS SQL Vs. SQL * Plus: SQL Commands and Data
types, Operators and Expressions, Introduction to SQL * Plus.

Introduction to Oracle as RDBMS

A database is a collection of data treated as a unit. The purpose of a database is to

store and retrieve related information. A database server is the key to information
management. In general, a server reliably manages a large amount of data in a multiuser
environment so that many users can concurrently access the same data. A database server
also prevents unauthorized access and provides efficient solutions for failure recovery.

ORACLE is a fourth generation relational database management system. In

general, a database management system (DBMS) must be able to reliably manage a large
amount of data in a multi-user environment so that many users can concurrently access
the same data. All this must be accomplished while delivering high performance to the
users of the database. A DBMS must also be secure from unauthorized access and
provide efficient solutions for failure recovery. The ORACLE Server provides efficient
and effective solutions for the major database features.

ORACLE consists of many tools that allow you to create an application with ease
and flexibility. You must determine how to implement your requirements using the
features available in ORACLE, along with its tools. The features and tools that you
choose to use to implement your application can significantly affect the performance of
your application.

Several of the more useful features available to ORACLE application developers

are integrity constraints, stored procedures and packages, database triggers, cost-based
optimizer, shared SQL, locking and sequences.

In Oracle database management, PL/SQL is a procedural language extension to

Structured Query Language (SQL). The purpose of PL/SQL is to combine database
language and procedural programming language. The basic unit in PL/SQL is called a
block, which is made up of three parts: a declarative part, an executable part, and an
exception-building part.

SQL Vs. SQL * Plus

The scope of SQL includes data insert, query, update and delete.

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SQL*Plus is an interactive and batch query tool that is installed with every Oracle
Database Server or Client installation. It has a command-line user interface, a Windows
Graphical User Interface (GUI) and the iSQL* Plus web-based user interface.

SQL*Plus has its own commands and environment, and it provides access to the Oracle
Database. It enables you to enter and execute SQL, PL/SQL

SQL is a language, while SQL*Plus is a tool.

SQL is the query language used for communication with Oracle server to access and
modify the data.
SQL* Plus is a command line tool with which you can send SQL queries to the server.
Also, it can help you format the query result.

SQL is a language which is invented by IBM.

SQL * Plus is a tool to use SQL language for a database from Oracle corporation.

SQL can be simply used to ask queries, i.e. it involves DML, DDL and DCL.
SQL * Plus is command line tool which doesn’t involve DML, DDL and DCL.

In SQL, there is no continuation character..

Whereas, in SQL * Plus there is a continuation character.

Keywords cannot be abbreviated in SQL.

But keywords can be abbreviated in SQL*Plus.

SQL uses functions to manipulate the data.

SQL * plus uses commands to manipulate the data.

SQL Commands

SQL, Structured Query Language, is a programming language designed to manage data

stored in relational databases. SQL operates through simple, declarative statements. This
keeps data accurate and secure, and it helps maintain the integrity of databases, regardless
of size.

DML

DML is abbreviation of Data Manipulation Language. It is used to retrieve, store,

modify, delete, insert and update data in database.

Examples: SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT statements

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BATCH: 2017-2020 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE AS RDBMS

DDL

DDL is abbreviation of Data Definition Language. It is used to create and modify the
structure of database objects in database.

Examples: CREATE, ALTER, DROP statements

DCL

DCL is abbreviation of Data Control Language. It is used to create roles, permissions,

and referential integrity as well it is used to control access to database by securing it.

Examples: GRANT, REVOKE statements

TCL

TCL is abbreviation of Transactional Control Language. It is used to manage different

transactions occurring within a database.

Examples: COMMIT, ROLLBACK statements

Data Types in Oracle

Each column in a database table is required to have a name and a data type.

A datatype associates a fixed set of properties with the values that can be used in a
column of a table or in an argument of a procedure or function. These properties cause
Oracle to treat values of one datatype differently from values of another datatype; for
example, Oracle can add values of NUMBER datatype but not values of RAW datatype.

Oracle supplies the following built-in datatypes:

 character datatypes
o CHAR
o NCHAR
o VARCHAR2 and VARCHAR
o NVARCHAR2
o CLOB
o NCLOB
o LONG
 NUMBER datatype
 DATE datatype
 binary datatypes
o BLOB

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o BFILE
o RAW
o LONG RAW

Another datatype, ROWID, is used for values in the ROWID pseudocolumn, which
represents the unique address of each row in a table.

Datatype Description Column Length and Default

CHAR (size) Fixed-length character data Fixed for every row in the table (with
of length size bytes. trailing blanks); maximum size is 2000
bytes per row, default size is 1 byte per
row. Consider the character set (one-byte
or multibyte) before setting size.
VARCHAR2 Variable-length character Variable for each row, up to 4000 bytes
(size) data. per row. Consider the character set (one-
byte or multibyte) before setting size. A
maximum size must be specified.
NCHAR(size) Fixed-length character data Fixed for every row in the table (with
of length size characters or trailing blanks). Column size is the number
bytes, depending on the of characters for a fixed-width national
national character set. character set or the number of bytes for a
varying-width national character set.
Maximumsize is determined by the
number of bytes required to store one
character, with an upper limit of 2000
bytes per row. Default is 1 character or 1
byte, depending on the character set.
NVARCHAR2 Variable-length character Variable for each row. Column size is the
(size) data of number of characters for a fixed-width
length size characters or national character set or the number of
bytes, depending on bytes for a varying-width national
national character set. A character set. Maximum size is determined
maximum size must be by the number of bytes required to store
specified. one character, with an upper limit of 4000
bytes per row. Default is 1 character or 1
byte, depending on the character set.
CLOB Single-byte character data. Up to 2^32 - 1 bytes, or 4 gigabytes.
NCLOB Single-byte or fixed-length Up to 2^32 - 1 bytes, or 4 gigabytes.
multibyte national character
set (NCHAR) data.
LONG Variable-length character Variable for each row in the table, up to

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data. 2^31 - 1 bytes, or 2 gigabytes, per row.

Provided for backward compatibility.
NUMBER (p, Variable-length numeric Variable for each row. The maximum
s) data. Maximum space required for a given column is 21
precision p and/or scale sis bytes per row.
38.
DATE Fixed-length date and time Fixed at 7 bytes for each row in the table.
data, ranging from Jan. 1, Default format is a string (such as DD-
4712 B.C.E. to Dec. 31, MON-YY) specified by
4712 C.E. NLS_DATE_FORMAT parameter.
BLOB Unstructured binary data. Up to 2^32 - 1 bytes, or 4 gigabytes.
BFILE Binary data stored in an Up to 2^32 - 1 bytes, or 4 gigabytes.
external file.
RAW (size) Variable-length raw binary Variable for each row in the table, up to
data. 2000 bytes per row. A maximum size must
be specified. Provided for backward
compatibility.
LONG RAW Variable-length raw binary Variable for each row in the table, up to
data. 2^31 - 1 bytes, or 2 gigabytes, per row.
Provided for backward compatibility.
ROWID Binary data representing Fixed at 10 bytes (extended ROWID) or 6
row addresses. bytes (restricted ROWID) for each row in
the table.

SQL Operators Overview

An operator manipulates individual data items and returns a result. The data items are
called operands or arguments. Operators are represented by special characters or by
keywords. For example, the multiplication operator is represented by an asterisk (*) and
the operator that tests for nulls is represented by the keywords IS NULL. There are two
general classes of operators: unary and binary. Oracle Database Lite SQL also supports
set operators.

2.1.1 Unary Operators

A unary operator uses only one operand. A unary operator typically appears with its
operand in the following format.

operator operand KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

CLASS : III B.SC CS COURSE NAME: ORACLE
(SQL/PL-SQL)
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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL) COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A
BATCH: 2017-2020 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE AS RDBMS

COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020

UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE AS RDBMS
KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS : III B.SC CS COURSE NAME: ORACLE
(SQL/PL-SQL)
COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE AS RDBMS

2.1.2 Binary Operators

A binary operator uses two operands. A binary operator appears with its operands in the
following format.

operand1 operator operand2

2.1.3 Set Operators

Set operators combine sets of rows returned by queries, instead of individual data items.
All set operators have equal precedence. Oracle Database Lite supports the following set
operators.

 UNION
 UNION ALL
 INTERSECT
 MINUS

The levels of precedence among the Oracle Database Lite SQL operators from high to
low are listed in Table 2-1. Operators listed on the same line have the same level of
precedence.

Table 2-1 Levels of Precedence of the Oracle Database Lite SQL Operators

Precedence Level SQL Operator

1 Unary + - arithmetic operators, PRIOR operator
2 * / arithmetic operators
3 Binary + - arithmetic operators, || character operators
4 All comparison operators
5 NOT logical operator

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Precedence Level SQL Operator

6 AND logical operator
7 OR logical operator

2.1.4 Other Operators

Other operators with special formats accept more than two operands. If an operator
receives a null operator, the result is always null. The only operator that does not follow
this rule is CONCAT.

2.2 Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators manipulate numeric operands. The '-' operator is also used in date
arithmetic. Supported arithmetic operators are listed in Table 2-2.

Table 2-2 Arithmetic Operators

Operator Description Example

+ (unary) Makes operand positive SELECT +3 FROM DUAL;
- (unary) Negates operand SELECT -4 FROM DUAL;
/ Division (numbers and dates) SELECT SAL / 10 FROM EMP;
* Multiplication SELECT SAL * 5 FROM EMP;
+ Addition (numbers and dates) SELECT SAL + 200 FROM EMP;
- Subtraction (numbers and dates) SELECT SAL - 100 FROM EMP;

2.3 Character Operators

Character operators used in expressions to manipulate character strings are listed in Table
2-3.

Table 2-3 Character Operators

Operator Description Example

|| Concatenates character SELECT 'The Name of the employee is: ' ||
strings ENAME FROM EMP;

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL) COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A
BATCH: 2017-2020 UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE AS RDBMS

2.3.1 Concatenating Character Strings

With Oracle Database Lite, you can concatenate character strings with the following
results.

 Concatenating two character strings results in another character string.

 Oracle Database Lite preserves trailing blanks in character strings by
concatenation, regardless of the strings' datatypes.
 Oracle Database Lite provides the CONCAT character function as an alternative
to the vertical bar operator. For example,
 SELECT CONCAT (CONCAT (ENAME, ' is a '),job) FROM EMP WHERE
SAL > 2000;


This returns the following output.

CONCAT(CONCAT(ENAME
-------------------------
KING is a PRESIDENT
BLAKE is a MANAGER
CLARK is a MANAGER
JONES is a MANAGER
FORD is a ANALYST
SCOTT is a ANALYST

6 rows selected.

 Oracle Database Lite treats zero-length character strings as nulls. When you
concatenate a zero-length character string with another operand the result is
always the other operand. A null value can only result from the concatenation of
two null strings.

2.4 Comparison Operators

Comparison operators used in conditions that compare one expression with another are
listed in Table 2-4. The result of a comparison can be TRUE, FALSE, or UNKNOWN.

Table 2-4 Comparison Operators

Operator Description Example

= Equality test. SELECT ENAME
"Employee" FROM EMP

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Operator Description Example

WHERE SAL = 1500;
!=, ^=, <> Inequality test. SELECT ENAME FROM
EMP WHERE SAL ^=
5000;
> Greater than test. SELECT ENAME
"Employee", JOB "Title"
FROM EMP WHERE
SAL > 3000;
< Less than test. SELECT * FROM
PRICE WHERE
MINPRICE < 30;
>= Greater than or equal to test. SELECT * FROM
PRICE WHERE
MINPRICE >= 20;
<= Less than or equal to test. SELECT ENAME FROM
EMP WHERE SAL <=
1500;
IN "Equivalent to any member of" test. SELECT * FROM EMP
Equivalent to "=ANY". WHERE ENAME IN
('SMITH', 'WARD');
ANY/ SOME Compares a value to each value in a list SELECT * FROM DEPT
or returned by a query. Must be WHERE LOC = SOME
preceded by =, !=, >, <, <= or >=. ('NEW
Evaluates to FASLE if the query returns YORK','DALLAS');
no rows.
NOT IN Equivalent to "!=ANY". Evaluates SELECT * FROM DEPT
to FALSE if any member of the set WHERE LOC NOT IN
is NULL. ('NEW YORK',
'DALLAS');
ALL Compares a value with every value in a SELECT * FROM emp
list or returned by a query. Must be WHERE sal >= ALL
preceded by =, !=, >, <, <= or (1400, 3000);
>=. Evaluates to TRUE if the query
returns no rows.
[NOT] [Not] greater than or equal to x and less SELECT ENAME, JOB
BETWEENx and y than or equal to y. FROM EMP WHERE
SAL BETWEEN 3000
AND 5000;

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Operator Description Example

EXISTS TRUE if a sub-query returns at least one SELECT * FROM EMP
row. WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP WHERE
MGR IS NULL);
x [NOT] TRUE if x does [not] match the SELECT * FROM EMP
LIKE y[ESCAPEz] pattern y. Within y, the character "%" WHERE ENAME LIKE
matches any string of zero or more '%E%';
characters except null. The character "_"
matches any single character. Any
character following ESCAPE is
interpreted literally, useful
when y contains a percent (%) or
underscore (_).
IS [NOT] NULL Tests for nulls. This is the only operator SELECT * FROM EMP
that should be used to test for nulls. WHERE COMM IS NOT
NULL AND SAL > 1500;

2.5 Logical Operators

Logical operators which manipulate the results of conditions are listed in Table 2-5.

Table 2-5 Logical Operators

Operator Description Example

NOT Returns TRUE if the following condition SELECT * FROM EMP
is FALSE. Returns FALSE if it is TRUE. If it WHERE NOT (job IS
is UNKNOWN, it remains UNKNOWN. NULL)

SELECT * FROM EMP

WHERE NOT (sal
BETWEEN 1000 AND
2000)
AND Returns TRUE if both component conditions SELECT * FROM EMP
are TRUE. Returns FALSE if either is FALSE; WHERE job='CLERK'
otherwise returns UNKNOWN. AND deptno=10
OR Returns TRUE if either component condition SELECT * FROM emp
is TRUE. Returns FALSE if both are FALSE. WHERE job='CLERK' OR
Otherwise, returns UNKNOWN. deptno=10

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2.6 Set Operators

Set operators which combine the results of two queries into a single result are listed
in Table 2-6.

Table 2-6 Set Operators

Operator Description Example

UNION Returns all distinct rows SELECT * FROM
selected by either query.
(SELECT ENAME FROM
EMP WHERE JOB =
'CLERK'

UNION

SELECT ENAME FROM

EMP WHERE JOB =
'ANALYST');
UNION ALL Returns all rows selected SELECT * FROM
by either query,
including all duplicates. (SELECT SAL FROM EMP
WHERE JOB = 'CLERK'

UNION

SELECT SAL FROM EMP

WHERE JOB =
'ANALYST');
INTERSECT and INTERSECT Returns all distinct rows SELECT * FROM
ALL selected by both queries. orders_list1

INTERSECT

SELECT * FROM
orders_list2
MINUS Returns all distinct rows SELECT * FROM (SELECT
selected by the first SAL FROM EMP WHERE
query but not the second. JOB = 'PRESIDENT'

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Operator Description Example

MINUS

SELECT SAL FROM EMP

WHERE JOB =
'MANAGER');

Note: :

The syntax for INTERSECT ALL is supported, but it returns the same
results as INTERSECT.

ALL

TRUE if all of the subquery values meet the condition

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE Price > ALL (SELECT Price FROM Products WHERE Price > 50);

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Price

1 Toy 1 1 18
2 Plastic 1 1 19
3 Steel 1 2 10

AND

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City = "London" AND Country = "UK";

CustomerID CustomerName City Country

4 ContactName London UK
11 Thomas Hardy London UK
16 Victoria Ashworth London U

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ANY

TRUE if any of the subquery values meet the condition

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE Price > ANY (SELECT Price FROM Products WHERE Price > 50);

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

9 A 4 6 18 - 500 g pkgs. 97
18 B 7 8 16 kg pkg. 62.5
20 C 8 3 30 gift boxes 81

BETWEEN

TRUE if the operand is within the range of comparisons

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE Price BETWEEN 50 AND 60;

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Price

51 A 24 7 53
59 B 28 4 55

IN

TRUE if the operand is equal to one of a list of expressions

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City IN ('Paris','London');

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City

4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London
11 B's Beverages Victoria Fauntleroy Circus London
Ashworth
16 Consolidated Elizabeth Brown Berkeley Gardens 12 London
Holdings Brewery

NOT

Displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE

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SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City NOT LIKE 's%';

CustomerID CustomerName Address City

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Obere Str. 57 Berlin
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y Avda. de la Constitución México
helados 2222 D.F.
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Mataderos 2312 México
D.F.

OR

TRUE if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City = "London" OR Country = "UK";

CustomerID CustomerName Address City Country

4 A 120 Hanover Sq. London UK
11 B Fauntleroy Circus London UK
38 C Garden House Crowther Way Cowes UK

EXISTS

TRUE if the subquery returns one or more records

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE EXISTS (SELECT Price FROM Products WHERE Price > 50);

ProductID ProductName SupplierID Unit Price

1 A 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18
2 B 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19
3 C 1 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

LIKE

TRUE if the operand matches a pattern.

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SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City LIKE 's%';

CustomerID Address City Country

7 24, place Kléber Strasbourg France
15 Av. dos Lusíadas, 23 São Paulo Brazil
21 Rua Orós, 92 São Paulo Brazil

SQL Expressions

An expression is a combination of one or more values, operators, and SQL functions that
evaluates to a value. An expression generally assumes the datatype of its components.

This simple expression evaluates to 4 and has datatype NUMBER (the same datatype as
its components):

2*2

The following expression is an example of a more complex expression that uses both
functions and operators. The expression adds seven days to the current date, removes the
time component from the sum, and converts the result to CHAR datatype:

TO_CHAR(TRUNC(SYSDATE+7))

You can use expressions in:

 The select list of the SELECT statement

 A condition of the WHERE clause and HAVING clause
 The CONNECT BY, START WITH, and ORDER BY clauses
 The VALUES clause of the INSERT statement
 The SET clause of the UPDATE statement

For example, you could use an expression in place of the quoted string 'Smith' in
this UPDATE statement SETclause:

SET last_name = 'Smith';

This SET clause has the expression INITCAP(last_name) instead of the quoted string
'Smith':

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SET last_name = INITCAP(last_name);

Syntax

Consider the basic syntax of the SELECT statement as follows −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [CONDITION|EXPRESSION];

There are different types of SQL expressions, which are mentioned below −

 Boolean
 Numeric
 Date

Boolean Expressions

SQL Boolean Expressions fetch the data based on matching a single value. Following is
the syntax −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE SINGLE VALUE MATCHING EXPRESSION;

The following table is a simple example showing the usage of various SQL Boolean
Expressions −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY = 10000;

Numeric Expression

These expressions are used to perform any mathematical operation in any query.
Following is the syntax −

SELECT numerical_expression as OPERATION_NAME

[FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION] ;

Here, the numerical_expression is used for a mathematical expression or any formula.

Following is a simple example showing the usage of SQL Numeric Expressions −

SQL> SELECT (15 + 6) AS ADDITION

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There are several built-in functions like avg(), sum(), count(), etc., to perform what is
known as the aggregate data calculations against a table or a specific table column.

Date Expressions

Date Expressions return current system date and time values −

SQL> SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP from dual;

+---------------------+
| Current_Timestamp |
+---------------------+
| 2009-11-12 06:40:23 |
+---------------------+

Another date expression is as shown below −

SQL> SELECT GETDATE();;

+-------------------------+
| GETDATE |
+-------------------------+
| 2009-10-22 12:07:18.140 |
+-------------------------+

Introduction to SQL * Plus

SQL*Plus is essentially an interactive query tool with some scripting capabilities.

We can enter a SQL statement, such as a SELECT query, and view the results. We can
execute data definition language (DDL) statements to create tables and other objects.
DBAs can use SQL*Plus to start up, shut down, and otherwise administer a database.
In spite of all, GUI-based SQL generators contained in products such as
PowerBuilder, Clear Access, and Crystal Reports, it is quicker and easier to build up and
test a complex query in SQL*Plus before transferring it to whatever development tool.

Uses for SQL*Plus

Originally developed simply as a way to enter queries and see results, SQL*Plus has
been enhanced with scripting and formatting capabilities and can be used for many
different purposes. The basic functionality is simple. With SQL*Plus, you can do the
following:

 Issue a SELECT query and view the results.

 Insert, update, and delete data from database tables.
 Submit PL/SQL blocks to the Oracle server for execution.

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 Issue DDL statements, such as those used to create, alter, or drop database objects
(e.g., tables, indexes, and users), as well as any other types of SQL statements that
Oracle supports.
 Execute SQL*Plus script files.
 Write output to a file.
 Execute procedures and functions that are stored in a database.

Beginning with SQL*Plus in Oracle8i Database, you can use the SET MARKUP HTML
command to generate HMTL output, such as that shown below.

QL*Plus report formatted in HTML

<html>
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;
charset=US-ASCII">
<meta name="generator" content="SQL*Plus 10.1.0">
<style type='text/css'> body {font:10pt Arial,Helvetica,
sans-serif; color:black; background:White;}
...
<tr>
<td align="right">
101
</td>
<td>
Marusia Churai
</td>
<td align="right">
$169.00
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">
102
</td>
<td>
Mykhailo Hrushevsky
</td>
...

By writing such HTML output to a file, you can easily generate ad hoc reports for users
to view from a corporate intranet. One DBA whom I spoke with regularly refreshes the
phone list on his departmental intranet using this mechanism. The output is rendered in a
browser.

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Of course, it's rare that you would issue such a simple statement, or just one
statement, when you add a new user. Usually, you also want to assign a default
tablespace and often a quota on that tablespace. You may also want to grant the privilege
needed to connect to the database. Whenever you have a task that requires a sequence of
statements to be executed, you can simplify things by taking advantage of SQL*Plus's
scripting capabilities. The statements in Example 1-5, when placed in a script file, allow
you to add a new user with just one command.

Example 1-5. Script to create a new database user

CREATE USER &&1 IDENTIFIED BY &&2

DEFAULT TABLESPACE users
TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp
QUOTA &&3.M ON users;

GRANT CONNECT TO &&1;

The &&1, &&2, and &&3 in Example 1-5 are SQL*Plus user variables marking the
locations at which to insert parameters that you pass to the script. Assuming that you give
the name create_user.s ql to the file shown in Example 1-5, and assuming that you are
the DBA, you can issue the following command from SQL*Plus whenever you need to
add a user to your database:

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Example 1-6 shows how this works, by creating a user named sql_dude with a password
of yooper and a quota of 10 megabytes.

Example 1-6. Running a script to create a new database user

SQL> @ex1-5 sql_dude yooper 10

old 1: CREATE USER &&1 IDENTIFIED BY &&2
new 1: CREATE USER sql_dude IDENTIFIED BY yooper
old 4: QUOTA &&3.M ON users
new 4: QUOTA 10M ON users

User created.

old 1: GRANT CONNECT TO &&1

new 1: GRANT CONNECT TO sql_dude

Grant succeeded.

Example 1-7. "Hello World" written as a PL/SQL block and executed from SQL*Plus

SQL> SET SERVEROUTPUT ON

SQL> BEGIN
2 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Hello World!');
3 END;
4 /
Hello World!

SQL*Plus's Relation to SQL, PL/SQL, and the Oracle Database

SQL*Plus is often used in conjunction with two other products, both of which have the
letters "SQL" in their names. The first is SQL itself. Without a doubt, the most common
use of SQL*Plus is to submit SQL statements to the database for execution. The second
product is Oracle's PL/SQL procedural language. Table 1-1 provides a short summary of
each of these three products.

Table 1-1. The three SQLs: SQL, PL/SQL, and SQL*Plus

Product Description
SQL is an ANSI and ISO standard language used to insert, delete, update, and
SQL retrieve data from relational databases. SQL is also used to manage relational
databases.
PL/SQL PL/SQL is a proprietary procedural language developed by Oracle as an

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Product Description
extension to SQL, for use in coding business rules and other procedural logic
at the database level. Like SQL, PL/SQL executes inside the database engine.
SQL*Plus is an Oracle-developed tool that allows you to interactively enter
SQL*Plus
and execute SQL commands and PL/SQL blocks.

Because these three products all have "SQL" as part of their names, people occasionally
get confused about the relationships among them and about which statements get
executed where. SQL*Plus does have its own set of commands that it recognizes and
executes (for example, SET SERVEROUTPUT ON), but any SQL statements and
PL/SQL blocks are sent to the database server for execution. Figure 1-2 illustrates this
relationship.

Figure 1-2. Relationships among SQL*Plus, SQL, and PL/SQL

Think of SQL*Plus as kind of a middleman, standing between you and Oracle and
helping you to communicate with your database. You type in a SQL query, SQL*Plus
takes it and sends it to the database, the database returns the results to SQL*Plus, and
SQL*Plus displays those results in a format you can understand.

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POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
UNIT I

2 marks Questions:
1. What is a SQL command?
2. Define TCL.
3. Define SQL*Plus.
4. What is meant by SQL expression?
5. What is meant by DML?
6. Define SQL operators.

6 marks Questions:

1. Differentiate SQL and SQL*Plus.

2. List and explain SQL commands.

3. Describe about SQL datatypes.

4. Explain in detail about SQL expressions.

5. Elaborate SQL*Plus.

6. Explain DDL commands with example.

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CLASS : II B.SC CS COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL)
COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT II: MANAGING TABLES AND DATA

UNIT II
SYLLABUS

Managing Tables and Data: Creating and Altering Tables (Including constraints) ,Data
Manipulation Command like Insert, update, delete, SELECT statement with WHERE,
GROUP BY and HAVING, ORDER BY, DISTINCT, Special operator like IN, ANY,
ALL BETWEEN, EXISTS, LIKE, Join, Built in functions

SQL Create Constraints

Constraints can be specified when the table is created with the CREATE TABLE
statement, or after the table is created with the ALTER TABLE statement.

Syntax

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype constraint,
column2 datatype constraint,
column3 datatype constraint,
....
);

SQL Constraints

SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.

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Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the
accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any violation between the
constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.

Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a
column, and table level constraints apply to the whole table.

The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

 NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

 UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely
identifies each row in a table
 FOREIGN KEY - Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table
 CHECK - Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition
 DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified
 INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly

Example

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Age int
);

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" column when the table is already created, use
the following SQL:

MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

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ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD UNIQUE (ID);

To name a UNIQUE constraint, and to define a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns,

use the following SQL syntax:

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT UC_Person UNIQUE (ID,LastName);

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways.

The first way specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to specify the
column names in the SQL query. However, make sure the order of the values is in the
same order as the columns in the table. The INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

The SQL GROUP BY Statement

The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN,
SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more columns.

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GROUP BY Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);

Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;

SQL - WHERE Clause

The SQL WHERE clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the data from a
single table or by joining with multiple tables. If the given condition is satisfied, then
only it returns a specific value from the table. You should use the WHERE clause to filter
the records and fetching only the necessary records.

The WHERE clause is not only used in the SELECT statement, but it is also used in the
UPDATE, DELETE statement, etc., which we would examine in the subsequent chapters.

Syntax

The basic syntax of the SELECT statement with the WHERE clause is as shown below.

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

Example
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
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WHERE SALARY > 2000;

HAVING

The HAVING Clause enables you to specify conditions that filter which group results
appear in the results.

The WHERE clause places conditions on the selected columns, whereas the HAVING
clause places conditions on groups created by the GROUP BY clause.

SELECT column_name, COUNT(*)

FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING COUNT(*) > value;

HAVING was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with
aggregate functions.

ORDER BY

The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending order,
based on one or more columns. Some databases sort the query results in an ascending
order by default.
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name ASC | DESC;

ORDER BY is a clause that indicates you want to sort the result set by a particular
column either alphabetically or numerically.

SQL - Distinct Keyword

The SQL DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with the SELECT statement to
eliminate all the duplicate records and fetching only unique records.

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There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a table. While
fetching such records, it makes more sense to fetch only those unique records instead of
fetching duplicate records.
Syntax

The basic syntax of DISTINCT keyword to eliminate the duplicate records is as follows −

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,.....columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]

IN
TRUE if the operand is equal to one of a list of expressions

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City IN ('Paris','London');

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City

4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London

11 B's Beverages Victoria Fauntleroy Circus London

Ashworth

16 Consolidated Elizabeth Brown Berkeley Gardens 12 London

Holdings Brewery

NOT
Displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City NOT LIKE 's%';

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CustomerID CustomerName Address City

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Obere Str. 57 Berlin

2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y Avda. de la Constitución México

helados 2222 D.F.

3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Mataderos 2312 México

D.F.

OR
TRUE if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City = "London" OR Country = "UK";
CustomerID CustomerName Address City Country

4 A 120 Hanover Sq. London UK

11 B Fauntleroy Circus London UK

38 C Garden House Crowther Way Cowes UK

EXISTS

TRUE if the subquery returns one or more records

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE EXISTS (SELECT Price FROM Products WHERE Price > 50);

ProductID ProductName SupplierID Unit Price

1 A 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 B 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

3 C 1 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

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LIKE
TRUE if the operand matches a pattern.

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City LIKE 's%';

CustomerID Address City Country

7 24, place Kléber Strasbourg France

15 Av. dos Lusíadas, 23 São Paulo Brazil

21 Rua Orós, 92 São Paulo Brazil

SQL INNER JOIN (simple join)

SQL INNER JOINS return all rows from multiple tables where the join condition is met.
Syntax

The syntax for the INNER JOIN in SQL is:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example

Let's look at an example of how to use the INNER JOIN in a query.

In this example, we have a table called customers with the following data:

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customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com

5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

6000 Ferguson Sam bigactivities.com

7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com

8000 Anderson Paige NULL

9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com

And a table called orders with the following data:

order_id customer_id order_date

1 7000 2016/04/18

2 5000 2016/04/18

3 8000 2016/04/19

4 4000 2016/04/20

5 NULL 2016/05/01

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers
INNER JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;

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Output

customer_id order_id order_date

4000 4 2016/04/20

5000 2 2016/04/18

7000 1 2016/04/18

8000 3 2016/04/19

SQL LEFT OUTER JOIN

Another type of join is called a LEFT OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns all rows
from the LEFT-hand table specified in the ON condition and only those rows from the
other table where the joined fields are equal (join condition is met).
Syntax

The syntax for the LEFT OUTER JOIN in SQL is:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT [OUTER] JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

In some databases, the OUTER keyword is omitted and written simply as LEFT JOIN.

The SQL LEFT OUTER JOIN would return the all records from table1 and only those
records from table2 that intersect with table1.

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Using the same customers table as the previous example:

customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com

5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

6000 Ferguson Sam bigactivities.com

7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com

8000 Anderson Paige NULL

9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com

And the orders table with the following data:

order_id customer_id order_date

1 7000 2016/04/18

2 5000 2016/04/18

3 8000 2016/04/19

4 4000 2016/04/20

5 NULL 2016/05/01

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers

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LEFT OUTER JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;

There will be 6 records selected. These are the results that you should see:

customer_id order_id order_date

4000 4 2016/04/20

5000 2 2016/04/18

6000 NULL NULL

7000 1 2016/04/18

8000 3 2016/04/19

9000 NULL NULL

SQL RIGHT OUTER JOIN

Another type of join is called a SQL RIGHT OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns all
rows from the RIGHT-hand table specified in the ON condition and only those rows from
the other table where the joined fields are equal (join condition is met).
Syntax

The syntax for the RIGHT OUTER JOIN in SQL is:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT [OUTER] JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
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In some databases, the OUTER keyword is omitted and written simply as RIGHT JOIN.

Using the same customers table as the previous example:

customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com

5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

6000 Ferguson Sam bigactivities.com

7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com

8000 Anderson Paige NULL

9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com

And the orders table with the following data:

order_id customer_id order_date

1 7000 2016/04/18

2 5000 2016/04/18

3 8000 2016/04/19

4 4000 2016/04/20

5 NULL 2016/05/01

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers

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RIGHT OUTER JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;
There will be 5 records selected. These are the results that you should see:

customer_id order_id order_date

NULL 5 2016/05/01

4000 4 2016/04/20

5000 2 2016/04/18

7000 1 2016/04/18

8000 3 2016/04/19

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN

Another type of join is called a SQL FULL OUTER JOIN. This type of join returns all
rows from the LEFT-hand table and RIGHT-hand table with NULL values in place
where the join condition is not met.
Syntax

The syntax for the SQL FULL OUTER JOIN is:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
FULL [OUTER] JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

In some databases, the OUTER keyword is omitted and written simply as FULL JOIN.

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Using the same customers table as the previous example:

customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com

5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

6000 Ferguson Sam bigactivities.com

7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com

8000 Anderson Paige NULL

9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com

And the orders table with the following data:

order_id customer_id order_date

1 7000 2016/04/18

2 5000 2016/04/18

3 8000 2016/04/19

4 4000 2016/04/20

5 NULL 2016/05/01

Enter the following SQL statement:

SELECT customers.customer_id, orders.order_id, orders.order_date

FROM customers
FULL OUTER JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id
ORDER BY customers.customer_id;

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There will be 7 records selected. These are the results that you should see:

customer_id order_id order_date

NULL 5 2016/05/01

4000 4 2016/04/20

5000 2 2016/04/18

6000 NULL NULL

7000 1 2016/04/18

8000 3 2016/04/19

9000 NULL NULL

Built in functions

Numeric Functions

Function Description

ABS Returns the absolute value of a number

AVG Returns the average value of an expression

CEILING Returns the smallest integer value that is greater than

or equal to a number

COUNT Returns the count of an expression

FLOOR Returns the largest integer value that is equal to or less

than a number

MAX Returns the maximum value of an expression

MIN Returns the minimum value of an expression

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RAND Returns a random number or a random number within
a range

ROUND Returns a number rounded to a certain number of

decimal places

SIGN Returns a value indicating the sign of a number

SUM Returns the summed value of an expression

Conversion Functions

Function Description

CAST Converts an expression from one data type to another

CONVERT Converts an expression from one data type to another

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 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
UNIT-II

2 marks questions
1. What is known as constraints?
2. Define primary key.
3. Define foreign key.
4. What is the use of WHERE clause?
5. Define FULL OUTER JOIN.
6 marks questions
1. Elaborate Constraints with suitable queries.
2. Explain about Data Manipulation Language.
3. Explain in detail about special operators.
4. Discuss the concept of join.
5. Explain about Built in functions in SQL.

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS : III B.SC CS COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL)
COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

UNIT III
SYLLABUS
Other Database Objects - View, Synonyms, Index

VIEW
A view is nothing more than a SQL statement that is stored in the database with an associated
name. A view is actually a composition of a table in the form of a predefined SQL query.
A view can contain all rows of a table or select rows from a table. A view can be created from
one or many tables which depends on the written SQL query to create a view.
Views, which are a type of virtual tables allow users to do the following −
 Structure data in a way that users or classes of users find natural or intuitive.
 Restrict access to the data in such a way that a user can see and (sometimes) modify
exactly what they need and no more.
 Summarize data from various tables which can be used to generate reports.
Creating Views
Database views are created using the CREATE VIEW statement. Views can be created from a
single table, multiple tables or another view.
To create a view, a user must have the appropriate system privilege according to the specific
implementation.
The basic CREATE VIEW syntax is as follows −
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
You can include multiple tables in your SELECT statement in a similar way as you use them in
a normal SQL SELECT query.
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|1|Ramesh|32|Ahmedabad|2000.00|
|2|Khilan|25|Delhi|1500.00|
|3| kaushik |23|Kota|2000.00|
|4|Chaitali|25|Mumbai|6500.00|
|5|Hardik|27|Bhopal|8500.00|
|6|Komal|22| MP |4500.00|
|7|Muffy|24|Indore|10000.00|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

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COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

Following is an example to create a view from the CUSTOMERS table. This view would be
used to have customer name and age from the CUSTOMERS table.
SQL > CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS;
Now, you can query CUSTOMERS_VIEW in a similar way as you query an actual table.
Following is an example for the same.
SQL > SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW;
This would produce the following result.
+----------+-----+
| name | age |
+----------+-----+
| Ramesh | 32 |
| Khilan | 25 |
| kaushik | 23 |
| Chaitali | 25 |
| Hardik | 27 |
| Komal | 22 |
| Muffy | 24 |
+----------+-----+
The WITH CHECK OPTION
The WITH CHECK OPTION is a CREATE VIEW statement option. The purpose of the WITH
CHECK OPTION is to ensure that all UPDATE and INSERTs satisfy the condition(s) in the
view definition.
If they do not satisfy the condition(s), the UPDATE or INSERT returns an error.
The following code block has an example of creating same view CUSTOMERS_VIEW with
the WITH CHECK OPTION.
CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE age IS NOT NULL
WITH CHECK OPTION;
The WITH CHECK OPTION in this case should deny the entry of any NULL values in the
view's AGE column, because the view is defined by data that does not have a NULL value in
the AGE column.
Updating a View
A view can be updated under certain conditions which are given below −
 The SELECT clause may not contain the keyword DISTINCT.
 The SELECT clause may not contain summary functions.
 The SELECT clause may not contain set functions.
 The SELECT clause may not contain set operators.

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COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

 The SELECT clause may not contain an ORDER BY clause.

 The FROM clause may not contain multiple tables.
 The WHERE clause may not contain subqueries.
 The query may not contain GROUP BY or HAVING.
 Calculated columns may not be updated.
 All NOT NULL columns from the base table must be included in the view in order for
the INSERT query to function.
So, if a view satisfies all the above-mentioned rules then you can update that view. The
following code block has an example to update the age of Ramesh.
SQL > UPDATE CUSTOMERS_VIEW
SET AGE =35
WHERE name ='Ramesh';
This would ultimately update the base table CUSTOMERS and the same would reflect in the
view itself. Now, try to query the base table and the SELECT statement would produce the
following result.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Inserting Rows into a View
Rows of data can be inserted into a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE command
also apply to the INSERT command.
Here, we cannot insert rows in the CUSTOMERS_VIEW because we have not included all the
NOT NULL columns in this view, otherwise you can insert rows in a view in a similar way as
you insert them in a table.
Deleting Rows into a View
Rows of data can be deleted from a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE and
INSERT commands apply to the DELETE command.
Following is an example to delete a record having AGE = 22.
SQL > DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW
WHERE age =22;
This would ultimately delete a row from the base table CUSTOMERS and the same would
reflect in the view itself. Now, try to query the base table and the SELECT statement would
produce the following result.

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COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Dropping Views
Obviously, where you have a view, you need a way to drop the view if it is no longer needed.
The syntax is very simple and is given below −
DROP VIEW view_name;
Following is an example to drop the CUSTOMERS_VIEW from the CUSTOMERS table.
DROP VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW;
Force VIEW Creation
FORCE keyword is used while creating a view, forcefully. This keyword is used to create a
View even if the table does not exist. After creating a force View if we create the base table and
enter values in it, the view will be automatically updated.
Syntax for forced View is,
CREATEor REPLACE FORCEVIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Update a VIEW
UPDATE command for view is same as for tables.
Syntax to Update a View is,
UPDATEview-name SETVALUE
WHERE condition;
NOTE: If we update a view it also updates base table data automatically.
Read-Only VIEW
We can create a view with read-only option to restrict access to the view.
Syntax to create a view with Read-Only Access
CREATEor REPLACE FORCEVIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition WITHread-only;
The above syntax will create view for read-only purpose, we cannot Update or Insert data into
read-only view. It will throw an error.
Types of View
There are two types of view,

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COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

 Simple View
 Complex View

Simple View Complex View

Created from one table Created from one or more table

Does not contain functions Contain functions

Does not contain groups of data Contains groups of data

Synonyms
A synonym is an alternative name for objects such as tables, views, sequences, stored
procedures, and other database objects.
You generally use synonyms when you are granting access to an object from another schema and
you don't want the users to have to worry about knowing which schema owns the object.
Create Synonym (or Replace)
You may wish to create a synonym so that users do not have to prefix the table name with the
schema name when using the table in a query.
Syntax
The syntax to create a synonym in Oracle is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [PUBLIC] SYNONYM [schema .] synonym_name
FOR [schema .] object_name [@ dblink];
OR REPLACE
Allows you to recreate the synonym (if it already exists) without having to issue a DROP
synonym command.
PUBLIC
It means that the synonym is a public synonym and is accessible to all users. Remember
though that the user must first have the appropriate privileges to the object to use the
synonym.
schema
The appropriate schema. If this phrase is omitted, Oracle assumes that you are referring
to your own schema.
object_name
The name of the object for which you are creating the synonym. It can be one of the
following:
 table
 view
 sequence

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COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

 stored procedure
 function
 package
 materialized view
 java class schema object
 user-defined object
 synonym
Example
Let's look at an example of how to create a synonym in Oracle.
For example:
CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM suppliers
FOR app.suppliers;
This first CREATE SYNONYM example demonstrates how to create a synonym
called suppliers. Now, users of other schemas can reference the table called suppliers without
having to prefix the table name with the schema named app. For example:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers;
If this synonym already existed and you wanted to redefine it, you could always use the OR
REPLACE phrase as follows:
CREATE OR REPLACE PUBLIC SYNONYM suppliers
FOR app.suppliers;
Drop synonym
Once a synonym has been created in Oracle, you might at some point need to drop the synonym.
Syntax
The syntax to drop a synonym in Oracle is:
DROP [PUBLIC] SYNONYM [schema .] synonym_name [force];
PUBLIC
Allows you to drop a public synonym. If you have specified PUBLIC, then you don't
specify a schema.
force
It will force Oracle to drop the synonym even if it has dependencies. It is probably not a
good idea to use force as it can cause invalidation of Oracle objects.
Example
Let's look at an example of how to drop a synonym in Oracle.
For example:
DROP PUBLIC SYNONYM suppliers;
This DROP statement would drop the synonym called suppliers that we defined earlier.

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS : III B.SC CS COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL)
COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

SQL Index
Index in sql is created on existing tables to retrieve the rows quickly.
When there are thousands of records in a table, retrieving information will take a long time.
Therefore indexes are created on columns which are accessed frequently, so that the
information can be retrieved quickly. Indexes can be created on a single column or a group
of columns. When a index is created, it first sorts the data and then it assigns a ROWID for
each row.
For example, if you want to reference all pages in a book that discusses a certain topic, you first
refer to the index, which lists all the topics alphabetically and are then referred to one or more
specific page numbers.
An index helps to speed up SELECT queries and WHERE clauses, but it slows down data
input, with the UPDATE and the INSERT statements. Indexes can be created or dropped with
no effect on the data.
Creating an index involves the CREATE INDEX statement, which allows you to name the
index, to specify the table and which column or columns to index, and to indicate whether the
index is in an ascending or descending order.
Indexes can also be unique, like the UNIQUE constraint, in that the index prevents duplicate
entries in the column or combination of columns on which there is an index.
Create an Index
Syntax
The syntax for creating an index in Oracle/PLSQL is:
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ... column_n)
[ COMPUTE STATISTICS ];
UNIQUE
It indicates that the combination of values in the indexed columns must be unique.
index_name
The name to assign to the index.
table_name
The name of the table in which to create the index.
column1, column2, ... column_n
The columns to use in the index.
COMPUTE STATISTICS
It tells Oracle to collect statistics during the creation of the index. The statistics are then
used by the optimizer to choose a "plan of execution" when SQL statements are executed.
Example
Let's look at an example of how to create an index in Oracle/PLSQL.
For example:
CREATE INDEX supplier_idx
ON supplier (supplier_name);
In this example, we've created an index on the supplier table called supplier_idx. It consists of
only one field - the supplier_name field.

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CLASS : III B.SC CS COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL)
COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

We could also create an index with more than one field as in the example below:
CREATE INDEX supplier_idx
ON supplier (supplier_name, city);
We could also choose to collect statistics upon creation of the index as follows:
CREATE INDEX supplier_idx
ON supplier (supplier_name, city)
COMPUTE STATISTICS;
Create a Function-Based Index
In Oracle, you are not restricted to creating indexes on only columns. You can create function-
based indexes.
Syntax
The syntax for creating a function-based index in Oracle/PLSQL is:
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name
ON table_name (function1, function2, ... function_n)
[ COMPUTE STATISTICS ];
 UNIQUE
o It indicates that the combination of values in the indexed columns must be unique.
 index_name
o The name to assign to the index.
 table_name
o The name of the table in which to create the index.
 function1, function2, ... function_n
o The functions to use in the index.
 COMPUTE STATISTICS
o It tells Oracle to collect statistics during the creation of the index. The statistics
are then used by the optimizer to choose a "plan of execution" when SQL
statements are executed.
Example
Let's look at an example of how to create a function-based index in Oracle/PLSQL.
For example:
CREATE INDEX supplier_idx
ON supplier (UPPER(supplier_name));
In this example, we've created an index based on the uppercase evaluation of
the supplier_name field.
However, to be sure that the Oracle optimizer uses this index when executing your SQL
statements, be sure that UPPER(supplier_name) does not evaluate to a NULL value. To ensure
this, add UPPER(supplier_name) IS NOT NULL to your WHERE clause as follows:
SELECT supplier_id, supplier_name, UPPER(supplier_name)

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COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

FROM supplier
WHERE UPPER(supplier_name) IS NOT NULL
ORDER BY UPPER(supplier_name);
Rename an Index
Syntax
The syntax for renaming an index in Oracle/PLSQL is:
ALTER INDEX index_name
RENAME TO new_index_name;
index_name
The name of the index that you wish to rename.
new_index_name
The new name to assign to the index.
Example
Let's look at an example of how to rename an index in Oracle/PLSQL.
For example:
ALTER INDEX supplier_idx
RENAME TO supplier_index_name;
In this example, we're renaming the index called supplier_idx to supplier_index_name.
Collect Statistics on an Index
If you forgot to collect statistics on the index when you first created it or you want to update the
statistics, you can always use the ALTER INDEX command to collect statistics at a later date.
Syntax
The syntax for collecting statistics on an index in Oracle/PLSQL is:
ALTER INDEX index_name
REBUILD COMPUTE STATISTICS;
index_name
The index in which to collect statistics.
Example
Let's look at an example of how to collect statistics for an index in Oracle/PLSQL.
For example:
ALTER INDEX supplier_idx
REBUILD COMPUTE STATISTICS;
In this example, we're collecting statistics for the index called supplier_idx.

Drop an Index
Syntax
The syntax for dropping an index in Oracle/PLSQL is:

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COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

DROP INDEX index_name;

Where index_name -The name of the index to drop.
Example
Let's look at an example of how to drop an index in Oracle/PLSQL.
For example:
DROP INDEX supplier_idx;
In this example, we're dropping an index called supplier_idx.

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COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT III: OTHER DATABASE OBJECTS

UNIT-III

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

2 marks questions
1. Define view.
2. How to create a view?
3. What is WITH CHECK OPTION used for?
4. What is the use of FORCE keyword?
5. Define synonyms.
6. What is an index?
6 marks questions
1. Discuss the different types of Indexes with examples.
2. What is the purpose of using synonym? Explain with example.
3. Illustrate creation, modification and deletion of views with appropriate examples.

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS : II B.SC CS COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL)
COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT IV: TRANSACTION CONTROL STATEMENTS

UNIT IV
SYLLABUS

Transaction Control Statements - Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Commit, Rollback and Savepoint SQL commands

Transaction Control Language(TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in the database.
These are used to manage the changes made to the data in a table by DML statements. It also
allows statements to be grouped together into logical transactions.

COMMIT Statement
COMMIT command is used to permanently save any transaction into the database.
When we use any DML command like INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE, the changes made by
these commands are not permanent, until the current session is closed, the changes made by
these commands can be rolled back.
To avoid that, we use the COMMIT command to mark the changes as permanent.

Syntax
The syntax for the COMMIT statement in Oracle/PLSQL is:

COMMIT [ WORK ] [ COMMENT clause ] [ WRITE clause ] [ FORCE clause ];

Parameters or Arguments
WORK

Optional. It was added by Oracle to be SQL-compliant. Issuing the COMMIT with or

without the WORK parameter will result in the same outcome.

COMMENT clause

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 Optional. It is used to specify a comment to be associated with the current transaction.
The comment that can be up to 255 bytes of text enclosed in single quotes. It is stored in
the system view called DBA_2PC_PENDING along with the transaction ID if there is a
problem.

WRITE clause

Optional. It is used to specify the priority that the redo information for the committed
transaction is to be written to the redo log. With this clause, you have two parameters to
specify:

 WAIT or NOWAIT (WAIT is the default if omitted)

o WAIT - means that the commit returns to the client only after the redo
information is persistent in the redo log.
o NOWAIT - means that the commit returns to the client right away
regardless of the status of the redo log.
 IMMEDIATE or BATCH (IMMEDIATE is the default if omitted)
o IMMEDIATE - forces a disk I/O causing the log writer to write the redo
information to the redo log.
o BATCH - forces a "group commit" and buffers the redo log to be written
with other transactions.

FORCE clause
Optional. It is used to force the commit of a transaction that may be corrupt or in doubt.
With this clause, you can specify the FORCE in 3 ways:

 FORCE 'string', [integer] or FORCE CORRUPT_XID 'string' or FORCE

CORRUPT_XID_ALL
o FORCE 'string', [integer] - allows you to commit a corrupt or in doubt
transaction in a distributed database system by specifying the transaction
ID in single quotes as string. You can find the transaction ID in the system
view called DBA_2PC_PENDING. You can specify integer to assign the
transaction a system change number if you do not wish to commit the
transaction using the current system change number.
o FORCE CORRUPT_XID 'string' - allows you to commit a corrupt or in
doubt transaction by specifying the transaction ID in single quotes
as string. You can find the transaction ID in the system view called
V$CORRUPT_XID_LIST.
o FORCE CORRUPT_XID_ALL - allows you to commit all corrupted
transactions.

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Note

 You must have DBA privileges to access the system views - DBA_2PC_PENDING and
V$CORRUPT_XID_LIST.
 You must have DBA privileges to specify certain features of the COMMIT statement.

Example

Let's look at an example that shows how to issue a commit in Oracle using the COMMIT
statement.
For example:

COMMIT;

This COMMIT example would perform the same as the following:

COMMIT WORK WRITE WAIT IMMEDIATE;

In this example, the WORK keyword is implied and the omission of the WRITE clause would
default to WRITE WAIT IMMEDIATE so the first 2 COMMIT statements are equivalent.

Comment

Let's look at an example of a COMMIT that shows how to use the COMMENT clause:
For example, you can write the COMMIT with a comment in two ways:

COMMIT COMMENT 'This is the comment for the transaction';

OR

COMMIT WORK COMMENT 'This is the comment for the transaction';

Since the WORK keyword is always implied, both of these COMMIT examples are equivalent.
The COMMIT would store the comment enclosed in quotes along with the transaction ID in the
DBA_2PC_PENDING system view, if the transaction was in error or in doubt.

Force

Finally, look at an example of a COMMIT that shows how to use the FORCE clause.
For example, you can write the COMMIT of an in-doubt transaction in two ways:

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COMMIT FORCE '22.14.67';

OR

COMMIT WORK FORCE '22.14.67';

Since the WORK keyword is always implied, both of these COMMIT examples would force the
commit of the corrupted or in doubt transaction identified by the transaction ID '22.14.67'.

ROLLBACK
This command restores the database to last commited state. It is also used
with SAVEPOINT command to jump to a savepoint in an ongoing transaction.
If we have used the UPDATE command to make some changes into the database, and realise that
those changes were not required, then we can use the ROLLBACK command to rollback those
changes, if they were not commited using the COMMIT command.
ROLLBACKTOsavepoint_name;

Syntax

The syntax for the ROLLBACK statement is:

ROLLBACK [ WORK ] [ TO [SAVEPOINT] savepoint_name | FORCE 'string' ];

Parameters or Arguments

WORK

Optional. It was added by Oracle to be SQL-compliant. Issuing the ROLLBACK with or

without the WORK parameter will result in the same outcome.

TO SAVEPOINT savepoint_name

Optional. The ROLLBACK statement undoes all changes for the current session up to the
savepoint specified by savepoint_name. If this clause is omitted, then all changes are
undone.

FORCE 'string'

Optional. It is used to force the rollback of a transaction that may be corrupt or in doubt.
With this clause, you specify the transaction ID in single quotes as string. You can find
the transaction ID in the system view called DBA_2PC_PENDING.

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Note

 You must have DBA privileges to access the system views - DBA_2PC_PENDING and
V$CORRUPT_XID_LIST.
 You can not rollback a transaction that is in doubt to a savepoint.

Example

Let's look at an example that shows how to issue a rollback in Oracle using the ROLLBACK
statement.
For example:

ROLLBACK;

This ROLLBACK example would perform the same as the following:

ROLLBACK WORK;

In this example, the WORK keyword is implied so the first 2 ROLLBACK statements are
equivalent. These examples would rollback the current transaction.

Savepoint

Let's look at an example of a ROLLBACK that shows how to use the rollback to a specific
savepoint.
For example, you can write the ROLLBACK to a savepoint in two ways:

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT savepoint1;

OR

ROLLBACK WORK TO SAVEPOINT savepoint1;

Since the WORK keyword is always implied, both of these ROLLBACK examples would
rollback the current transaction to the savepoint called savepoint1.

Force

Finally, look at an example of a ROLLBACK that shows how to force the rollback of a
transaction that is in doubt.
For example, you can write the ROLLBACK of an in-doubt transaction in two ways:

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ROLLBACK FORCE '22.14.67';

OR

ROLLBACK WORK FORCE '22.14.67';

Since the WORK keyword is always implied, both of these ROLLBACK examples would force
the rollback of the corrupted or in doubt transaction identified by the transaction ID '22.14.67'.

SAVEPOINT
SAVEPOINT command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback to that
point whenever required.
Following is savepoint command's syntax,
SAVEPOINTsavepoint_name;
In short, using this command we can name the different states of our data in any table and then
rollback to that state using the ROLLBACK command whenever required.

Using Savepoint and Rollback

Following is the table class,

id name

1 Abhi

2 Adam

4 Alex

Lets use some SQL queries on the above table and see the results.
INSERTINTO class VALUES(5,'Rahul');

COMMIT;

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UPDATE class SET name ='Abhijit'WHERE id ='5';

SAVEPOINT A;

INSERTINTO class VALUES(6,'Chris');

SAVEPOINT B;

INSERTINTO class VALUES(7,'Bravo');

SAVEPOINT C;

SELECT*FROM class;
NOTE: SELECT statement is used to show the data stored in the table.
The resultant table will look like,

id name

1 Abhi

2 Adam

4 Alex

5 Abhijit

6 Chris

7 Bravo

Now let's use the ROLLBACK command to roll back the state of data to the savepoint B.
ROLLBACKTO B;

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SELECT*FROM class;
Now class table will look like,

id name

1 Abhi

2 Adam

4 Alex

5 Abhijit

6 Chris

Now let's again use the ROLLBACK command to roll back the state of data to the savepoint A
ROLLBACKTO A;
SELECT*FROM class;
Now the table will look like,

id name

1 Abhi

2 Adam

Prepared By K.Banuroopa, Asst.Prof, Department of CS, CA & IT, KAHE Page 8/11
4 Alex

5 Abhijit

UNIT-IV

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

2 marks questions
1. Define commit.
2. What is meant by Rollback?
3. Define Savepoint.
4. Give an example query for TO SAVEPOINT.

6 marks questions
1. Elaborate COMMIT with examples.
2. Explain about Rollback.
3. Elaborate Savepoint.

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 KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
CLASS : III B.SC CS COURSE NAME: ORACLE (SQL/PL-SQL)
COURSE CODE: 17CSU504A BATCH: 2017-2020
UNIT V: INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL

UNIT V
SYLLABUS
Introduction to PL/SQL SQL v/s PL/SQL, PL/SQL Block Structure, Language construct of
PL/SQL (Variables, Basic and Composite Data type, Conditions looping etc.) TYPE and
% ROWTYPE , Using Cursor (Implicit, Explicit)

SQL v/s PL/SQL

Difference between SQL and PL/SQL
SQL PL/SQL

 SQL is a single query that is used to  PL/SQL is a block of codes that used
perform DML and DDL operations. to write the entire program blocks/
procedure/ function, etc.

 It is declarative, that defines what  PL/SQL is procedural that defines

need to be done, rather than how how the things needs to be done.
things need to be done.

 Execute as a single statement.  Execute as a whole block.

 Mainly used to manipulate data.  Mainly used to create an application.

 Interaction with a Database server.  No interaction with the database

server.

 Cannot contain PL/SQL code in it.  It is an extension of SQL, so that it

can contain SQL inside it.

PL/SQL BLOCK STRUCTURE

PL/SQL is a block-structured language; this means that the PL/SQL programs are
divided and written in logical blocks of code. Each block consists of three sub-parts.

S.No Sections & Description

Declarations
This section starts with the keyword DECLARE. It is an optional section and
1
defines all variables, cursors, subprograms, and other elements to be used in the
program.

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 Executable Commands
This section is enclosed between the keywords BEGINand END and it is a
2 mandatory section. It consists of the executable PL/SQL statements of the program.
It should have at least one executable line of code, which may be just a NULL
command to indicate that nothing should be executed.

Exception Handling
3 This section starts with the keyword EXCEPTION. This optional section
contains exception(s) that handle errors in the program.

Every PL/SQL statement ends with a semicolon (;). PL/SQL blocks can be nested within other
PL/SQL blocks using BEGINand END. Following is the basic structure of a PL/SQL block −
DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling>
END;
The 'Hello World' Example
DECLARE
message varchar2(20):='Hello, World!';
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;
/

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The end; line signals the end of the PL/SQL block. To run the code from the SQL command
line, you may need to type / at the beginning of the first blank line after the last line of the code.
When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The PL/SQL Identifiers
PL/SQL identifiers are constants, variables, exceptions, procedures, cursors, and reserved
words. The identifiers consist of a letter optionally followed by more letters, numerals, dollar
signs, underscores, and number signs and should not exceed 30 characters.
By default, identifiers are not case-sensitive. So you can use integer or INTEGER to
represent a numeric value. You cannot use a reserved keyword as an identifier.
The PL/SQL Delimiters
A delimiter is a symbol with a special meaning. Following is the list of delimiters in PL/SQL −
Delimiter Description

+, -, *, / Addition, subtraction/negation, multiplication, division

% Attribute indicator

' Character string delimiter

. Component selector

(,) Expression or list delimiter

: Host variable indicator

, Item separator

" Quoted identifier delimiter

= Relational operator

@ Remote access indicator

; Statement terminator

:= Assignment operator

=> Association operator

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 || Concatenation operator

** Exponentiation operator

<<, >> Label delimiter (begin and end)

/*, */ Multi-line comment delimiter (begin and end)

-- Single-line comment indicator

.. Range operator

<, >, <=, >= Relational operators

<>, '=, ~=, ^= Different versions of NOT EQUAL

The PL/SQL Comments

Program comments are explanatory statements that can be included in the PL/SQL code that
you write and helps anyone reading its source code. All programming languages allow some
form of comments.
The PL/SQL supports single-line and multi-line comments. All characters available inside any
comment are ignored by the PL/SQL compiler. The PL/SQL single-line comments start with the
delimiter -- (double hyphen) and multi-line comments are enclosed by /* and */.
DECLARE
-- variable declaration
message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';
BEGIN
/*
* PL/SQL executable statement(s)
*/
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;
/
When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Program Units
A PL/SQL unit is any one of the following −
 PL/SQL block
 Function
 Package
 Package body

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  Procedure
 Trigger
 Type
 Type body

LANGUAGE CONSTRUCT OF PL/SQL

Variables
A variable is a name given to a storage area that our programs can manipulate. Each
variable in PL/SQL has a specific data type, which determines the size and the layout of the
variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory and the set of
operations that can be applied to the variable.
The name of a PL/SQL variable consists of a letter optionally followed by more letters,
numerals, dollar signs, underscores, and number signs and should not exceed 30 characters. By
default, variable names are not case-sensitive. You cannot use a reserved PL/SQL keyword as a
variable name.
PL/SQL programming language allows to define various types of variables, such as date time
data types, records, collections, etc. which we will cover in subsequent chapters. For this
chapter, let us study only basic variable types.
Variable Declaration in PL/SQL
PL/SQL variables must be declared in the declaration section or in a package as a global
variable. When you declare a variable, PL/SQL allocates memory for the variable's value and
the storage location is identified by the variable name.
The syntax for declaring a variable is −
variable_name [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL] [:= | DEFAULT initial_value]
Where, variable_name is a valid identifier in PL/SQL, datatypemustbe a valid PL/SQL data
type or any user defined data type which we already have discussed in the last chapter. Some
valid variable declarations along with their definition are shown below −
sales number(10, 2);
pi CONSTANT double precision := 3.1415;
name varchar2(25);
address varchar2(100);
When you provide a size, scale or precision limit with the data type, it is called a constrained
declaration. Constrained declarations require less memory than unconstrained declarations. For
example −
sales number(10, 2);
name varchar2(25);
address varchar2(100);
Initializing Variables in PL/SQL
Whenever you declare a variable, PL/SQL assigns it a default value of NULL. If you want to
initialize a variable with a value other than the NULL value, you can do so during the
declaration, using either of the following −
 The DEFAULT keyword
 The assignment operator
For example −

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counterbinary_integer := 0;
greetings varchar2(20) DEFAULT 'Have a Good Day';
You can also specify that a variable should not have a NULLvalue using the NOT
NULL constraint. If you use the NOT NULL constraint, you must explicitly assign an initial
value for that variable.
It is a good programming practice to initialize variables properly otherwise, sometimes
programs would produce unexpected results. Try the following example which makes use of
various types of variables −
DECLARE
a integer :=10;
b integer :=20;
c integer;
f real;
BEGIN
c:= a + b;
dbms_output.put_line('Value of c: '|| c);
f:=70.0/3.0;
dbms_output.put_line('Value of f: '|| f);
END;
/
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Value of c: 30
Value of f: 23.333333333333333333

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Variable Scope in PL/SQL
PL/SQL allows the nesting of blocks, i.e., each program block may contain another inner block.
If a variable is declared within an inner block, it is not accessible to the outer block. However, if
a variable is declared and accessible to an outer block, it is also accessible to all nested inner
blocks. There are two types of variable scope −
 Local variables − Variables declared in an inner block and not accessible to outer
blocks.
 Global variables − Variables declared in the outermost block or a package.
Following example shows the usage of Local and Globalvariables in its simple form −
DECLARE
--Global variables
num1 number :=95;
num2 number :=85;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num1: '|| num1);
dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num2: '|| num2);
DECLARE
--Local variables

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num1 number :=195;
num2 number :=185;
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num1: '|| num1);
dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num2: '|| num2);
END;
END;
/
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Outer Variable num1: 95
Outer Variable num2: 85
Inner Variable num1: 195
Inner Variable num2: 185

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Assigning SQL Query Results to PL/SQL Variables
You can use the SELECT INTO statement of SQL to assign values to PL/SQL variables. For
each item in the SELECT list, there must be a corresponding, type-compatible variable in
the INTO list. The following example illustrates the concept. Let us create a table named
CUSTOMERS −
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18,2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

TableCreated
Let us now insert some values in the table −
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (1,'Ramesh',32,'Ahmedabad',2000.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (2,'Khilan',25,'Delhi',1500.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (3,'kaushik',23,'Kota',2000.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (4,'Chaitali',25,'Mumbai',6500.00);

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INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (5,'Hardik',27,'Bhopal',8500.00);

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (6,'Komal',22,'MP',4500.00);
The following program assigns values from the above table to PL/SQL variables using
the SELECT INTO clause of SQL −
DECLARE
c_idcustomers.id%type:=1;
c_namecustomers.name%type;
c_addrcustomers.address%type;
c_salcustomers.salary%type;
BEGIN
SELECT name, address, salary INTO c_name,c_addr,c_sal
FROM customers
WHERE id =c_id;
dbms_output.put_line
('Customer '||c_name||' from '||c_addr||' earns '||c_sal);
END;
/
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Customer Ramesh from Ahmedabad earns 2000

PL/SQL procedure completed successfully

Data Types
The PL/SQL variables, constants and parameters must have a valid data type, which specifies a
storage format, constraints, and a valid range of values. We will focus on the SCALAR and
the LOBdata types in this chapter. The other two data types will be covered in other chapters.
S.No Category & Description

Scalar
1 Single values with no internal components, such as a NUMBER,
DATE, or BOOLEAN.

Large Object (LOB)

2 Pointers to large objects that are stored separately from other data items, such as
text, graphic images, video clips, and sound waveforms.

Composite
3 Data items that have internal components that can be accessed individually. For
example, collections and records.

Prepared ByK.Banuroopa, Asst.Prof, Department of CS, CA & IT, KAHE Page 8/20
 Reference
4
Pointers to other data items.

PL/SQL Scalar Data Types and Subtypes

PL/SQL Scalar Data Types and Subtypes come under the following categories −
S.No Date Type & Description

Numeric
1
Numeric values on which arithmetic operations are performed.

Character
2 Alphanumeric values that represent single characters or strings of
characters.

Boolean
3
Logical values on which logical operations are performed.

Datetime
4
Dates and times.
PL/SQL provides subtypes of data types. For example, the data type NUMBER has a subtype
called INTEGER. You can use the subtypes in your PL/SQL program to make the data types
compatible with data types in other programs while embedding the PL/SQL code in another
program, such as a Java program.
PL/SQL Numeric Data Types and Subtypes
Following table lists out the PL/SQL pre-defined numeric data types and their sub-types −
S.No Data Type & Description

PLS_INTEGER
1 Signed integer in range -2,147,483,648 through 2,147,483,647, represented in 32
bits

BINARY_INTEGER
2 Signed integer in range -2,147,483,648 through 2,147,483,647, represented in 32
bits

BINARY_FLOAT
3
Single-precision IEEE 754-format floating-point number

BINARY_DOUBLE
4
Double-precision IEEE 754-format floating-point number

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 NUMBER(prec, scale)
5 Fixed-point or floating-point number with absolute value in range 1E-130 to (but
not including) 1.0E126. A NUMBER variable can also represent 0

DEC(prec, scale)
6
ANSI specific fixed-point type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits

DECIMAL(prec, scale)
7
IBM specific fixed-point type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits

NUMERIC(pre, secale)
8
Floating type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits

DOUBLE PRECISION
9 ANSI specific floating-point type with maximum precision of 126 binary digits
(approximately 38 decimal digits)

FLOAT
10 ANSI and IBM specific floating-point type with maximum precision of 126
binary digits (approximately 38 decimal digits)

INT
11
ANSI specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits

INTEGER
12 ANSI and IBM specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal
digits

SMALLINT
13 ANSI and IBM specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal
digits

REAL
14 Floating-point type with maximum precision of 63 binary digits (approximately
18 decimal digits)
Following is a valid declaration −
DECLARE
num1 INTEGER;
num2 REAL;
num3 DOUBLE PRECISION;
BEGIN
null;
END;

Prepared ByK.Banuroopa, Asst.Prof, Department of CS, CA & IT, KAHE Page 10/20
/
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed
PL/SQL Character Data Types and Subtypes
Following is the detail of PL/SQL pre-defined character data types and their sub-types −
S.No Data Type & Description

CHAR
1
Fixed-length character string with maximum size of 32,767 bytes

VARCHAR2
2 Variable-length character string with maximum size of 32,767
bytes

RAW
3 Variable-length binary or byte string with maximum size of 32,767
bytes, not interpreted by PL/SQL

NCHAR
4 Fixed-length national character string with maximum size of
32,767 bytes

NVARCHAR2
5 Variable-length national character string with maximum size of
32,767 bytes

LONG
6 Variable-length character string with maximum size of 32,760
bytes

LONG RAW
7 Variable-length binary or byte string with maximum size of 32,760
bytes, not interpreted by PL/SQL

ROWID
8
Physical row identifier, the address of a row in an ordinary table

UROWID
9 Universal row identifier (physical, logical, or foreign row
identifier)

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PL/SQL BOOLEAN DATA TYPES
The BOOLEAN data type stores logical values that are used in logical operations. The logical
values are the Boolean values TRUE and FALSE and the value NULL.

Control Structures in PL/SQL

Decision-making structures require that the programmer specify one or more conditions to be
evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or statements to be executed if the
condition is determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if the
condition is determined to be false.
Following is the general form of a typical conditional (i.e., decision making) structure found in
most of the programming languages −

PL/SQL programming language provides following types of decision-making statements. Click

the following links to check their detail.
S.No Statement & Description

IF - THEN statement
The IF statement associates a condition with a sequence of statements
1 enclosed by the keywords THEN and END IF. If the condition is true, the
statements get executed and if the condition is false or NULL then the IF
statement does nothing.

IF-THEN-ELSE statement
IF statement adds the keyword ELSE followed by an alternative sequence of
2 statement. If the condition is false or NULL, then only the alternative sequence
of statements get executed. It ensures that either of the sequence of statements
is executed.

IF-THEN-ELSIF statement
3
It allows you to choose between several alternatives.

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 Case statement
Like the IF statement, the CASE statement selects one sequence of statements
to execute.
4
However, to select the sequence, the CASE statement uses a selector rather
than multiple Boolean expressions. A selector is an expression whose value is
used to select one of several alternatives.

Searched CASE statement

5 The searched CASE statement has no selector, and it's WHEN clauses contain
search conditions that yield Boolean values.

nested IF-THEN-ELSE
6 You can use one IF-THEN or IF-THEN-ELSIFstatement inside another IF-
THEN or IF-THEN-ELSIFstatement(s).

LOOPING
There may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number of times. In
general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a function is executed first,
followed by the second, and so on.
Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more complicated
execution paths.
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times and
following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming languages −

PL/SQL provides the following types of loop to handle the looping requirements. Click the
following links to check their detail.
S.No Loop Type & Description

PL/SQL Basic LOOP

In this loop structure, sequence of statements is enclosed between the LOOP and the
1
END LOOP statements. At each iteration, the sequence of statements is executed and
then control resumes at the top of the loop.

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 PL/SQL WHILE LOOP
2 Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is true. It tests the
condition before executing the loop body.

PL/SQL FOR LOOP

3 Execute a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that manages
the loop variable.

Nested loops in PL/SQL

4
You can use one or more loop inside any another basic loop, while, or for loop.
Labeling a PL/SQL Loop
PL/SQL loops can be labeled. The label should be enclosed by double angle brackets (<< and
>>) and appear at the beginning of the LOOP statement. The label name can also appear at the
end of the LOOP statement. You may use the label in the EXIT statement to exit from the loop.
The following program illustrates the concept −
DECLARE
i number(1);
j number(1);
BEGIN
<<outer_loop>>
FOR i IN 1..3 LOOP
<<inner_loop>>
FOR j IN 1..3 LOOP
dbms_output.put_line('i is: '|| i ||' and j is: '|| j);
END loop inner_loop;
END loop outer_loop;
END;
/
When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
i is: 1 and j is: 1
i is: 1 and j is: 2
i is: 1 and j is: 3
i is: 2 and j is: 1
i is: 2 and j is: 2
i is: 2 and j is: 3
i is: 3 and j is: 1
i is: 3 and j is: 2
i is: 3 and j is: 3

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

TYPE and % ROWTYPE

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The %TYPE attribute provides the datatype of a variable or table column. This is particularly
useful when declaring variables that will hold values of a table column. For example, suppose
you want to declare variables as the same datatype as the employee_id and last_name columns
in employees table. To declare variables named empid and emplname that have the same
datatype as the table columns, use dot notation and the %TYPE attribute.
Using %TYPE With Table Columns in PL/SQL
DECLARE -- declare variables using %TYPE attribute
empidemployees.employee_id%TYPE; -- employee_iddatatype is NUMBER(6)
emplnameemployees.last_name%TYPE; -- last_namedatatype is VARCHAR2(25)
BEGIN
empid := 100301; -- this is OK because it fits in NUMBER(6)
-- empid := 3018907; -- this is too large and will cause an overflow
emplname := 'Patel'; -- this is OK because it fits in VARCHAR2(25)
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee ID: ' || empid); -- display data
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee name: ' || emplname); -- display data
END;
/
Using the %ROWTYPE Attribute to Declare Variables
For easier maintenance of code that interacts with the database, you can use
the %ROWTYPE attribute to declare a variable that represents a row in a table. A PL/SQL
record is the datatype that stores the same information as a row in a table.
In PL/SQL, records are used to group data. A record consists of a number of related fields in
which data values can be stored. The record can store an entire row of data selected from the
table or fetched from a cursor or cursor variable.
DECLARE
customer_reccustomers%rowtype;
BEGIN
SELECT * into customer_rec
FROM customers
WHERE id = 5;
dbms_output.put_line('Customer ID: ' || customer_rec.id);
dbms_output.put_line('Customer Name: ' || customer_rec.name);
dbms_output.put_line('Customer Address: ' || customer_rec.address);
dbms_output.put_line('Customer Salary: ' || customer_rec.salary);
END;
/
Cursors
Oracle creates a memory area, known as the context area, for processing an SQL statement,
which contains all the information needed for processing the statement; for example, the
number of rows processed, etc.
A cursor is a pointer to this context area. PL/SQL controls the context area through a cursor. A
cursor holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL statement. The set of rows the cursor
holds is referred to as the active set.
You can name a cursor so that it could be referred to in a program to fetch and process the rows
returned by the SQL statement, one at a time. There are two types of cursors −
 Implicit cursors

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  Explicit cursors
Implicit Cursors
Implicit cursors are automatically created by Oracle whenever an SQL statement is executed,
when there is no explicit cursor for the statement. Programmers cannot control the implicit
cursors and the information in it.
Whenever a DML statement (INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE) is issued, an implicit cursor is
associated with this statement. For INSERT operations, the cursor holds the data that needs to
be inserted. For UPDATE and DELETE operations, the cursor identifies the rows that would be
affected.
In PL/SQL, you can refer to the most recent implicit cursor as the SQL cursor, which always
has attributes such as %FOUND, %ISOPEN, %NOTFOUND, and %ROWCOUNT. The
SQL cursor has additional attributes, %BULK_ROWCOUNT and %BULK_EXCEPTIONS,
designed for use with the FORALLstatement. The following table provides the description of
the most used attributes −
S.No Attribute & Description

%FOUND
Returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement affected one or more
1
rows or a SELECT INTO statement returned one or more rows. Otherwise, it returns
FALSE.

%NOTFOUND
The logical opposite of %FOUND. It returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or
2
DELETE statement affected no rows, or a SELECT INTO statement returned no rows.
Otherwise, it returns FALSE.

%ISOPEN
3 Always returns FALSE for implicit cursors, because Oracle closes the SQL cursor
automatically after executing its associated SQL statement.

%ROWCOUNT
4 Returns the number of rows affected by an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement, or returned by a SELECT INTO statement.
Any SQL cursor attribute will be accessed as sql%attribute_name as shown below in the
example.
Example
We will be using the CUSTOMERS table we had created and used in the previous chapters.
Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

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| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The following program will update the table and increase the salary of each customer by 500
and use the SQL%ROWCOUNTattribute to determine the number of rows affected −
DECLARE
total_rows number(2);
BEGIN
UPDATE customers
SET salary = salary +500;
IF sql%notfound THEN
dbms_output.put_line('no customers selected');
ELSIF sql%found THEN
total_rows:=sql%rowcount;
dbms_output.put_line(total_rows||' customers selected ');
END IF;
END;
/
When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
6 customers selected

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

If you check the records in customers table, you will find that the rows have been updated −
Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 7000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 9000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 5000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Explicit Cursors
Explicit cursors are programmer-defined cursors for gaining more control over the context
area. An explicit cursor should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It is
created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row.

Prepared ByK.Banuroopa, Asst.Prof, Department of CS, CA & IT, KAHE Page 17/20
The syntax for creating an explicit cursor is −
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;
Working with an explicit cursor includes the following steps −
 Declaring the cursor for initializing the memory
 Opening the cursor for allocating the memory
 Fetching the cursor for retrieving the data
 Closing the cursor to release the allocated memory
Declaring the Cursor
Declaring the cursor defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT statement. For
example −
CURSOR c_customers IS
SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;

Opening the Cursor

Opening the cursor allocates the memory for the cursor and makes it ready for fetching the rows
returned by the SQL statement into it. For example, we will open the above defined cursor as
follows −
OPEN c_customers;
Fetching the Cursor
Fetching the cursor involves accessing one row at a time. For example, we will fetch rows from
the above-opened cursor as follows −
FETCH c_customers INTO c_id,c_name,c_addr;
Closing the Cursor
Closing the cursor means releasing the allocated memory. For example, we will close the
above-opened cursor as follows −
CLOSE c_customers;
Example
Following is a complete example to illustrate the concepts of explicit cursors
DECLARE
c_idcustomers.id%type;
c_namecustomerS.No.ame%type;
c_addrcustomers.address%type;
CURSOR c_customersis
SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;
BEGIN
OPEN c_customers;
LOOP
FETCH c_customersintoc_id,c_name,c_addr;
EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line(c_id||' '||c_name||' '||c_addr);
END LOOP;
CLOSE c_customers;

Prepared ByK.Banuroopa, Asst.Prof, Department of CS, CA & IT, KAHE Page 18/20
END;
/
When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −
1 Ramesh Ahmedabad
2 Khilan Delhi
3 kaushik Kota
4 Chaitali Mumbai
5 Hardik Bhopal
6 Komal MP

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Prepared ByK.Banuroopa, Asst.Prof, Department of CS, CA & IT, KAHE Page 19/20
 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
UNIT-V

2 marks questions
1. Define PL/SQL.
2. What is meant by datatype?
3. Define Large Object.
4. Define Looping.
5. Define cursor.
6. What are the types of cursor?
6 marks questions
1. Explain about PL/SQL Block Structure.
2. Explain various types of datatypes.
3. Describe Conditions looping.
4. Elaborate TYPE and % ROWTYPE.
5. Explain cursor with examples.

Prepared ByK.Banuroopa, Asst.Prof, Department of CS, CA & IT, KAHE Page 20/20
 Register Number____________
[17CSU504A] 12. What is true about Unique and primary key?
a. Unique can have multiple NULL values but Primary can’t have.
KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION b. Unique can have single NULL value but Primary can’t have even single.
(Deemed to be University) c. Both can have duplicate values
d. None of the above
(Established Under Section 3 of UGC Act 1956) 13. What will be the consequence of omitting ‘Where’ clause in Update Statement?
Coimbatore-641021.
a. No effect on the query as well as on table.
B.Sc COMPUTER SCIENCE
b. All records present in the table will be updated
FIRST INTERNAL EXAMINATION - JULY 2019
c. Only one record will be updated
Fifth Semester
d. None of the above
Oracle (SQL/PL-SQL)
14. Which one is correct syntax for Insert Statement?
Date & Session: .7.2019 & N Duration: 2 Hours
a. Insert table_name Columns(Col1, Col2,Col3);
Maximum : 50 Marks Class : III-B. Sc(CS ) A & B
b. Insert into table_name (Col1, Col2,Col3) VALUES (Val1,Val2,Val3);
c. Insert Columns(Col1, Col2,Col3) VALUE (Val1, Val2,Val3) Into table_name;
PART A – (20 X 1 = 20 Marks)
d. None of the above
ANSWER ALL THE QUESTIONS
15. Which one of the following sorts rows in SQL?
1. The relational model is based on the concept that data stored in tables called _____________
a. SORT BY b. ALIGN BY c. ORDER BY d. GROUP BY
a. Fields b. Records c. Relations d. Keys
16. Which of the constraint cannot be defined at the table level?
2. Which command is used for removing a table and all its data from the database?
a. Check c. Not null
a. Create command c. Alter table command
b. Unique d. Primary key
b. Drop table command d. All of the Mentioned
17. Which of the following wild card character will select all columns in a table?
3. In SQL, which of the following is not a data Manipulation Language Commands?
a. * b. ? c. / d. +
a. Delete b. Truncate c. Update d. Create
18. What option is used in alter table statement to change the name of an existing column?
4. Which of the following is not a type of SQL statement?
a. RENAME b. MODIFY c. ADD d. DROP
a. Data Manipulation Language c. Data Control Language (DCL)
19. What character is used to execute the previous SQL command again in SQL *plus?
(DML) d. Data Communication Language
a. * b. ? c. / d. +
b. Data Definition Language (DDL) (DCL)
20. To obtain the structure of an Oracle table, the command to use in SQL* plus is ___
5. In SQL, which command is used to add new rows to a table?
a. STRUCTURE [TableName].
a. Alter Table c. Insert
b. DESCRIBE [TableName].
b. Add row d. Append
c. DESCRIBE STRUCTURE [TableName].
6. In SQL, which command(s) is(are) used to change a table’s storage characteristics?
d. DESC TABLE [TableName].
a. ALTER TABLE c. CHANGE TABLE
b. MODIFY TABLE d. All of the Mentioned
PART – B (3 X 2 =6 Marks)
7. ___________ defines rules regarding the values allowed in columns and is the standard mechanism
ANSWER ALL THE QUESTIONS
for enforcing database integrity.
21. What is the SQL* Plus?
a. Column b. Constraint c. Index d. Trigger
22. If an UNIQUE KEY constraint on DATE column is created, will it accept the rows that are inserted
8. Which command is used for removing a table and all its data from the database?
with SYSDATE?
a. Create command c. Alter table command
23. Compare CHAR and VARCHAR2 data types in Oracle.
b. Drop table command d. All of the Mentioned
9. In SQL, which command is used to SELECT only one copy of each set of duplicable rows
PART – C (3 X 8 =24 Marks)
a. SELECT DISTINCT c. SELECT DIFFERENT
ANSWER ALL THE QUESTIONS
b. SELECT UNIQUE d. All of the Mentioned
24. (a) Differentiate SQL and SQL*Plus. [OR]
10. Which of the SQL statements is correct?
a. SELECT Username AND Password FROM Users (b) List and explain types of SQL commands.
b. SELECT Username, Password FROM Users
25. (a) Describe about SQL data types. [OR]
c. SELECT Username, Password WHERE Username = ‘user1’
d. None of the Mentioned (b) Explain in detail about expressions in select statement with examples.
11. Let the statement : SELECT column1 FROM myTable; return 10 rows. The statement: SELECT
26. (a) Elaborate the syntax of alter table statement and explain with examples [OR]
ALL column1 FROM myTable; will return___.
a. less than 10 rows c. exactly 10 rows (b) Illustrate different type of constraints defined in a table with examples.
b. more than 10 rows d. none of the above