Chapter 2: Kinematics in one dimension

• Reference Frames and Displacement (位移 )

• Average Velocity (平均速度)
• Instantaneous Velocity (瞬時速度)
• Acceleration (加速度)
• Motion at Constant Acceleration
• Freely Falling Objects
• Variable Acceleration; Integral Calculus
• Graphical Analysis and Numerical Integration
Kinematics

Reference Frame: Define an appropriate coordinate system

Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

Differentiation or Integration

⃗
r(t) ⃗
v(t) ⃗
a(t)

⃗
a(t) ⃗
v(t) ⃗
r(t)
Describing Motion : 1D

Reference Frames and Displacement

Any measurement of position,

distance, or speed must be made with
respect to a reference frame.

600

0 300 900
 Distance : = + = (m)
distance of an object traveled
Displacement (位移 ) = −
= −

600

300 900
0
𝒇
𝒊
𝟔
𝟎
𝟎
𝟎
𝜟
𝒙
𝒙
𝒙
𝜟
𝑺
𝟗
𝟎
𝟎
𝟑
𝟎
𝟎
𝟏
𝟐
𝟎
𝟎
𝜟
𝑺
 Average speed how far an object travels in a given time
(平均速率) interval

ΔS distance traveled
average speed = =
Δt time elapsed

Average velocity
includes directional information
(平均速度)

displacement Δx x(t2) − x(t1)

vave = = =
time elapsed Δt t2 − t1
 Previous example

Average speed (平均速率) Average velocity (平均速度)

ΔS 1200m Δx 600m
= = 3m/s = = 1.5m/s
Δt 400s Δt 400s

ΔS = 1200(m) Δt = 400(s) Δx = xf − xi = 600(m)

p4

p0 p1 p3
0 300 p2 900
600
Section 2.3
Clicker Question 2
A person initially at point P in the illustration stays there a
moment and then moves along the axis to Q and stays there a
moment. She then runs quickly to R, stays there a moment, and
then strolls slowly back to P. Plot the Position vs time of the
motion in the whiteboard.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Section 2.3
Clicker Question 2
A person initially at point P in the illustration stays there a
moment and then moves along the axis to Q and stays there a
moment. She then runs quickly to R, stays there a moment, and
then strolls slowly back to P. Which of the position-versus-time
graphs below correctly represents this motion?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Section 2.3
Clicker Question 2
A person initially at point P in the illustration stays there a
moment and then moves along the axis to Q and stays there a
moment. She then runs quickly to R, stays there a moment, and
then strolls slowly back to P. Which of the position-versus-time
graphs below correctly represents this motion?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Average velocity
Instantaneous velocity
Average acceleration
 Average velocity
(平均速度)
p3

p2 p4

Determine the average velocity between

p1 and p2, p2 and p3, p3 and p4,
p1 > 0, < 0, or = 0

p0

!%

!! !" !# !$
 Average velocity (平均速度)

p3

p2 p4

Δx = x2 − x1
p1 α
x2 − x1
v̄t1, t2 = >0
t2 − t1
Δt = t2 − t1
x4 − x3
v̄t3, t4 = <0
t4 − t3

p0
 p2
Average velocity (平均速度)
Δx = x2 − x1
p1

Δx xf − xi Δt = t2 − t1
v̄ = =
Δt tf − ti

Instantaneous velocity (瞬時速度)

p2
Δx dx >0
v = lim = =0 p1
pi
Δt→0 Δt dt <0
Instantaneous velocity (瞬時速度)

p3
v3 = 0
p2 p4
v2 > 0 v4 < 0

p1
v1 > 0

p0
 Acceleratio
Average acceleration (平均加速度)
Δv vf − vi
2
ā = = , m/s
Δt tf − ti

Instantaneous acceleration (瞬時加速度)

v(t + Δt) − v(t) dv(t)
a(t) = lim =
Δt→0 Δt dt

dt ( dt )
d dx(t)
=
Instantaneous acceleration (瞬時加速度)

p3
v3 = 0
p2 p4
v2 > 0

p1
v1 > 0 Determine the instantaneous acceleration at
p1, p2, and p3,
> 0, < 0, or = 0
Instantaneous acceleration
(瞬時加速度)

p3
v3 = 0
p2 a3 < 0 p4
v2 > 0
a2 ≃ 0

p1
v1 > 0
a1 > 0
Average acceleration
(平均加速度)
Δv v f − v i m
a = = , 2
Δt t f − ti s
Instantaneous acceleration
(瞬時加速度 )

v(t + Δt) − v(t) dv(t)

a(t) = lim =
Δt→0 Δt dt

dt ( dt )
2
d dx(t) d x(t)
= =
dt 2
Section 2.3
Clicker Question 3
A marathon runner runs at a steady 15 km/hr. When the runner is
7.5 km from the finish, a bird begins flying from the runner to the
finish at 30 km/hr. When the bird reaches the finish line, it turns
around and flies back to the runner, and then turns around again,
repeating the back-and-forth trips until the runner reaches the finish
line. How many kilometers does the bird travel?

1. 10 km
2. 15 km
3. 20 km
4. 30 km
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 2.3
Clicker Question 3
A marathon runner runs at a steady 15 km/hr. When the runner is
7.5 km from the finish, a bird begins flying from the runner to the
finish at 30 km/hr. When the bird reaches the finish line, it turns
around and flies back to the runner, and then turns around again,
repeating the back-and-forth trips until the runner reaches the
finish line. How many kilometers does the bird travel?

1. 10 km
2. 15 km
3. 20 km
4. 30 km
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 2.9
Clicker Question 4

The slope of the curve in the position vs. time graph for a
particle’s motion gives

1. the particle’s speed.

2. the particle’s acceleration.
3. the particle’s average velocity.
4. the particle’s instantaneous velocity.
5. Both 1 and 4 are possible
6. Both 3 and 4 are possible
7. All 1, 3, and 4 are possible.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 2.9
Clicker Question 4

The slope of the curve in the position vs. time graph for a
particle’s motion gives

1. the particle’s speed.

2. the particle’s acceleration.
3. the particle’s average velocity.
4. the particle’s instantaneous velocity.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Section 2.9
Clicker Question 5
A train car moves along a long straight track. The graph shows the
position as a function of time for this train. The graph shows that
the train

1. speeds up all the time.

2. slows down all the time.
3. speeds up part of the time and slows down part of the
time.
4. moves at a constant velocity.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 2.9
Clicker Question 5
A train car moves along a long straight track. The graph shows the
position as a function of time for this train. The graph shows that
the train

1. speeds up all the time.

2. slows down all the time.
3. speeds up part of the time and slows down part of the
time.
4. moves at a constant velocity.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 2.9
Clicker Question 6
The graph shows position as a function of time for two trains
running on parallel tracks. Which is true?

1. At time tB, both trains have

the same velocity.
2. Both trains speed up all the time.
3. Both trains have the same velocity at some time before tB.
4. Somewhere on the graph, both trains have the same
acceleration. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Section 2.9
Clicker Question 6
The graph shows position as a function of time for two trains
running on parallel tracks. Which is true?

1. At time tB, both trains have

the same velocity.
2. Both trains speed up all the time.
3. Both trains have the same velocity at some time before tB.
4. Somewhere on the graph, both trains have the same
acceleration. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
PRS 2-3
1D motion
Which of these is a possible graph of the position, x(t)?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PRS 2-3Ans
1D motion
Which of these is a possible graph of the position, x(t)?
PRS 2-4
1D motion
Which of these is a possible graph of the x-component of
velocity?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PRS 2-4
1D motion
Which of these is a possible graph of the x-component of
velocity?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
GP X
The position of an electron is plotted as a function of time in Fig.
below. At which position(s) in the figure does the electron has
maximum acceleration in the + x-direction?
(A) α (B) β (C) γ (D) θ (E) φ (F) α, φ (G) β, θ

Write your answer

in your white board φ
θ
0.5
γ

position
0.0

-0.5
β
α
-1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
GP X
The position of an electron is plotted as a function of time in Fig.
below. At which position(s) in the figure does the electron has
maximum acceleration in the + x-direction?
(A) α (B) β (C) γ (D) θ (E) φ (F) α, φ (G) β, θ

Write your answer

in your white board φ
θ
0.5
γ

position
0.0

-0.5
β
α
-1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
Motion at Constant Acceleration

2
x = c1 + c2t + c3t ⇒ x0 = c1 x=t n

dx dx
= nt n−1
v= = c2 + 2c3t ⇒ v0 = c2 dt
dt
2
dv d x a
a= = 2 = 2c3 ⇒ c3 =
dt dt 2
1 2
1 2 x − x0 v0 t+ at
x = x0 + v0t + at v̄ = = 2
2 t t
v = v0 + at v0 + v
=
2
Example
2
x = 8 − 6t + t
x = tn
dx
v= = − 6 + 2t
dt dx n−1
= nt
dv dt
a= =2
dt

x(t = 0) = 8 m

v(t = 0) = − 6 (m/s) < 0

t
 Freely Falling Objects
Example : Ball thrown upward, III; the
quadratic formula.
For a ball thrown upward at an initial speed of
15.0 m/s, calculate at what time t the ball
passes a point 8.00 m above the person’s
hand.

1 2 Go to board, plot
y = y0 + v0t − gt
2
y(t), v(t), and a(t) vs t
v = v0 − gt
PRS 2-7
Which figure could represent the velocity versus time
graph of a motorcycle whose speed is increasing?

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(5) Not sure

PRS 2-7Ans

Which figure could represent the velocity versus time

graph of a motorcycle whose speed is increasing?

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(5) Not sure

PRS 2-8
The figure shows the velocity versus time graph for
a car driving on a straight road. Which of the
following best describes the acceleration of the car?

1. The acceleration of the car is negative and decreasing.

2. The acceleration of the car is positive and increasing.
3. The acceleration of the car is negative and increasing.
4. The acceleration of the car is positive and decreasing.
5. The acceleration of the car is constant.
6. Not sure
PRS 2-8Ans

The figure shows the velocity versus time graph for

a car driving on a straight road. Which of the
following best describes the acceleration of the car?

1. The acceleration of the car is negative and decreasing.

2. The acceleration of the car is positive and increasing.
3. The acceleration of the car is negative and increasing.
4. The acceleration of the car is positive and decreasing.
5. The acceleration of the car is constant.
6. Not sure
Some Basic Differentiation Formulas
d n n −1
1. x = nx
dx
d
2. (sin x ) = cos x
dx
d
3. (cos x ) = − sin x
dx
d
4.
dx
( e )= e
x x

d 1
5.
dx
(ln x ) =
x
Two useful techniques

d dg ( x ) df ( x )
(1) [ f ( x ) g ( x )] = f ( x ) + g( x)
dx dx dx

df ( y( x )) df ( y ) dy( x )
(2) = Chain Rule
dx dy dx
Example d ⎛ sin x ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ?
dx ⎝ x ⎠

d ⎛ sin x ⎞ d (1 / x ) 1 d sin( x )
⎜ ⎟ = sin( x ) +
dx ⎝ x ⎠ dx x dx
1 cos( x ) 1
= sin( x )( − 2 ) + = 2 [x cos x − sin x ]
x x x
 2
d x
Example =?
dx cos x
3

2 2 3
d x dx 1 d (1/ cos x )
2
= +x
dx cos x dx
3 3
cos x 3
dx
−
3
d (1/ cos x ) dy dy 2
y ≡ cos( x ) ⇒ =
dx dy dx
dy d cos( x )
= = − sin( x )
dx dx
2 5
d x 2x 2 3 −
⇒ = + x ( − y )[− sin( x )]
2
dx cos x 3 3
cos x 2
5
2x3 2 −
= + x cos ( x ) sin( x )
2

cos x 2
3
P. 28
Example:
⎡ 1 −β t ⎤
x = v0 ⎢ t + e ⎥
⎣ β ⎦
dx
v= =
dt
dv
a= =
dt
P. 28
Example:
⎡ 1 −β t ⎤
x = v0 ⎢ t + e ⎥
⎣ β ⎦
dx −β t
v= = v0 (1 − e )
dt
dv −β t
a= = v0 β e
dt
GP 2-1

• Mary and Sally are in a foot race (below). When Mary is 22

m from the finish line, she has a speed of 4.0 m/s and is 5.0
m behind Sally, who has a speed of 5.0 m/s. Sally thinks
she has an easy win and so, during the remaining portion of
the race, decelerates at a constant rate of 0.5m/s2 to the
finish line. What constant acceleration does Mary now need
during the remaining portion of the race, if she wishes to
cross the finish line side-by-side with Sally?
GP 2-1
• Mary and Sally are in a foot race (below). When Mary is 22 m from the finish line, she has
a speed of 4.0 m/s and is 5.0 m behind Sally, who has a speed of 5.0 m/s. Sally thinks she
has an easy win and so, during the remaining portion of the race, decelerates at a constant
rate of 0.5m/s2 to the finish line. What constant acceleration does Mary now need during
the remaining portion of the race, if she wishes to cross the finish line side-by-side with
Sally?

2
x(t) = c1 + c2t + c3t
1 2
xMary(t) = 0 + 4t + at
2
1 2
xSally(t) = 5 + 5t + (−0.5)t
2
xSally(t) = xMary = 22 tfinal = 20.9545s, a = − 0.28m/s
• For the runners to cross the finish line side-by-side means
they must both reach the finish line in the same amount of
time from their current positions. Take Mary’s current
location as the origin. Use Eq. 2-12b.
For Sally:
22 = 5 + 5t + 2
1
2 ( -.5) t
2
® t - 20t + 68 = 0 ®

20 ± 20 - 4 ( 68 )
2

t= = 4.343s, 15.66 s
2
The first time is the time she first crosses the finish line,
and so is the time to be used for the problem.
• Now find Mary’s acceleration so that she crosses the finish
line in that same amount of time.
For Mary:
22 - 4t 22 - 4 ( 4.343 )
22 = 0 + 4t + 2 at ® a = 1 2 =
1 2
= 0.49 m s2
2(
4.343)
2
2
t 1
Variable Acceleration:
integral Calculus
 a(t)
the area under the graph of
the acceleration vs. time is the
change in velocity ā(ti)

dv(t) = a(t)dt

0 t
0 t1 Δt t2
t=t2
i=N
t2 − t1
∫
Δt =
∑
a(t)dt ≡ lim a(ti)Δt,
Δt → 0
or N → ∞ i=1
N
t=t1

= Area[a(t1, t2)]
t=t2 v(t=t2)

∫ ∫
a(t)dt = dv = v(t2) − v(t1)
t=t1 v(t=t1)
 Position as the integral of velocity
a(t)
the area under the graph of
the velocity vs. time is the
displacement ā(ti)

dx
v(t) ≡
dt

0 t
0 t1 Δt t2
t=t2 x(t=t2)

∫t=t ∫x(t=t )
v(t)dt = dx = x(t2) − x(t1)
1 1
 Some Basic Differentiation Formulas
b

1.
d n
dx
x = nx n−1 ⬌ b

∫a
x n−1 1 n
dx = x
n
a
b

2.
d
dx
(sin x) = cos x ⬌ b

∫a
(cos x)dx = sin x
a
b

3.
d
dx
(cos x) = − sin x ⬌ b

∫a
(sin x)dx = − cos x
a
b
4.
d x
dx
(e ) = e x ⬌ b

∫a
e x dx = e x
a
b
d 1
5.
dx
(ln|x|) =
x
⬌ b
1
∫a x
dx = ln|x|
a
 Group problem

Integrating a time-varying acceleration.

An experimental vehicle starts from rest (v0 = 0) at t = 0
3
and accelerates at a rate given by a(t) = (7.00 m/s )t .
What is
(1) its velocity
(2) its displacement
at 2.00 s later?
 3
a(t) = (7.00m/s )t, v(t = 0) = 0 at t = 0
v(t) t

∫v(t=0)=0 ∫0
(a) dv = a dt

t t
2
t
∫0
v = (7.00m/s 3)t dt = (7.00m/s 3)
2
0
2
t
= (7.00m/s 3) − 0 = (3.50m/s 3)t 2
2
3 2
At t = 2.00s, v = (3.50m/s )(2.00s) = 14.0m/s
 x(t) t

∫x(t=0)=0 ∫0
(b) dx = v dt

2.00s

∫0
x= (3.50m/s 3)t 2 dt

2.00s
3
t 3
= (3.50m/s ) = 9.33m
3
0

At t = 2.00s, v = 14.0m/s and x = 9.33m

 Group problem

Non-constant acceleration velocity dependent

Consider an object released at time t = 0 with an initial
velocity v(t = 0) = 0 and accelerating according to
a(t) = c0 − c1v(t) .
(1) Find the velocity as function of time.
(2) What is the velocity as t ≫ 1?(c1 > 0)
🇭🇮🇳🇹
the example in the lecture last week is useful
1 −βt
x = v0[t + e ]
β
dx
v= = v0(1 − e −βt)
dt
dv −βt
a= = v0 βe
dt
 dv dv
a= = c0 − c1v ⟹ = dt
dt c0 − c1v
v(t) t
dv′ 1
∫v(t=0) c0 − c1v′ ∫0 ∫x
= dt′, dx = ln(x)

v
1
⟶ − ln(c0 − c1v′) =t dy dy
c1 y ≡ c0 − c1v′ ⟹ = − c1 or dv′ = −
v(t=0)=0 dv′ c1
dv′ −dy/c1
1 c0 − c1v(t) =
− ln[ ] =t c0 − c1v′ y
c1 c0
c1 −c1t
⟹ 1 − v(t) = e
c0
c0
or v(t) = (1 − e −c1t)
c1

c0
v(t) → when t ≫ 1



c1






GP 2-4
The acceleration of an object is given by a = 3 + 6t. The position of the
object is 2 m at t = 1 sec , and the velocity of the object is 3 m/s at t = 2 sec
. Write expressions for the position and velocity of the object as functions
of time.
GP 2-4
The acceleration of an object is given by a = 3 + 6t. The position of the
object is 2 m at t = 1 sec , and the velocity of the object is 3 m/s at t = 2 sec
. Write expressions for the position and velocity of the object as functions
of time.

( 2 )2
v(t) t t t
6 2
∫v(2) ∫2 ∫2
dv = a(t′)dt′ → v(t) − 3 = (3 + 6t′)dt′ = 3t′ + t′

2
→ v(t) = 3t + 3t − 15

x(t) t
3 29
∫x(1) ∫1
dv = v(t′)dt′ 3 2
→ x(t) = t + t − 15t +
2 2








GP 2-4 Ans
Example (Group problem): The acceleration of an object is given by a = 3 + 6t.
The position of the object is 2 m at t = 1 sec , and the velocity of the object is 3
m/s at t = 2 sec . Write expressions for the position and velocity of the object as
functions of time.
v(t ) t
∫ dv = ∫ a( t )dt
v ( 2) 2
t
t ⎛ 3t ʹ 6 t ʹ ⎞ 2
v ( t ) − 3 = ∫ (3 + 6t ʹ)dt ʹ = ⎜ + ⎟
2
⎝ 1 2 ⎠2
x(t ) t
∫ dx = ∫ v ( t ʹ)dt ʹ
x (1) 1
t
t 2 ⎛ 3t ʹ 3t ʹ 3 2
⎞
x ( t ) − 2 = ∫ (3t ʹ + 3t ʹ − 15)dt ʹ = ⎜ + − 15 t ʹ ⎟
1
⎝ 3 2 ⎠1
3 3 2 29
x ( t ) = t + t − 15 t +
2 2
GP 2-5

At t = 0, a sports car starting at rest at x = 0 accelerates with an x-component

of acceleration given by
3 1/2
ax ( t ) = α t − β t , for 0 < t < (α / β )
and zero afterwards.
a) (1 point) Find vx (t) and x(t) for 0 < t < (α/β)1/2 and (α/β)1/2 < t.
b) (1 point) Sketch ax (t) vs. t , vx (t) vs. t , and x(t) vs. t for 0 < t < (α/β)1/2
and (α/β)1/2 < t.
a
t = α/β

t
0.12

0.10

v
0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

t
END