Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

CHAPTER # 2
DIFFERENCE
OPERTORS

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 46

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

CHAPTER # 2
DIFFERENCE OPERTORS

Introduction:-
Let us consider a function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) , defined in [𝒂, 𝒃]. Let us consider the consecutive
values of 𝒙 differing by equal length 𝒉 i.e.

𝒂 = 𝒙𝟎 , 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒙𝟑 , … , 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 , 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒃

OR

𝒙𝒌 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒌𝒉, 𝒌 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … , 𝒏

⟵ 𝒉 ⟶⟵ 𝒉 ⟶⟵ 𝒉 ⟶⟵ 𝒉 ⟶ . . . ⟵ 𝒉 ⟶⟵ 𝒉 ⟶
𝒂 = 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 . . . 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒃

Let the corresponding values of the functions respective are:

𝒚𝟎 = 𝒇𝟎 = 𝒚(𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )

𝒚𝟏 = 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒚(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 + 𝒉) ∵ 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒉

𝒚𝟐 = 𝒇𝟐 = 𝒚(𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 + 𝟐𝒉) ∵ 𝒙𝟐 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝟐𝒉

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

𝒚𝒌 = 𝒇𝒌 = 𝒚(𝒙𝒌 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝒌 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 + 𝒌𝒉) ∵ 𝒙𝒌 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒌𝒉

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

𝒚𝒏−𝟏 = 𝒇𝒏−𝟏 = 𝒚(𝒙𝒏−𝟏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝒏−𝟏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 + (𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝒉) ∵ 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒉

𝒚𝒏 = 𝒇𝒏 = 𝒚(𝒙𝒏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝒏 ) = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 + 𝒏𝒉) ∵ 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒏𝒉

Then the values of 𝒙 are called the Arguments or Nodes and the values of the function 𝒚 =
𝒇(𝒙) corresponding to the arguments are called Entries. Let the following data, we have
given:
“Table of values”
𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 . 𝒙𝒌 . 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏
. .
. .

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) . 𝒚𝒌 = 𝒇(𝒙𝒌 ) . 𝒚𝒏−𝟐 = 𝒇(𝒙𝒏−𝟐 ) 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 = 𝒇(𝒙𝒏−𝟏 ) 𝒚𝒏 = 𝒇(𝒙𝒏 )
. .
. .

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 47

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

DIFFERENCE OPERTORS
1): Forward difference Operator ∆(Capital Delta):-
The first order forward difference operator is denoted by ∆ and defined by:
∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎
∆𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
∆𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚𝟑 − 𝒚𝟐
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
∆𝒚𝒏−𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 − 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 (What about ∆𝒚𝒏 = 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 − 𝒚𝒏 )
The second order forward difference operator is defined by:
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = ∆𝒚𝟏 − ∆𝒚𝟎
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏 = ∆𝒚𝟐 − ∆𝒚𝟏
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
∆𝟐 𝒚𝒏−𝟐 = ∆𝒚𝒏−𝟏 − ∆𝒚𝒏−𝟐
In the same way, the 𝟑𝒓𝒅 order forward difference operator ∆𝟑 is defined as follows:
∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏 − ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎
∆𝟑 𝒚𝟏 = ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
∆𝟑 𝒚𝒏−𝟑 = ∆𝟐 𝒚𝒏−𝟐 − ∆𝟐 𝒚𝒏−𝟑
In general,

∆𝒏 𝒚𝒌 = ∆𝒏−𝟏 𝒚𝒌+𝟏 − ∆𝒏−𝟏 𝒚𝒌

Forward difference table”

𝒙 𝒚 ∆𝒚 ∆𝟐 𝒚 ∆𝟑 𝒚 ∆𝟒 𝒚
𝒙𝟎 𝒚𝟎
∆𝒚𝒐
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎
𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎
∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎
∆𝒚𝟏
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏
∆𝒚𝟐 ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟏
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟐
∆𝒚𝟑
𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟒

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 48

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Important Note:-
In forward difference table the Upper Diagonal is Conserved/constant with respect to initial
value 𝒚𝟎 .

Example # 1:-
Construct Forward Difference Table for the following data:

𝒙 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟕 𝟑𝟗 𝟓𝟐

Solution:-
“Forward difference table”

𝒙 𝒚 ∆𝒚 ∆𝟐 𝒚 ∆𝟑 𝒚 ∆𝟒 𝒚 ∆𝟓 𝒚

𝟎 𝟏𝟐
𝒚𝟎
𝟑
𝟏 𝟏𝟓 ∆𝒚𝟎 𝟐
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎
𝒚𝟏 𝟎
𝟓 ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 𝟑
∆𝒚𝟏 ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎
𝟐 𝟐𝟎 𝟐 −𝟏𝟎
𝒚𝟐 ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏 ∆𝟓 𝒚𝟎
𝟑
𝟕 𝟑
∆ 𝒚𝟏
𝟑 𝟐𝟕 ∆𝒚𝟐 𝟓 −𝟕
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟐 ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟏
𝒚𝟑 𝟏𝟐 −𝟒
∆𝒚𝟑 ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟐
𝟒 𝟑𝟗 𝟏
𝒚𝟒 ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟑
𝟏𝟑
∆𝒚𝟒
𝟓 𝟓𝟐
𝒚𝟓

We have from above table:

𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐, ∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝟑, ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟐, ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎, ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = −𝟒, ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟑 and ∆𝟓 𝒚𝟎 = −𝟏𝟎.

Example # 2:-
Express ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 and ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 , in terms of the value of the function 𝒚.
Solution:-
We have
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = ∆𝒚𝟏 − ∆𝒚𝟎 = (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) − (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎 )

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 49

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

⇒ ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟎 (1)
and

∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏 − ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = (∆𝒚𝟐 − ∆𝒚𝟏 ) − (∆𝒚𝟏 − ∆𝒚𝟎 )

⇒ ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = (𝒚𝟑 − 𝒚𝟐 ) − (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) − (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) + (𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎 )

⇒ ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟑 − 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎

⇒ ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟑𝒚𝟐 + 𝟑𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎 (2)

Now, From (𝟏) and (𝟐) , we arrive at the following general results:

Step-1: ∆𝒏 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝒏

Step-2: ∆𝒏 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝒏 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 𝒚𝒏−𝟐 𝒚𝒏−𝟑 𝒚𝟎

Step-3: ∆𝒏 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝒏 − 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒚𝒏−𝟐 − 𝒚𝒏−𝟑 + +(−𝟏) 𝒏 𝒚𝟎

Step-4: ∆𝒏 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝒏 − (𝒏𝟏) 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 + (𝒏𝟐) 𝒚𝒏−𝟐 − (𝒏𝟑) 𝒚𝒏−𝟑 + ⋯ + (−𝟏)𝒏 𝒚𝟎

where
𝒏 𝒏!
( ) = 𝒏𝑪𝒌 =
𝒌 𝒌! (𝒏 − 𝒌)!

Drill Excercise # 1:-

Express ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏 and ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎 in terms of the values of the function 𝒚.
Answer:-
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏
∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟒 − 𝟒𝒚𝟑 + 𝟔𝒚𝟐 − 𝟒𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟎

2): Backward difference operator 𝜵 (Del):-

The first order backward difference operator is denoted by 𝜵 and defined by:
𝜵𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎
𝜵𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
𝜵𝒚𝒏 = 𝒚𝒏 − 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 (What about 𝜵𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟎 − 𝒚𝟏 )

The second order backward difference operator is defined by:

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 50
Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝟐 = 𝜵𝒚𝟐 − 𝜵𝒚𝟏
𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝟑 = 𝜵𝒚𝟑 − 𝜵𝒚𝟐
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝒏 = 𝜵𝒚𝒏 − 𝜵𝒚𝒏−𝟏

In the same way 3rd order backward difference operator is defined by:
𝜵𝟑 𝒚𝟑 = 𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝟑 − 𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝜵𝟑 𝒚𝟒 = 𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝟒 − 𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝟑
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
𝜵𝟑 𝒚𝒏 = 𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝒏 − 𝜵𝟐 𝒚𝒏−𝟏

In general,

𝜵𝒏 𝒚𝒌 = 𝜵𝒏−𝟏 𝒚𝒌 − 𝜵𝒏−𝟏 𝒚𝒌−𝟏

“Backward Difference table”

𝒙 𝒚 𝛁𝒚 𝛁𝟐 𝒚 𝛁𝟑 𝒚 𝛁𝟒 𝒚
𝒙𝟎 𝒚𝟎
𝛁𝒚𝟏
𝛁𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝛁𝟑 𝒚𝟑
𝛁𝟒 𝒚𝟒
𝛁𝒚𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝛁𝟐 𝒚𝟑
𝛁𝒚𝟑 𝛁𝟑 𝒚𝟒
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝛁𝟐 𝒚𝟒
𝛁𝒚𝟒
𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟒

Important note:-
In forward difference table the Lower Diagonal is Conserved/constant with respect to final
value 𝒚𝒏 .
Example # 3:-
Construct backward difference table for the following data:

𝒙 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟓 𝟕𝟖

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 51

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Solution:-
“Backward difference table”

𝒙 𝒚 𝜵𝒚 𝜵𝟐 𝒚 𝜵𝟑 𝒚 𝜵𝟒 𝒚
𝟎 𝟐
𝒚𝟎 𝟏
𝛁𝒚𝟏 𝟖
𝟐 𝟔
𝟏 𝟑 𝛁 𝒚𝟐
𝒚𝟏 𝛁𝟑 𝒚𝟑
𝟗
𝛁𝒚𝟐 𝟎
𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟒 𝟒
𝛁 𝒚𝟒
𝒚𝟐 𝛁𝟐 𝒚𝟑
𝟐𝟑 𝟔
𝛁𝒚𝟑 𝟑
𝟑 𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟎 𝛁 𝒚𝟒
𝒚𝟑 𝛁𝟐 𝒚𝟒
𝟒𝟑
𝟒 𝟕𝟖 𝛁𝒚𝟒
𝒚𝟒

We have (Since 𝒚𝒏 = 𝒚𝟒 here): , 𝒚𝒏 = 𝟕𝟖, 𝛁 𝒚𝒏 = 𝟒𝟑 , 𝛁𝟐 𝒚𝒏 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝛁𝟑 𝒚𝒏 = 𝟔, 𝛁𝟒 𝒚𝒏 = 𝟎.

Drill Excercise # 2:-

Construct:
a): Forward difference table for:
𝒙 𝟎 𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 𝟖 𝟏𝟎
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝟒𝟎 𝟓𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 𝟔𝟕. 𝟎𝟒 𝟖𝟔. 𝟓𝟔 𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝟓

b): Backward difference table for:

𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝟏 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕𝟕𝟏 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟏 𝟏. 𝟔𝟗𝟗𝟎

3): Central Difference operator 𝜹 (Small Delta):-

The first order central difference operator is denoted by 𝜹 and defined by:
𝜹 𝒚𝟏/𝟐 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎
𝜹 𝒚𝟑/𝟐 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝜹 𝒚𝟓/𝟐 = 𝒚𝟑 − 𝒚𝟐
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
𝒏+𝒏−𝟏 𝟐𝒏−𝟏 𝟏
𝜹 𝒚𝒏−𝟏/𝟐 = 𝒚𝒏 − 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 ∵ = =𝒏−
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 52

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Similarly, higher order central differences are defined as follows:

𝒌+𝟏+𝒌 𝟐𝒌+𝟏 𝟏
𝜹𝟐 𝒚𝒌+𝟏/𝟐 = 𝜹 𝒚𝒌+𝟏 - 𝜹 𝒚𝒌 ∵ = =𝒌+
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝜹𝟑 𝒚𝒌+𝟏/𝟐 = 𝜹𝟐 𝒚𝒌+𝟏 - 𝜹𝟐 𝒚𝒌

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

𝜹𝒏 𝒚𝒌+𝟏/𝟐 = 𝜹𝒏−𝟏 𝒚𝒌+𝟏 − 𝜹𝒏−𝟏 𝒚𝒌

Central Difference Table

𝒙 𝒚 𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝟐 𝒚 𝜹𝟑 𝒚 𝜹𝟒 𝒚 𝜹𝟓 𝒚 𝜹𝟔 𝒚
𝒙𝟎 𝒚𝟎
𝜹𝒚𝟏
𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝟐

𝜹𝒚𝟑 𝜹𝟐 𝒚𝟏
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝟐 𝜹𝟑 𝒚𝟑
𝟐 𝜹𝟒 𝒚𝟐
𝜹𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝜹𝟓 𝒚 𝟓
𝜹𝒚𝟓 𝜹𝟑 𝒚𝟓 𝟐 𝜹𝟔 𝒚 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝜹𝟐 𝒚𝟑 𝜹𝟒 𝒚𝟑
𝜹𝒚𝟕 𝜹𝟑 𝒚𝟕 𝜹𝟓 𝒚 𝟕
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒙𝟒 𝒚𝟒 𝜹𝟐 𝒚𝟒 𝜹𝟒 𝒚𝟒
𝜹𝒚𝟗 𝜹𝟑 𝒚𝟗
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙𝟓 𝒚𝟓 𝜹𝟐 𝒚𝟓
𝜹𝒚𝟏𝟏
𝟐
𝒙𝟔 𝒚𝟔

Drill Excercise # 3:-

Construct:
a): Forward difference table for:
𝒙 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0.6020 0.6 8 0.6232 0.6335 0.6434 0.6532 0.6628

b): Central difference table for:

𝒙 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0.000 0.191 0.341 0.433 0.477 0.494 0.499

c): Backward difference table for:

𝒙 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0.49136 0 0515 0.51851 0.53148 0.54407 0.55630 0.56820

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 53

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

4): Shift operator E (or Translation or Displacement):-

The shift operator E is defined by

𝑬𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝐨𝐫 𝑬𝒚(𝒙) = 𝒚(𝒙 + 𝒉) ∵ 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 = 𝒉

Similarly, higher order shift operator is defined by

⇒ 𝑬𝟐 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑬[𝑬𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝑬𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉 + 𝒉):

⇒ 𝑬𝟐 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝟐𝒉)

⇒ 𝑬𝟑 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝟑𝒉)

In general

𝑬𝒏 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒏𝒉)

We have
𝑬 𝒚𝟎 = 𝑬𝒚(𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝒚(𝒙𝟎 + 𝒉) = 𝒚(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝒚𝟏 ∵ 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒉
⇒ 𝑬 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟐 , 𝑬 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚𝟑 ,…, 𝑬 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏
⇒ 𝑬 𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟐
⇒ 𝑬 𝟒 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟒
⇒ 𝑬 𝒏 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝒏
and
𝑬 𝟐 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚𝟒 , 𝑬 𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚𝟓 and so on.
The inverse operator 𝑬 −𝟏 is defined as:

𝑬 −𝟏 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒉)

and

𝑬 −𝒏 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒏𝒉)

5): Average Operator 𝝁:-

The average operator 𝝁 is defined as

𝟏 𝒉 𝒉
𝝁𝒇(𝒙) = [𝒇 (𝒙 + ) + 𝒇 (𝒙 − )]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Similarly,

𝟏 𝒉 𝒉
𝝁𝒚(𝒙) = [𝒚 (𝒙 + ) + 𝒚 (𝒙 − )]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

6): Differential Operator 𝑫:-

The differential operator 𝑫 is defined as

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 54

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

𝒅𝒇(𝒙)
𝑫𝒇(𝒙) = = 𝒇′(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙

𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑫 𝒇(𝒙) = = 𝒇′′(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙𝟐

𝟑
𝒅𝟑 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑫 𝒇(𝒙) = = 𝒇′′′(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙𝟑

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

𝒅𝒏 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒏
𝑫 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒏
= 𝒇(𝒏) (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙

7): Unit Operator 1:-

The unit operator 𝟏 is such that

𝟏𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙)

8): Zero Operator 0:-

The zero operator 𝟎 is such that

𝟎𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎

Properties of Operators
1): Linear Property:-
The operators ∆, 𝛁, 𝜹, 𝑬, 𝝁, 𝑫, 𝟏 and 𝟎 are all linear i.e., they satisfy:

∆[𝜶𝒇(𝒙) + 𝜷𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝜶∆𝒇(𝒙) + 𝜷∆𝒈(𝒙) , 𝜶, 𝜷 ∈ 𝑹

Examples:-
Differential and integral operators are linear. Since
𝒅 𝒅𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒈(𝒙)
1): [𝜶𝒇(𝒙) + 𝜷𝒈(𝒙)] =𝜶 +𝜷
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝟐): ∫[𝜶𝒇(𝒙) + 𝜷𝒈(𝒙)] 𝒅𝒙 = 𝜶 ∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 + 𝜷 ∫ 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

2): Distributive over addition property:-

These operators satisfy distributive over addition property, that is

∆𝒎 ∆𝒏 𝒇(𝒙) = ∆𝒎+𝒏 𝒇(𝒙) = ∆𝒏+𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) = ∆𝒏 ∆𝒎 𝒇(𝒙)

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 55

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

“Relations Among the Operators ∆, 𝛁, 𝛅, 𝐄, 𝛍, 𝐃, 𝟏, 𝟎 ”

Step involve behind the derivation of standard relations:-

1): Definition 2): Conversion into 𝑬(or operators)

3): Common of 𝒇(𝒙) 4): Cancelation of 𝒇(𝒙)
We can summarize these step as 𝑫𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝑫𝑪𝟑 .

1): Relation between 𝑬 and ∆ :-

By the definition of forward difference operator, we have:

∆𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙) ∵ ∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎

⇒ ∆𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑬𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)

⇒ ∆𝒇(𝒙) = (𝑬 − 𝟏) 𝒇(𝒙)

Thus

∆= 𝑬 − 𝟏
𝑬=∆+𝟏

Here 𝟏 is unit operator.

2): Relation between 𝑬 and 𝛁:-

By the definition backward difference operator,

We have

𝜵𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒉) ∵ 𝜵𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟎 − 𝒚−𝟏

⇒ 𝜵𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑬−𝟏 𝒇(𝒙)

⇒ 𝜵𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟏 − 𝑬−𝟏 )𝒇(𝒙)

Thus,
−𝟏
𝛁 = 𝟏 − 𝑬−𝟏 ∵ (𝑫−𝟏 ) −𝟏 = ∫ =𝑫

𝑬−𝟏 = 𝟏 − 𝛁 ∵ (𝑬−𝟏 ) −𝟏 = 𝑬

𝑬 = (𝟏 − 𝛁) −𝟏

Where 𝟏 is the unit operator.

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 56

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

3): Relation between 𝑬 and 𝜹:-

By the definition of central difference operator, we have
𝒉 𝒉
𝒉 𝒉 𝒙+𝟐+𝒙−𝟐 𝟐𝒙
𝜹𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇 (𝒙 + ) − 𝒇 (𝒙 − ) ∵ = =𝒙
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
−
⇒ 𝜹𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑬𝟐 𝒇(𝒙) −𝑬 𝟐 𝒇(𝒙)

𝟏 𝟏
⇒ 𝜹𝒇(𝒙) = (𝑬𝟐 − 𝑬−𝟐 ) 𝒇(𝒙)

Thus
𝟏 𝟏
−
𝜹= 𝑬𝟐 −𝑬 𝟐

Now
𝟏 𝟏 ∵ ∆= 𝑬 − 𝟏
𝜹 = 𝑬 (𝑬 − 𝟏) = 𝑬−𝟐 ∆
−𝟐

and
𝟏
−𝟏 )
𝟏 ∵ 𝛁 = 𝟏 − 𝑬−𝟏
𝜹= 𝑬𝟐 (𝟏 −𝑬 = 𝑬𝟐 𝛁

Hence
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
−𝟐 −𝟐
𝜹= 𝑬𝟐 −𝑬 =𝑬 ∆= 𝑬𝟐 𝛁

4): Relation between 𝑬 and 𝝁:-

By the definition of average operator, we have

𝟏 𝒉 𝒉
𝝁𝒇(𝒙) = [𝒇 (𝒙 + ) + 𝒇 (𝒙 − )]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 −
𝟏
⇒ 𝝁𝒇(𝒙) = [𝑬 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝑬 𝟐 𝒇(𝒙)]
𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ 𝝁𝒇(𝒙) = [𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟐 ] 𝒇(𝒙)
𝟐

Thus
𝟏 𝟏 −
𝟏
𝝁 = [𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬 𝟐 ]
𝟐

5): Relation between 𝑫 and ∆ :-

By the definition of differential operator, we have
𝒅𝒇(𝒙)
𝑫𝒇(𝒙) = = 𝒇′(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙

𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑫 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐
= 𝒇′′ (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
and so on.

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 57

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Using Taylor’s series expression, we have

𝒉 ′ 𝒉𝟐 ′′ 𝒉𝟑
𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇 (𝒙) + 𝒇 (𝒙) + 𝒇′′′(𝒙) + ⋯
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝒉 𝒉𝟐 𝟐 𝒉𝟑 𝟑
⇒ 𝑬𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝑫𝒇(𝒙) + 𝑫 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝑫 𝒇+⋯
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝒉𝑫 (𝒉𝑫) 𝟐 (𝒉𝑫) 𝟑
⇒ 𝑬𝒇(𝒙) = [𝟏 + + + + ⋯ ] 𝒇(𝒙)
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!

𝒉𝑫 𝒙
𝒙 𝒙𝟐
⇒ 𝑬𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆 𝒇(𝒙) ∵𝒆 =𝟏+ + +⋯
𝟏! 𝟐!
Thus

𝑬 = 𝒆𝒉𝑫

𝑬 = 𝟏 + ∆= 𝒆𝒉𝑫

Again
𝒆𝒉𝑫 = 𝑬 = 𝟏 + ∆
⇒ 𝒉𝑫 = 𝒍𝒏𝑬 = 𝒍𝒏(𝟏 + ∆)
Now consider,

𝒉𝑫 = 𝒍𝒏(𝟏 + ∆)

𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒
Since 𝒍𝒏(𝟏 + 𝒙) = 𝒙 − + − +⋯
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

∆𝟐 ∆𝟑 ∆𝟒
⇒ 𝒉𝑫 = ∆ − + − +⋯
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

𝟏 ∆𝟐 ∆𝟑 ∆𝟒
⇒ 𝑫 = [∆ − + − + ⋯]
𝒉 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

Some Rules for Creating New Relations Using Standard Relations:-

There are no hard and fast rule for creating new relations among the operators using
standard relations. But remember the some previous rules which have used many times:

1): From LHS prove the RHS. 2): From RHS prove the LHS.
3): Find values of LHS and RHS separately and then both must be equal.
4): Sometime for proving the required results, we use the rules that we Replace
the Unrequired variables into Required variables.

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 58

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Example# 4:-

Prove that:

𝒉𝑫 = − 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝛁) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉−𝟏 (𝝁𝜹)

Proof:
We know that:
𝒉𝑫 = 𝒍𝒏𝑬 = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝛁)−𝟏 = − 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝛁) ∵ 𝑬 = (𝟏 − 𝛁)−𝟏
Hence

𝒉𝑫 = − 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝛁)

Now
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 − − 𝟏
𝝁𝜹 = [𝑬 + 𝑬 ] [𝑬 − 𝑬 ] = [𝑬 − 𝑬−𝟏 ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝒉𝑫
⇒ 𝝁𝜹 = (𝒆 − 𝒆−𝒉𝑫 ) ∵ 𝑬 = 𝒆𝒉𝑫
𝟐
𝒆𝒛 − 𝒆−𝒛 𝒆𝒛 + 𝒆−𝒛 𝒆𝒛 − 𝒆−𝒛
⇒ 𝝁𝜹 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉(𝒉𝑫) ∵ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛 = , 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒛 = , 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝒛 = 𝒛
𝟐 𝟐 𝒆 + 𝒆−𝒛
⇒ 𝒉𝑫 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉−𝟏 (𝝁𝜹)

Hence

𝒉𝑫 = − 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝛁) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒉−𝟏 (𝝁𝜹)

Example # 5:-
Show that the operators 𝝁 and 𝑬 are Commutative.
Proof:-
By the definition of operators 𝝁 and 𝑬, we have
𝟏
𝝁𝑬𝒚𝟎 = 𝝁𝒚𝟏 = [𝒚𝟑/𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏/𝟐 ] (1)
𝟐

𝟏 𝒉 𝒉
∵ 𝝁𝒇(𝒙) = [𝒇 (𝒙 + ) + 𝒇 (𝒙 − ) ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

While
𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝝁𝒚𝟎 = 𝑬 [𝒚𝟏/𝟐 + 𝒚−𝟏/𝟐 ] = [𝒚𝟑/𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏/𝟐 ] (2)
𝟐 𝟐

Equating (1) and (2) , we have

𝝁𝑬𝒚𝟎 = 𝑬𝝁𝒚𝟎

Thus

𝝁𝑬 = 𝑬𝝁
Therefore, the operators 𝝁 and 𝑬 are commutative.
Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 59
Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Example # 6:-
Prove that:
𝟏
𝜹 ∆ ∆𝑬−𝟏 ∆+𝜵
𝟏): 𝑬 = 𝝁 +
𝟐 𝟐): 𝝁𝜹 = + 𝟑): 𝝁𝜹 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐
𝟒): 𝟏 + 𝝁 𝜹 = (𝟏 + ) 𝟓): ∆= + 𝜹√𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒

Proof (1):-
By definition of operators, we have
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝜹 𝟏 − 𝟏 − 𝟏 − −
𝝁+ = (𝑬 + 𝑬 ) + (𝑬 − 𝑬 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 ∴ 𝝁 = (𝑬 + 𝑬 ) , 𝜹 = 𝑬 − 𝑬
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝜹 𝟏
⇒𝝁+ = 𝑬𝟐
𝟐

Proof (2):-

We have
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 − − 𝟏
𝝁𝜹 = (𝑬 + 𝑬 ) (𝑬 − 𝑬 )= [𝑬 − 𝑬−𝟏 ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 ∴𝑬=𝟏+∆
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 ∆ 𝟏 𝟏
𝝁𝜹 = (𝟏 + ∆ − 𝑬−𝟏 ) = + [𝟏 − ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝑬

∆ 𝟏 𝑬 − 𝟏 ∆ ∆𝑬−𝟏
𝝁𝜹 = + = +
𝟐 𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝟐

Proof (3):-
We have
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏
𝝁𝜹 = (𝑬 + 𝑬 ) (𝑬 − 𝑬 )= [𝑬 − 𝑬−𝟏 ]
𝟐 𝟐 ∴ 𝑬 = 𝟏 + ∆ , 𝑬−𝟏 = 𝟏 − 𝛁
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
⇒ 𝝁𝜹 = (𝟏 + ∆ − 𝟏 + 𝛁) = (∆ + 𝛁)
𝟐 𝟐

Proof 4):-
By the definition of operators, we have
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 ] 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟐
𝝁𝜹 = [𝑬 + 𝑬 ] [𝑬 − 𝑬 ] = [𝑬 − 𝑬
𝟐 𝟐 ∴ 𝝁 = (𝑬 + 𝑬 ) , 𝜹 = 𝑬 − 𝑬
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Therefore
𝟏 𝟏
1+( 𝝁𝜹) 𝟐 = 𝟏 + (𝑬 − 𝑬−𝟏 ) 𝟐 =1 + (𝑬𝟐 − 𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟐 )
𝟒 𝟒

𝟒 + 𝑬𝟐 − 𝟐 + 𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟐 + 𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
⇒ 𝟏+𝝁 𝜹 = =
𝟒 𝟒
Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 60
Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

𝟏
⇒ 𝟏 + 𝝁𝟐 𝜹𝟐 = (𝑬 + 𝑬−𝟏 ) 𝟐 (1)
𝟒

Now, consider

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝜹𝟐 𝟏 − 𝟐+𝑬−𝟐+𝑬−𝟏
1+ = 𝟏 + 𝟐 (𝑬 − 𝑬 ) = 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝜹𝟐 𝟏
𝟏+ = (𝑬 + 𝑬−𝟏 )
𝟐 𝟐

𝟐
𝜹𝟐 𝟏
(𝟏 + ) = (𝑬 + 𝑬−𝟏 )𝟐 (2)
𝟐 𝟒

Equating (1) and (2) , we get

𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝜹𝟐
𝟏 + 𝝁 𝜹 = (𝟏 + )
𝟐

Proof (5):-

By definition of operator, we have

𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐
√
+𝜹 𝟏+
𝟐 𝟒

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
− −
(𝑬𝟐 −𝑬 𝟐)
𝟏 𝟏 √ (𝑬𝟐 −𝑬 𝟐)
−
= + (𝑬𝟐 −𝑬 𝟐) + 𝟏+
𝟐 𝟒

𝑬 − 𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟏 𝟏
−
𝟏 𝟒 + 𝑬 − 𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟏
= + (𝑬𝟐 − 𝑬 𝟐 ) √
𝟐 𝟒

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
−
𝑬 − 𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟏 (𝑬𝟐 +𝑬 𝟐)
−𝟐 √
𝟏 𝟏
= + (𝑬 − 𝑬 )
𝟐
𝟐 𝟒

𝑬 − 𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −
𝟏 𝟏
−
𝟏
= + (𝑬 − 𝑬 ) (𝑬 + 𝑬 𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝑬 − 𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟏 + 𝑬 − 𝑬−𝟏
=
𝟐

=𝑬−𝟏=∆

Hence

𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐
+ 𝜹√𝟏 + =∆
𝟐 𝟒

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 61

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Drill Excercise # 4:-

Prove that:
𝟏 𝟏 𝜹𝟐
𝐚): ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = 𝛁𝟑 𝒚𝟓 𝐛): ∆= 𝝁𝜹 + 𝜹𝟐 𝐜): 𝛁 = − 𝜹𝟐 + 𝜹√𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝟏 −𝟏
∆ 𝜵
𝐝): 𝜹 = ∆(𝟏 + ∆) −𝟐 = 𝛁(𝟏 − 𝛁) 𝟐 𝐞): ∆+𝛁 = − 𝐟): ∆𝟐 = (𝟏 + ∆) 𝜹𝟐
𝜵 ∆
𝟏
𝐠): 𝛁 = 𝜹𝑬−𝟐 𝐡): 𝛁 = 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒉𝑫

Drill Excercise # 5:-

Prove that:
𝟐+∆ 𝟏 𝒉𝑫
𝐚): 𝝁 = = √𝟏 + 𝜹𝟐 𝐛): 𝜹 = 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 ( )
𝟐√𝟏+∆ 𝟒 𝟐

Example # 7:-
Find: 𝐚): ∆ 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 𝐛): ∆𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙
Proof (a):-
By definition of forward operator, we have

∆ 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 ∵ ∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎

𝒙+𝒉 𝒉
⇒ ∆ 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝟏 + ]
𝒙 𝒙

Proof (b):-
By definition of forward operator, we have

∆𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙

𝑨±𝑩
Since 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑨 ± 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑩 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 [ ]
𝟏∓𝑨𝑩

𝒙+𝒉−𝒙
⇒ ∆ 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 [ ]
𝟏 + (𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝒙

𝒉
⇒ ∆ 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 [ ]
𝟏 + 𝒉𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐

Example # 8:-
Evaluate (taking 1 as the interval of differencing i.e. 𝒉 = 𝟏):
𝟓𝒙+𝟏𝟐 𝟏
𝐚): ∆ [ ] 𝐛): ∆𝒏 [ ]
𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙+𝟔 𝒙

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 62

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Solution (a):-

By the definition of forward operator, we have

𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟑) + 𝟑(𝒙 + 𝟐)
∆[ 𝟐 ] = ∆[ ]
𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 (𝒙 + 𝟑) (𝒙 + 𝟐)

𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ∆[ ] = ∆ [ + ]
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 𝒙+𝟐 𝒙+𝟑
𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ∆[ ] = ∆ [ ] + ∆ [ ]
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 𝒙+𝟐 𝒙+𝟑
𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
⇒ ∆[ ] = [ − ] + [ − ]
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 𝒙+𝟏+𝟐 𝒙+𝟐 𝒙+𝟏+𝟑 𝒙+𝟑

Since interval of differencing is 𝟏 mean’s 𝒉 = 𝟏.

𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 −𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ∆[ 𝟐 ]=[ − ]
𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 (𝒙 + 𝟐) (𝒙 + 𝟑) (𝒙 + 𝟑) (𝒙 + 𝟒)

Solution (b):-
By the definition of forward operator, we have
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝒙−𝟏 −𝟏 (−𝟏)𝟏 𝟏!
∆[ ] = − = = =
𝒙 𝒙+𝟏 𝒙 𝒙(𝒙+𝟏) 𝒙(𝒙+𝟏) 𝒙(𝒙+𝟏)

Then
𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
∆𝟐 [ ] = −
𝒙 (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟏 + 𝟏) 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏)

𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
∆𝟐 [ ] = + =
𝒙 (𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐) 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏) 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐)

𝟐
𝟏 (−𝟏) 𝟐 𝟐!
∆ [ ]=
𝒙 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐)

Similarly, we can get

𝟏𝒏
(−𝟏) 𝒏 . 𝒏!
∆ [ ]=
𝒙 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐) … (𝒙 + 𝒏)

Example # 9:-
Evaluate:
∆𝟐 𝟑
( )𝒙
𝑬
Solution:-

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 63

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Let 𝒉 be the interval of differencing, then

∆𝟐 𝟑
( ) 𝒙 = (∆𝟐 𝑬−𝟏 ) 𝒙𝟑
𝑬

∆𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ( ) 𝒙 = (𝑬 − 𝟏) 𝟐 𝑬−𝟏 𝒙𝟑
𝑬

∆𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ( ) 𝒙 = (𝑬𝟐 − 𝟐𝑬 + 𝟏) 𝑬−𝟏 𝒙𝟑
𝑬

∆𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ( ) 𝒙 = (𝑬 − 𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟏 )𝒙𝟑
𝑬

∆𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ( ) 𝒙 = 𝑬𝒙𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝑬−𝟏 𝒙𝟑
𝑬

∆𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ( ) 𝒙 = (𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + (𝒙 − 𝒉) 𝟑
𝑬

∆𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ( ) 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒉𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒉 + 𝟑𝒙𝒉𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒉𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒉 + 𝟑𝒙𝒉𝟐
𝑬

∆𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ( ) 𝒙 = 𝟔𝒙𝒉𝟐
𝑬

Note:-
If 𝒉 = 𝟏, then

∆𝟐 𝟑
⇒ ( ) 𝒙 = 𝟔𝒙
𝑬

Example # 10:-
Prove that: 𝒇(𝟒) = 𝒇(𝟑) + ∆𝒇(𝟐) + ∆𝟐 𝒇(𝟏) + ∆𝟑 𝒇(𝟏)
Proof:-
By the definition of forward operator, we have

𝒇(𝟒) − 𝒇(𝟑) = ∆𝒇(𝟑) ∵ ∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎

⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) = 𝒇(𝟑) + ∆[𝒇(𝟑)] ∵ 𝒇(𝟑) = 𝒇(𝟐) + ∆𝒇(𝟐)

⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) = 𝒇(𝟑) + ∆[𝒇(𝟐) + ∆𝒇(𝟐)]

⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) = 𝒇(𝟑) + ∆𝒇(𝟐) + ∆𝟐 𝒇(𝟐) ∵ 𝒇(𝟐) = 𝒇(𝟏) + ∆𝒇(𝟏)

⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) = 𝒇(𝟑) + ∆𝒇(𝟐) + ∆𝟐 [𝒇(𝟏) + ∆𝒇(𝟏)]

⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) = 𝒇(𝟑) + ∆𝒇(𝟐) + ∆𝟐 𝒇(𝟏) + ∆𝟑 𝒇(𝟏)

Hence
Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 64
Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

𝒇(𝟒) = 𝒇(𝟑) + ∆𝒇(𝟐) + ∆𝟐 𝒇(𝟏) + ∆𝟑 𝒇(𝟏)

Example # 11:-

Given 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟏, 𝝁𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝝁𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏, 𝝁𝟑 = 𝟐𝟖 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝝁𝟒 = 𝟐𝟗. Find ∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎.

Solution:-

We have
∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 = (𝑬 − 𝟏) 𝟒 𝝁𝟎 ∵ ∆= 𝑬 − 𝟏

𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
⇒ ∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 = [𝑬𝟒 − ( ) 𝑬𝟑 + ( ) 𝑬𝟐 − ( ) 𝑬 + 𝟏] 𝝁𝟎
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

⇒ ∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 = [𝑬𝟒 − 𝟒𝑬𝟑 + 𝟔𝑬𝟐 − 𝟒𝑬 + 𝟏]𝝁𝟎

⇒ ∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 = 𝑬𝟒 𝝁𝟎 − 𝟒𝑬𝟑 𝝁𝟎 + 𝟔𝑬𝟐 𝝁𝟎 − 𝟒𝑬𝝁𝟎 + 𝝁𝟎

⇒ ∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 = 𝝁𝟒 − 𝟒𝝁𝟑 + 𝟔𝝁𝟐 − 𝟒𝝁𝟏 +𝝁𝟎

⇒ ∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟐𝟗 − 𝟏𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝟔 − 𝟒𝟒 + 𝟏

⇒ ∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟎

Example # 12:-

Given 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟑, 𝝁𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝝁𝟐 = 𝟖𝟏, 𝝁𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝝁𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝝁𝟓 = 𝟖. Find ∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 .

Solution:-

We have

∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 = (𝑬 − 𝟏) 𝟓 𝝁𝟎

𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
⇒ ∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 = [𝑬𝟓 − ( ) 𝑬𝟒 + ( ) 𝑬𝟑 − ( ) 𝑬𝟐 + ( ) 𝑬 − 𝟏] 𝝁𝟎
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

⇒ ∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 = [𝑬𝟓 − 𝟓𝑬𝟒 + 𝟏𝟎𝑬𝟑 − 𝟏𝟎𝑬𝟐 + 𝟓𝑬 − 𝟏]𝝁𝟎

⇒ ∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 = 𝑬𝟓 𝝁𝟎 − 𝟓𝑬𝟒 𝝁𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝑬𝟑 𝝁𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝑬𝟐 𝝁𝟎 + 𝟓𝑬𝝁𝟎 − 𝝁𝟎

⇒ ∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 = 𝝁𝟓 − 𝟓𝝁𝟒 + 𝟏𝟎𝝁𝟑 − 𝟏𝟎𝝁𝟐 + 𝟓𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟎

Substituting values, we get

⇒ ∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟖 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟖𝟏𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 − 𝟑 = 𝟕𝟓𝟓

Hence

∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟕𝟓𝟓

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 65

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Example # 13:-
Prove that:
𝐚): ∆[𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) ] = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉)∆𝒈(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) ∆𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙)∆𝒇(𝒙) − ∆𝒇(𝒙) ∆𝒈(𝒙)
𝐛): ∆ [ ]=
𝒈(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒈(𝒙)
Proof (a):-
By the definition of forward operator, we have

∆[𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙)

⇒ ∆[𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙)] = [𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝒈(𝒙) ] + [𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒈(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙) ]

⇒ ∆[𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉)[𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒈(𝒙) ] + 𝒈(𝒙) [𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙) ]

Hence

⇒ ∆[𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) ] = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) ∆𝒈(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) ∆𝒇(𝒙)

Proof (b):-

By the definition of forward operator, we have

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝒇(𝒙)

∆[ ]= −
𝒈(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝒈(𝒙)

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒈(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒇(𝒙)

⇒ ∆[ ]=
𝒈(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝒈(𝒙)

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒈(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) + 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒇(𝒙)

⇒ ∆[ ]=
𝒈(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝒈(𝒙)

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙)[𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙)] − 𝒇(𝒙)[𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒈(𝒙) ]

⇒ ∆[ ]=
𝒈(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝒈(𝒙)

Hence

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙)∆𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙) ∆𝒈(𝒙)

∆[ ]=
𝒈(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉)𝒈(𝒙)

Drill Excercise # 6:-

Taking 1 as the interval of differencing, Prove that:
∆𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝟔
=
𝑬𝒙𝟑 (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 66

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

EXCERCISE -2
Question # 1:-
Construct:
a): Forward difference table for:

𝒙 0 2 4 6 8
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 40 51.68 67.04 86.56 110.72

b): Backward difference table for:

𝒙 10 20 30 40 50
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 1 1.3010 1.4771 1.6021 1.6990

Question # 2:-
Construct:
a): Forward Difference table for:

𝒙 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 1.6596 1.6698 1.6804 1.6912 1.7024 1.7139

b): Central difference table for:

𝒙 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0 7 26 63 124 342 511

c): Backward difference table for:

𝒙 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 2.74560 2.82922 2.97427 3.18993 3.49034

Question # 3:- ASSIGNMENT

Construct:
a): Forward difference table for:

𝒙 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0.6020 0.6128 0.6232 0.6335 0.6434 0.6532 0.6628

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 67

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

b): Central difference table for:

𝒙 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0.000 0.191 0.341 0.433 0.477 0.494 0.499

c): Backward difference table for:

𝒙 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0.49136 0.50515 0.51851 0.53148 0.54407 0.55630 0.56820

Question # 4:-
Express ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 and ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 in terms of the values of the function 𝒚.
Answer:-
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟎
∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟑𝒚𝟐 + 𝟑𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎

Question # 5:-
Express ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏 and ∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎 in terms of the values of the function 𝒚.

Answer:-
∆𝟐 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟏
∆𝟒 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟒 − 𝟒𝒚𝟑 + 𝟔𝒚𝟐 − 𝟒𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟎
Question # 6:-
Prove that:
𝟏 𝟏
−𝟐
a): 𝜹 = 𝑬 ∆= 𝑬 𝛁 𝟐 𝐛): 𝑬 = 𝟏 + ∆= 𝒆𝒉𝑫 𝐜): 𝒉𝑫 = − 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝛁) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡−𝟏 (𝝁𝜹)

Question # 7:-
Show that the operator 𝝁 and 𝑬 Commute.

Question # 8:- ASSIGNMENT

Prove that:
𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹 𝜹𝟐 𝜹 𝟐
a): 1+𝜹 𝝁 = (𝟏 + ) 𝐛): 𝑬𝟐 = 𝝁 + 𝐜): ∆= + 𝜹√𝟏 + = 𝑬 𝛁
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
∆𝑬−𝟏 ∆ ∆+𝜵
𝐝): 𝝁𝜹 = + 𝐞): 𝝁𝜹 = 𝒇): (𝟏 + ∆)(𝟏 − 𝛁) = 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝒈): 𝛁∆= ∆ − 𝛁 = 𝜹𝟐

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 68

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Question # 9:-
Prove that:
𝟏 𝟏 𝜹𝟐
𝐚): ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟐 = 𝛁𝟑 𝒚𝟓 𝐛): ∆= 𝝁𝜹 + 𝜹𝟐 𝐜): 𝛁 = − 𝜹𝟐 + 𝜹√𝟏 +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝟏 −𝟏
−𝟐 ∆ 𝜵
𝐝): 𝜹 = ∆(𝟏 + ∆) = 𝛁(𝟏 − 𝛁) 𝟐 𝐞): ∆+𝛁 = − 𝐟): ∆𝟐 = (𝟏 + ∆) 𝜹𝟐
𝜵 ∆
𝟏
𝐠): 𝛁 = 𝜹𝑬−𝟐 𝐡): 𝛁 = 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒉𝑫

Question # 10:-
Prove that:
𝒏
𝐚): 𝛁 = 𝟏 − (𝟏 + ∆) −𝟏 𝐛): ∆𝒏 = 𝜹𝒏 𝑬𝟐
∆𝟐
𝐜): = 𝑬−𝟐 − 𝟐𝑬−𝟏 + 𝟏 𝐝): ∆𝟐 = (𝟏 + ∆) 𝜹𝟐
𝑬𝟐

Question # 11:-
Evaluate:
𝐚): ∆[𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)] 𝐛): ∆[𝐜𝐨𝐭(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)]
𝐜): ∆[𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒂𝒙] 𝐝): ∆𝒏 [𝒂𝒃𝒙+𝒄 ]
Answer:-
𝒂𝒉 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒉
𝐚): 𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝟏 + ) 𝒃):
𝒂𝒙+𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒂𝒙+𝒃) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒂𝒙+𝒃+𝒂𝒉)
𝒂𝒉 𝒏
𝐜): 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝟐) 𝐝): (𝒂𝒃𝒙 − 𝟏) 𝒂𝒃𝒙+𝒄
𝟏+𝒂𝟐 𝒉𝒙+𝒂𝟐 𝒙

Question # 12:-
Prove that:
𝐚): ∆[𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) ∆𝒈(𝒙) + 𝒈(𝒙) ∆𝒇(𝒙)

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙)∆𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙)∆𝒈(𝒙)

𝐛): ∆ [ ]=
𝒈(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙 + 𝒉)

𝟏 ∆𝒇(𝒙)
𝐜): ∆ [ ]=−
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙)𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉)

𝒙−𝟏 𝟏
𝐝): ∆ 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) , taking 𝒉 = 𝟏
𝒙 𝟐𝒙𝟐

Question # 13:- ASSIGNMENT

Prove that:
𝟐+∆ 𝟏 𝒉𝑫
𝐚): 𝝁 = = √𝟏 + 𝜹𝟐 𝐛): 𝜹 = 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 ( )
𝟐√𝟏+∆ 𝟒 𝟐

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 69

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Question # 14:-
Evaluate (Taking 1 as the interval of differencing):
𝟓𝒙+𝟏𝟐 𝟏
a): ∆ [ ] 𝐛): ∆𝒏 [ ]
𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙+𝟔 𝒙

Answer:-
𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐 −𝟐 𝟑
𝐚): ∆ [ 𝟐 ]= −
𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 (𝒙 + 𝟐) (𝒙 + 𝟑) (𝒙 + 𝟑) (𝒙 + 𝟒)

𝒏
𝟏 (−𝟏) 𝒏 𝒏!
𝐛): ∆ [ ] =
𝒙 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏)(𝒙 + 𝟐) … (𝒙 + 𝒏)

Question # 15:-
∆𝟐
Evaluate: ( ) 𝒙𝟑 .
𝑬

Answer:-
∆𝟐 𝟑
( ) 𝒙 = 𝟔𝒙𝒉𝟐
𝑬
Question # 16:-
Prove that: 𝒇(𝟒) = 𝒇(𝟑) + ∆𝒇(𝟐) + ∆𝟐 𝒇(𝟏) + ∆𝟑 𝒇(𝟏)

Question # 17:-
Given 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟏, 𝝁𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝝁𝟐 = 𝟐𝟏, 𝝁𝟑 = 𝟐𝟖 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝁𝟒 = 𝟐𝟗. Find ∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 .
Answer:-
∆𝟒 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟎

ASSIGNMENT
Question # 18:-
Given 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟑, 𝝁𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝝁𝟐 = 𝟖𝟏, 𝝁𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝝁𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝁𝟓 = 𝟖. Find ∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 .
Answer:-
∆𝟓 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟕𝟓𝟓
Question # 19:-
Taking 1 as the interval of differencing, Prove that:
∆𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝟔
=
𝑬𝒙𝟑 (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐

Question # 20:-
Given: 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝟖 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟒𝟑, 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟕 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓𝟒𝟎, 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟔 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟐𝟑, and 𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟔.
Show that 𝒚𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟓𝟕.

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 70

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER

Difference Operators:-

1): Forward difference Operator ∆:-

∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎 = Increase-Copy

2): Backward difference operator 𝛁:-

𝜵𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎 = Copy-Decrease

3): Central Difference operator 𝜹:-

𝜹 𝒚𝟏/𝟐 = 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟎

4): Shift operator E (or Translation or Displacement):-

𝑬𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) 𝐨𝐫 𝑬𝒚(𝒙) = 𝒚(𝒙 + 𝒉) ∵ 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 = 𝒉

5): Average Operator 𝝁:-

𝟏 𝒉 𝒉
𝝁𝒇(𝒙) = [𝒇 (𝒙 + ) + 𝒇 (𝒙 − )]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

6): Differential Operator 𝑫:-

𝒅𝒇(𝒙)
𝑫𝒇(𝒙) = = 𝒇′(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙

7): Unit Operator 1:-

𝟏𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙)

8): Zero Operator 0:-

𝟎𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎

Properties of Operators:-
1): Linear Property
2): Distributive over addition property

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 71

Advanced Mathematical Techniques Chapter # 2 Difference Operators

Relation among the operators

∆= 𝑬 − 𝟏 𝑬=∆+𝟏

𝛁 = 𝟏 − 𝑬−𝟏 𝑬−𝟏 = 𝟏 − 𝛁

𝑬 = (𝟏 − 𝛁) −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝜹 = 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑬−𝟐 = 𝑬−𝟐 ∆= 𝑬𝟐 𝛁

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬 = 𝒆𝒉𝑫
𝝁= [𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬−𝟐 ]
𝟐

𝑬 = 𝟏 + ∆= 𝒆𝒉𝑫 𝟏 ∆𝟐 ∆𝟑 ∆𝟒
𝑫 = [∆ − + − + ⋯]
𝒉 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

Dr. Jamil Book Series 2 Page 72