3-22-2018

The First Isomorphism Theorem

The First Isomorphism Theorem helps identify quotient groups as “known” or “familiar” groups.
I’ll begin by proving a useful lemma.

Proposition. Let φ : G → H be a group map. φ is injective if and only if ker φ = {1}.

Proof. (→) Suppose φ is injective. Since φ(1) = 1, {1} ⊂ ker φ. Conversely, let g ∈ ker φ, so φ(g) = 1.
Then φ(g) = 1 = φ(1), so by injectivity g = 1. Therefore, ker φ ⊂ {1}, so ker φ = {1}.

(→) Suppose ker φ = {1}. I want to show that φ is injective. Suppose φ(a) = φ(b). I want to show that
a = b.
φ(a) = φ(b)
φ(a)φ(b)−1 = φ(b)φ(b)−1
φ(a)φ(b−1 ) = 1
φ(ab−1 ) = 1
Hence, ab−1 ∈ ker φ = {1}, so ab−1 = 1, and a = b. Therefore, φ is injective.

Example. (Proving that a group map is injective) Define f : R2 → R2 by

f (x, y) = (3x + 2y, x + y).

Prove that f is injective.

As usual, R2 is a group under vector addition. I can write f in the form

    
x 3 2 x
f = .
y 1 1 y

Since f has been represented as multiplication by a constant matrix, it is a linear transformation, so

it’s a group map.
To show f is injective, I’ll show that the kernel of f consists of only the identity: ker f = {(0, 0)}.
Suppose (x, y) ∈ ker f . Then     
3 2 x 0
= .
1 1 y 0
 
3 2
Since det = 1 6= 0, I know by linear algebra that the matrix equation has only the trivial
1 1
solution: (x, y) = (0, 0). This proves that if (x, y) ∈ ker f , then (x, y) = (0, 0), so ker f ⊂ {(0, 0)}. Since
(0, 0) ∈ ker f , it follows that ker f = {(0, 0)}.
Hence, f is injective.

Theorem. (The First Isomorphism Theorem) Let φ : G → H be a group map, and let π : G → G/ ker φ
be the quotient map. There is an isomorphism φ̃ : G/ ker φ → im φ such that the following diagram commutes:

G

ցφ

πy

G/ ker φ −→ im φ
φ̃

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Proof. Since φ maps G onto im φ and ker φ ⊂ ker φ, the universal property of the quotient yields a map
φ̃ : G/ ker φ → im φ such that the diagram above commutes. Since φ is surjective, so is φ̃; in fact, if
φ(g) ∈ im φ, by commutativity
φ̃(π(g)) = φ(g).
It remains to show that φ̃ is injective.
By the previous lemma, it suffices to show that ker φ̃ = {1}. Since φ̃ maps out of G/ ker φ, the “1”
here is the identity element of the group G/ ker φ, which is the subgroup ker φ. So I need to show that
ker φ̃ = {ker φ}.
However, this follows immediately from commutativity of the diagram. For g ker φ ∈ ker φ̃ if and only if
φ̃(g ker φ) = 1. This is equivalent to φ̃(π(g)) = 1, or φ(g) = 1, or g ∈ ker φ — i.e. ker φ̃ = {ker φ}.

Example. (Using the First Isomorphism Theorem to show two groups are isomorphic) Use the
First Isomorphism Theorem to prove that

R∗
≈ R+ .
{1, −1}

R∗ is the group of nonzero real numbers under multiplication. R+ is the group of positive real numbers
under multiplication. {1, −1} is the group consisting of 1 and −1 under multiplication (it’s isomorphic to
Z2 ).
I’ll define a group map from R∗ onto R+ whose kernel is {1, −1}.
Define φ : R∗ → R+ by
φ(x) = |x|.
φ is a group map:
φ(xy) = |xy| = |x||y| = φ(x)φ(y).
If z ∈ R+ is a positive real number, then

φ(z) = |z| = z.

Therefore, φ is surjective: im φ = R+ .
Finally, φ clearly sends 1 and −1 to the identity 1 ∈ R+ , and those are the only two elements of R∗
which map to 1. Therefore, ker φ = {1, −1}.
By the First Isomorphism Theorem,

R∗ R∗
= ≈ im φ = R+ .
{1, −1} ker φ

R∗
Note that I didn’t construct a map → R+ explicitly; the First Isomorphism Theorem constructs
{1, −1}
the isomorphism for me.

Example. R2 is a group under componentwise addition and R is a group under addition. Let
n √ o
H = x · ( 5, −π) x ∈ R .

R2
Prove that ≈ R.
H

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 Define f : R2 → R by √
f (x, y) = πx + 5y.
Note that
√
   
x x
f = [π 5] .
y y
Since f can be expressed as multiplication by a constant matrix, it’s a linear transformation, and hence
a group map.√
Let x · ( 5, −π) ∈ H. Then
√ √ √ √
f [x · ( 5, −π)] = f ( 5x, −πx) = π( 5x) + 5(−πx) = 0.
√
Therefore, x · ( 5, −π) ∈ ker f , and hence H ⊂ ker f .
Let (x, y) ∈ ker f . Then
f (x, y) = 0
√
πx + 5y = 0
√
5y = −πx
π
y = −√ x
5
Hence,
√
 
π 1
(x, y) = x, − √ x = √ x · ( 5, −π) ∈ H.
5 5
Therefore, ker f ⊂ H. Hence, ker f = H.
Let z ∈ R. Note that
√
 
1 1
f z, 0 = π · z + 5 · 0 = z.
π π
Hence, im f = R.
Thus,
R2 R2
= ≈ im f = R.
H ker f

Example. Z × Z is a group under componentwise addition and Z is a group under addition. Prove that

Z×Z
≈ Z.
h(12, 17)i

Define f : Z × Z → Z by
f (x, y) = 17x − 12y.
f can be represented by matrix multiplication:
   
x x
= [ 17 −12 ] .
y y

Hence, it’s a group map.

Let n(12, 17) = (12n, 17n) ∈ h(12, 17)i. Then

f ((12n, 17n) = 17(12n) − 12(17n) = 0.

Thus, h(12, 17)i ⊂ ker f .

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 Let (x, y) ∈ ker f . Then
f (x, y) = 0
17x − 12y = 0
17x = 12y
Now 17 | 12y but (12, 17) = 1. By Euclid’s lemma, 17 | y. Say y = 17n. Then

17x = 12(17n), so x = 12n.

Therefore,
(x, y) = (12n, 17n) = n(12, 17) ∈ h(12, 17)i.
Thus, ker f ⊂ h(12, 17)i.
Hence, h(12, 17)i = ker f .
Let z ∈ Z. Note that
1 = (17, −12) = 5 · 17 + 7 · (−12).
Multiplying by z, I get
z = 17(5z) − 12(7z).
Then
f (5z, 7z) = 17(5z) − 12(7z) = z.
This proves that im f = Z.
Hence,
Z×Z Z×Z
= ≈ im f = Z.
h(12, 17)i ker f

Example. R × R × R is a group under componentwise addition. Consider the subgroup

n o
H = x · (1, 2, 3) x ∈ R .

R×R×R
Prove that ≈ R × R.
H
(R × R is a group under componentwise addition.)

Define f : R × R × R → R × R by

f (x, y, z) = (y − 2x, z − 3x).

Note that     
x   x
−2 1 0  
f   y   = y .
−3 0 1
z z
Since f is defined by matrix multiplication, it is a linear transformation. Hence, it’s a group map.
Let x · (1, 2, 3) = (x, 2x, 3x) ∈ H. Then

f (x, 2x, 3x) = (2x − 2x, 3x − 3x) = (0, 0).

Hence, (x, 2x, 3x) ∈ ker f , and H ⊂ ker f .

Let (x, y, z) ∈ ker f . Then
f (x, y, z) = (0, 0)
(y − 2x, z − 3x) = (0, 0)

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 Equating the first components, I have y − 2x = 0, so y = 2x. Equating the second components, I have
z − 3x = 0, so z = 3x. Thus,
(x, y, z) = (x, 2x, 3x) ∈ H.
Therefore, ker f ⊂ H, and so H = ker f .
Let (a, b) ∈ R × R. Then
f (0, a, b) = (a − 2 · 0, b − 3 · 0) = (a, b).
Hence, im f = R × R.
Thus,
R×R×R R×R×R
= ≈ im f = R × R.
H ker f
The first equality follows from H = ker f . The isomorphism follows from the First Isomorphism Theo-
rem. The second equality follows from im f = R × R.

Proposition. If φ : G → H is a surjective group map and K ⊳ G, then φ(K) ⊳ H.

Proof. 1 ∈ K, so 1 = φ(1) ∈ φ(K), and φ(K) 6= ∅.

Let a, b ∈ K, so φ(a), φ(b) ∈ φ(K). Then

φ(a)φ(b)−1 = φ(a)φ(b−1 ) = φ(ab−1 ) ∈ φ(K), since ab−1 ∈ K.

Therefore, φ(K) is a subgroup.

(Notice that this does not use the fact that K is normal. Hence, I’ve actually proved that the image of
a subgroup is a subgroup.)
Now let h ∈ H, a ∈ K, so φ(a) ∈ φ(K). I want to show that hφ(a)h−1 ∈ φ(K). Since φ is surjective,
h = φ(g) for some g ∈ G. Then


hφ(a)h−1 = φ(g)φ(a)φ(g)−1 = φ gag −1 .


But gag −1 ∈ K because K is normal. Hence, φ gag −1 ∈ φ(K). It follows that φ(K) is a normal
subgroup of H.

Theorem. (The Second Isomorphism Theorem) Let K, H ⊳ G, K < H. Then

G
K ≈ G.
H H
K

G G
Proof. I’ll use the First Isomorphism Theorem. To do this, I need to define a group map → .
K H
To define this group map, I’ll use the Universal Property of the Quotient.
G
The quotient map π : G → is a group map. By the lemma preceding the Universal Property of the
H
Quotient, H = ker π. Since K ⊂ H, it follows that K ⊂ ker π.
G
Since π : G → is a group map and K ⊂ ker π, the Universal Property of the Quotient implies that
H
G G
there is a group map π̃ : → given by
K H

π̃(gK) = gH.

G
If gH ∈ , then π̃(gK) = gH. Therefore, π̃ is surjective.
H

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 H
I claim that ker π̃ = .
K
H G
First, if hK ∈ (so h ∈ H), then π̃(hK) = hH = H. Since H is the identity in , it follows that
K H
hK ∈ ker π̃.
Conversely, suppose gK ∈ ker π̃, so

π̃(gK) = H, or gH = H.

H
The last equation implies that g ∈ H, so gK ∈ .
K
H
Thus, ker π̃ = .
K
By the First Isomorphism Theorem,

G G
K = K ≈ im π̃ = G .
H ker π̃ H
K

There is also a Third Isomorphism Theorem (sometimes called the Modular Isomorphism, or
the Noether Isomorphism). It asserts that if H < G and K ⊳ G, then

H HK
≈ .
H ∩K K
You can prove it using the First Isomorphism Theorem, in a manner similar to that used in the proof
of the Second Isomorphism Theorem.

c 2018 by Bruce Ikenaga 6