Earth

Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only
Earth
astronomical object known to harbor life.[23] This is
enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in
the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water.
Almost all of Earth's water is contained in its global
ocean, covering 70.8% of Earth's crust. The remaining
29.2% of Earth's crust is land, most of which is located
in the form of continental landmasses within Earth's
land hemisphere. Most of Earth's land is at least
somewhat humid and covered by vegetation, while
large sheets of ice at Earth's polar deserts retain more
water than Earth's groundwater, lakes, rivers, and
atmospheric water combined. Earth's crust consists of
slowly moving tectonic plates, which interact to
produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
Earth has a liquid outer core that generates a
The Blue Marble, Apollo 17, December 1972
magnetosphere capable of deflecting most of the
destructive solar winds and cosmic radiation. Designations
Alternative The world · The globe ·
Earth has a dynamic atmosphere, which sustains names Terra · Tellus · Gaia ·
Earth's surface conditions and protects it from most Mother earth · Sol III
meteoroids and UV-light at entry. It has a composition
Adjectives Earthly · Terrestrial · Terran
of primarily nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor is
· Tellurian
widely present in the atmosphere, forming clouds that
cover most of the planet. The water vapor acts as a Symbol 🜨 and ♁

greenhouse gas and, together with other greenhouse Orbital characteristics

gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide Epoch J2000[n 1]
(CO2), creates the conditions for both liquid surface Aphelion 152 097 597 km
water and water vapor to persist via the capturing of
Perihelion 147 098 450 km[n 2]
energy from the Sun's light. This process maintains the
current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C Semi-major axis 149 598 023 km[1]
(58.57 °F), at which water is liquid under normal Eccentricity 0.016 7086[1]
atmospheric pressure. Differences in the amount of Orbital period 365.256 363 004 d[2]
captured energy between geographic regions (as with (sidereal) (1.000 017 420 96 aj)
the equatorial region receiving more sunlight than the Average orbital 29.7827 km/s[3]
polar regions) drive atmospheric and ocean currents, speed
producing a global climate system with different Mean anomaly 358.617°
climate regions, and a range of weather phenomena
Inclination 7.155° – Sun's equator;
such as precipitation, allowing components such as
nitrogen to cycle. 1.578 69° – invariable
plane;[4]
Earth is rounded into an ellipsoid with a circumference 0.000 05° – J2000 ecliptic
of about 40,000 kilometres (25,000 miles). It is the Longitude of −11.260 64° – J2000
densest planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky ascending node ecliptic[3]
planets, it is the largest and most massive. Earth is
Time of 2023-Jan-04[5]
about eight light-minutes away from the Sun and orbits perihelion
it, taking a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one
Argument of 114.207 83°[3]
revolution. Earth rotates around its own axis in slightly perihelion
less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes).
Satellites 1, the Moon
Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to the
perpendicular to its orbital plane around the Sun, Physical characteristics
producing seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent Mean radius 6 371.0 km[6]
natural satellite, the Moon, which orbits Earth at Equatorial 6 378.137 km[7][8]
384,400 km (238,900 mi)—1.28 light seconds—and is radius
roughly a quarter as wide as Earth. The Moon's gravity Polar radius 6 356.752 km[9]
helps stabilize Earth's axis, causes tides and gradually
Flattening 1/298.257 222 101
slows Earth's rotation. Tidal locking has made the
(ETRS89)[10]
Moon always face Earth with the same side.
Circumference 40 075.017 km equatorial[8]
Earth, like most other bodies in the Solar System, 40 007.86 km
formed about 4.5 billion years ago from gas and dust in meridional[11][n 3]
the early Solar System. During the first billion years of
Surface area 510 072 000 km2[12][n 4]
Earth's history, the ocean formed and then life
developed within it. Life spread globally and has been Land: 148 940 000 km2
altering Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the Water: 361 132 000 km2
Great Oxidation Event two billion years ago. Humans Volume 1.083 21 × 1012 km3[3]
emerged 300,000 years ago in Africa and have spread
Mass 5.972 168 × 1024 kg[13]
across every continent on Earth. Humans depend on
Earth's biosphere and natural resources for their Mean density 5.513 g/cm3[3]
survival, but have increasingly impacted the planet's Surface gravity 9.806 65 m/s2[14]
environment. Humanity's current impact on Earth's (exactly 1 g0)
climate and biosphere is unsustainable, threatening the Moment of 0.3307[15]
livelihood of humans and many other forms of life, and inertia factor
causing widespread extinctions.[24] Escape velocity 11.186 km/s[3]
Synodic rotation 1.0 d
period (24h 00 m 00s)
Etymology Sidereal rotation 0.997 269 68 d[16]
period (23h 56 m 4.100s)
The Modern English word Earth developed, via
Equatorial 0.4651 km/s[17]
Middle English, from an Old English noun most often rotation velocity
spelled eorðe.[25] It has cognates in every Germanic
Axial tilt 23.439 2811°[2]
language, and their ancestral root has been
reconstructed as *erþō. In its earliest attestation, the Albedo 0.434 geometric[3]
word eorðe was used to translate the many senses of 0.294 Bond[3]
Latin terra and Greek γῆ gē: the ground, its soil, dry Temperature 255 K (−18 °C)
land, the human world, the surface of the world (blackbody temperature)[18]
(including the sea), and the globe itself. As with
Roman Terra/Tellūs and Greek Gaia, Earth may have Surface temp. min mean max
[n 5] −89.2 °C 14.76 °C 56.7 °C
been a personified goddess in Germanic paganism: late
Norse mythology included Jörð ("Earth"), a giantess Surface 0.274 μSv/h[22]
often given as the mother of Thor.[26] equivalent dose
rate
Historically, "Earth" has been written in lowercase.
Absolute −3.99
Beginning with the use of Early Middle English, its magnitude (H)
definite sense as "the globe" was expressed as "the
Atmosphere
earth". By the era of Early Modern English,
capitalization of nouns began to prevail, and the earth Surface 101.325 kPa (at sea level)
pressure
was also written the Earth, particularly when
referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More Composition by 78.08% nitrogen (dry air)
recently, the name is sometimes simply given as Earth, volume 20.95% oxygen (dry air)
by analogy with the names of the other planets, though ≤1% water vapor (variable)
"earth" and forms with "the earth" remain common.[25] 0.9340% argon
House styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the
0.0415% carbon dioxide
lowercase form as the more common, with the
capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another 0.00182% neon
convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a 0.00052% helium
name, such as a description of the "Earth's 0.00017% methane
atmosphere", but employs the lowercase when it is 0.00011% krypton
preceded by "the", such as "the atmosphere of the
0.00006% hydrogen
earth". It almost always appears in lowercase in
Source:[3]
colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you
doing?"[27]

The name Terra /ˈtɛrə/ occasionally is used in scientific writing and especially in science fiction to
distinguish humanity's inhabited planet from others,[28] while in poetry Tellus /ˈtɛləs/ has been used to
denote personification of the Earth.[29] Terra is also the name of the planet in some Romance languages,
languages that evolved from Latin, like Italian and Portuguese, while in other Romance languages the
word gave rise to names with slightly altered spellings, like the Spanish Tierra and the French Terre. The
Latinate form Gæa or Gaea (English: /ˈdʒiː.ə/) of the Greek poetic name Gaia (Γαῖα; Ancient Greek: [ɡâi̯ .a]
or [ɡâj.ja]) is rare, though the alternative spelling Gaia has become common due to the Gaia hypothesis,
in which case its pronunciation is /ˈɡaɪ.ə/ rather than the more classical English /ˈɡeɪ.ə/.[30]

There are a number of adjectives for the planet Earth. The word "earthly" is derived from "Earth". From
the Latin Terra comes terran /ˈtɛrən/,[31] terrestrial /təˈrɛstriəl/,[32] and (via French) terrene /təˈriːn/,[33]
and from the Latin Tellus comes tellurian /tɛˈlʊəriən/[34] and telluric.[35]
Natural history

Formation
The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated
+0.0002
to 4.5682 −0.0004 Ga (billion years) ago.[36] By
4.54 ± 0.04 Ga the primordial Earth had formed.[37]
The bodies in the Solar System formed and evolved
with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a
volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational
collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a
circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that
disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains,
and dust (including primordial nuclides). According to
A 2012 artistic impression of the early Solar nebular theory, planetesimals formed by accretion, with
System's protoplanetary disk from which Earth the primordial Earth being estimated as likely taking
and other Solar System bodies were formed anywhere from 70 to 100 million years to form.[38]

Estimates of the age of the Moon range from 4.5 Ga to

significantly younger.[39] A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed
from Earth after a Mars-sized object with about 10% of Earth's mass, named Theia, collided with
Earth.[40] It hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.[41][42] Between
approximately 4.0 and 3.8 Ga, numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused
significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.[43]

After formation
Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing.[44] Water vapor from
these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and
comets.[45] Sufficient water to fill the oceans may have been on Earth since it formed.[46] In this model,
atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70%
of its current luminosity.[47] By 3.5 Ga, Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the
atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.[48]

As the molten outer layer of Earth cooled it formed the first solid crust, which is thought to have been
mafic in composition. The first continental crust, which was more felsic in composition, formed by the
partial melting of this mafic crust.[50] The presence of grains of the mineral zircon of Hadean age in
Eoarchean sedimentary rocks suggests that at least some felsic crust existed as early as 4.4 Ga, only
140 Ma after Earth's formation.[51] There are two main models of how this initial small volume of
continental crust evolved to reach its current abundance:[52] (1) a relatively steady growth up to the
present day,[53] which is supported by the radiometric dating of continental crust globally and (2) an
initial rapid growth in the volume of continental crust during the Archean, forming the bulk of the
continental crust that now exists,[54][55] which is supported by isotopic evidence from hafnium in zircons
and neodymium in sedimentary rocks. The two models and the data that support them can be reconciled
by large-scale recycling of the continental crust, particularly during the early stages of Earth's history.[56]
 New continental crust forms as a result of plate
tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the
continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior.
Over the period of hundreds of millions of years,
tectonic forces have caused areas of continental
crust to group together to form supercontinents
that have subsequently broken apart. At
approximately 750 Ma, one of the earliest known
supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart.
Pale orange dot, an artist's impression of Early Earth,
The continents later recombined to form Pannotia
featuring its tinted orange methane-rich early at 600–540 Ma, then finally Pangaea, which also
atmosphere[49] began to break apart at 180 Ma.[57]

The most recent pattern of ice ages began about

40 Ma,[58] and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma.[59] High- and middle-latitude regions
have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 21,000, 41,000 and
100,000 years.[60] The Last Glacial Period, colloquially called the "last ice age", covered large parts of
the continents, to the middle latitudes, in ice and ended about 11,700 years ago.[61]

Origin of life and evolution

Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion
years later, the last common ancestor of all current life arose.[62] The evolution of photosynthesis allowed
the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant molecular oxygen (O2) accumulated
in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective ozone layer
(O3) in the upper atmosphere.[63] The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the
development of complex cells called eukaryotes.[64] True multicellular organisms formed as cells within
colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the
ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.[65] Among the earliest fossil evidence for life is microbial mat
fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia,[66] biogenic graphite found in
3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland,[67] and remains of biotic material
found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.[68][69] The earliest direct evidence of life on
Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms.[70][71]

During the Neoproterozoic, 1000 to 539 Ma, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This
hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the
Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.[73][74]
Following the Cambrian explosion, 535 Ma, there have been at least five major mass extinctions and
many minor ones.[75] Apart from the proposed current Holocene extinction event, the most recent was
66 Ma, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles,
but largely spared small animals such as insects, mammals, lizards and birds. Mammalian life has
diversified over the past 66 Mys, and several million years ago, an African ape species gained the ability
to stand upright.[76][77] This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the
nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the evolution of humans. The
development of agriculture, and then civilization, led to humans having an influence on Earth and the
nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.[78]
Future

An artist's impression of the Archean, the eon after Earth's formation, featuring
round stromatolites, which are early oxygen-producing forms of life from billions of
years ago. After the Late Heavy Bombardment, Earth's crust had cooled, its water-
rich barren surface is marked by continents and volcanoes, with the Moon still
orbiting Earth half as far as it is today, appearing 2.8 times larger and producing
strong tides.[72]

Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the

Sun. Over the next 1.1 billion years, solar luminosity
will increase by 10%, and over the next
3.5 billion years by 40%.[79] Earth's increasing surface
temperature will accelerate the inorganic carbon cycle,
possibly reducing CO2 concentration to levels lethally
low for current plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis)
in approximately 100–900 million years.[80][81] A lack
of vegetation would result in the loss of oxygen in the
atmosphere, making current animal life impossible.[82]
Conjectured illustration of the scorched Earth
Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean
after the Sun has entered the red giant phase,
temperature may reach 100 °C (212 °F) in 1.5 billion about 5–7 billion years in the future
years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to
space, which may trigger a runaway greenhouse effect,
within an estimated 1.6 to 3 billion years.[83] Even if the Sun were stable and eternal, a significant
fraction of the water in the modern oceans would descend into the mantle, due to reduced steam venting
from mid-ocean ridges as the core of the Earth slowly cools.[83][84]

The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 billion years. Models predict that the Sun will
expand to roughly 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi), about 250 times its present radius.[79][85]
Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal
effects, Earth will move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250 million km; 160 million mi) from the Sun when the star
reaches its maximum radius, otherwise, with tidal effects, it may enter the Sun's atmosphere and be
vaporized, with the heavier elements sinking to the core of the dying sun.[79]
Physical characteristics

Size and shape

Earth has a rounded shape, through hydrostatic
equilibrium,[86] with an average diameter of 12,742
kilometres (7,918 mi), making it the fifth largest
planetary sized and largest terrestrial object of the Solar
System.[87]

Due to Earth's rotation it has the shape of an ellipsoid,

bulging at its equator; its diameter is 43 kilometres
(27 mi) longer there than at its poles.[88][89] Earth's
shape also has local topographic variations; the largest
local variations, like the Mariana Trench (10,925
metres or 35,843 feet below local sea level),[90]
shortens Earth's average radius by 0.17% and Mount
Everest (8,848 metres or 29,029 feet above local sea Earth's western hemisphere showing
level) lengthens it by 0.14%. [n 6][92] Since Earth's topography relative to Earth's center instead of
to mean sea level, as in common topographic
surface is farthest out from its center of mass at its
maps
equatorial bulge, the summit of the volcano
Chimborazo in Ecuador (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) is
its farthest point out.[93][94] Parallel to the rigid land topography the ocean exhibits a more dynamic
topography.[95]

To measure the local variation of Earth's topography, geodesy employs an idealized Earth producing a
geoid shape. Such a shape is gained if the ocean is idealized, covering Earth completely and without any
perturbations such as tides and winds. The result is a smooth but irregular geoid surface, providing a
mean sea level as a reference level for topographic measurements.[96]

Surface
Earth's surface is the boundary between the atmosphere, and the solid Earth and oceans. Defined in this
way, it has an area of about 510 million km2 (197 million sq mi).[12] Earth can be divided into two
hemispheres: by latitude into the polar Northern and Southern hemispheres; or by longitude into the
continental Eastern and Western hemispheres.

Most of Earth's surface is ocean water: 70.8% or 361 million km2 (139 million sq mi).[97] This vast pool
of salty water is often called the world ocean,[98][99] and makes Earth with its dynamic hydrosphere a
water world[100][101] or ocean world.[102][103] Indeed, in Earth's early history the ocean may have covered
Earth completely.[104] The world ocean is commonly divided into the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean,
Indian Ocean, Antarctic or Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean, from largest to smallest. The ocean covers
Earth's oceanic crust, with the shelf seas covering the shelves of the continental crust to a lesser extent.
The oceanic crust forms large oceanic basins with features like abyssal plains, seamounts, submarine
volcanoes,[88] oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic
plateaus, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system.[105] At
Earth's polar regions, the ocean surface is covered by seasonally
variable amounts of sea ice that often connects with polar land,
permafrost and ice sheets, forming polar ice caps.

Earth's land covers 29.2%, or 149 million km2 (58 million sq mi)
of Earth's surface. The land surface includes many islands around
the globe, but most of the land surface is taken by the four
continental landmasses, which are (in descending order): Africa-
Eurasia, America (landmass), Antarctica, and Australia
(landmass).[106][107][108] These landmasses are further broken A composite image of Earth, with its
down and grouped into the continents. The terrain of the land different types of surface
surface varies greatly and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, discernible: Earth's surface
plateaus, and other landforms. The elevation of the land surface dominating Ocean (blue), Africa with
lush (green) to dry (brown) land and
varies from a low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to
Earth's polar ice in the form of
a maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount Antarctic sea ice (grey) covering the
Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m Antarctic or Southern Ocean and
(2,615 ft).[109] the Antarctic ice sheet (white)
covering Antarctica.
Land can be covered by surface water, snow, ice, artificial
structures or vegetation. Most of Earth's land hosts
vegetation,[110] but considerable amounts of land are
ice sheets (10%,[111] not including the equally large
area of land under permafrost)[112] or deserts
(33%).[113]

The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's land

surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil
formation processes. Soil is crucial for land to be
arable. Earth's total arable land is 10.7% of the land
surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.[114][115]
Earth has an estimated 16.7 million km2 Relief of Earth's crust
(6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million km2
(12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland.[116]

The land surface and the ocean floor form the top of Earth's crust, which together with parts of the upper
mantle form Earth's lithosphere. Earth's crust may be divided into oceanic and continental crust. Beneath
the ocean-floor sediments, the oceanic crust is predominantly basaltic, while the continental crust may
include lower density materials such as granite, sediments and metamorphic rocks.[117] Nearly 75% of the
continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the mass of the
crust.[118]

Earth's surface topography comprises both the topography of the ocean surface, and the shape of Earth's
land surface. The submarine terrain of the ocean floor has an average bathymetric depth of 4 km, and is as
varied as the terrain above sea level. Earth's surface is continually being shaped by internal plate tectonic
processes including earthquakes and volcanism; by weathering and erosion driven by ice, water, wind and
temperature; and by biological processes including the growth and decomposition of biomass into
soil.[119][120]

Tectonic plates
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth's crust and upper
mantle, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These
plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of
three boundaries types: at convergent boundaries, two plates come
together; at divergent boundaries, two plates are pulled apart; and
at transform boundaries, two plates slide past one another laterally.
Along these plate boundaries, earthquakes, volcanic activity,
mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur.[122] Earth's major plates, which are:[121]
The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but
Pacific Plate ·
less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move
African Plate[n 7] ·
along with the plates.[123]
North American Plate ·
As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under Eurasian Plate ·
the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the Antarctic Plate ·
same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent Indo-Australian Plate ·
boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these
South American Plate
processes recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Due to
this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 Ma old. The
oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be 200 Ma old.[124][125] By
comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 4,030 Ma,[126] although zircons have been found
preserved as clasts within Eoarchean sedimentary rocks that give ages up to 4,400 Ma, indicating that at
least some continental crust existed at that time.[51]

The seven major plates are the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian,
and South American. Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate
off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian
Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 Ma. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates,
with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/a (3.0 in/year)[127] and the Pacific Plate moving 52–
69 mm/a (2.0–2.7 in/year). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the South American Plate,
progressing at a typical rate of 10.6 mm/a (0.42 in/year).[128]

Internal structure
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical
(rheological) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by
a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić
discontinuity.[131] The thickness of the crust varies from about 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) under the oceans to
30–50 km (19–31 mi) for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are
collectively known as the lithosphere, which is divided into independently moving tectonic plates.[132]
Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively
low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Geologic layers of Earth[129]
Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle
occur at 410 and 660 km (250 and 410 mi) below the
surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper
and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low
viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core.[133]
Earth's inner core may be rotating at a slightly higher
angular velocity than the remainder of the planet,
Illustration of Earth's cutaway, not to scale
advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year, although both somewhat
higher and much lower rates have also been proposed.[134] Depth[130] Component Density
(km) layer name (g/cm3)
The radius of the inner core is about one-fifth of that of
Earth. The density increases with depth. Among the Solar 0–60 Lithosphere[n 8] —
System's planetary-sized objects, Earth is the object with 0–35 Crust[n 9] 2.2–2.9
the highest density.
35–660 Upper mantle 3.4–4.4
660–2890 Lower mantle 3.4–5.6
Chemical composition 100–700 Asthenosphere —
Earth's mass is approximately 5.97 × 1024
kg (5.970 Yg). It 2890–5100 Outer core 9.9–12.2
is composed mostly of iron (32.1% by mass), oxygen
5100–6378 Inner core 12.8–13.1
(30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur
(2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium
(1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to gravitational
separation, the core is primarily composed of the denser elements: iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of
nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.[135][50] The most common rock
constituents of the crust are oxides. Over 99% of the crust is composed of various oxides of eleven
elements, principally oxides containing silicon (the silicate minerals), aluminium, iron, calcium,
magnesium, potassium, or sodium.[136][135]

Internal heat
The major contributors to Earth's internal heat are
primordial heat (heat left over from Earth's formation)
and radiogenic heat (heat produced by radioactive
decay).[137] The major heat-producing isotopes within
Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-
232.[138] At the center, the temperature may be up to
6,000 °C (10,830 °F),[139] and the pressure could reach
360 GPa (52 million psi).[140] Because much of the
heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists
postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes
with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat
A map of heat flow from Earth's interior to the
production was much higher. At approximately 3 Gyr,
surface of Earth's crust, mostly along the
twice the present-day heat would have been produced, oceanic ridges
increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate
tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon
igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today.[141][142]
The mean heat loss from Earth is 87 mW/m2, for a global heat loss of 4.42 × 1013 W.[143] A portion of the
core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting
of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts.[144]
More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean
ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of
which occurs under the oceans.[145]

Gravitational field
The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within
Earth. Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s2 (32 ft/s2). Local
differences in topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad regional
differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies.[146]

Magnetic field
The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core,
the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of
thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical
and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the
core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is,
approximately, a dipole. The poles of the dipole are located close
to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field,
the magnetic-field strength at the surface is 3.05 × 10−5 T, with a
magnetic dipole moment of 7.79 × 1022 Am2 at epoch 2000,
decreasing nearly 6% per century (although it still remains
stronger than its long time average).[147] The convection
movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and A schematic view of Earth's
periodically change alignment. This causes secular variation of the magnetosphere with solar wind
main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few flowing from left to right
times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred
approximately 700,000 years ago.[148][149]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar
wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the day-side of the
magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the night-side magnetosphere into a long tail.[150]
Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the
solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the day-side magnetosphere within the solar wind.[151]
Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy
particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates.[152][153] The ring current is defined
by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still
dominated by the magnetic field,[154] and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by high-energy
particles whose motion is essentially random, but contained in the magnetosphere.[155][156] During
magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and
especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms
can be excited and ionized, causing an aurora.[157]
Orbit and rotation

Rotation
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean
solar day—is 86,400 seconds of mean solar time
(86,400.0025 SI seconds).[158] Because Earth's solar
day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th
century due to tidal deceleration, each day varies
between 0 and 2 ms longer than the mean solar
day.[159][160]

Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called

its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and
Reference Systems Service (IERS), is
86,164.0989 seconds of mean solar time (UT1), or
23h 56m 4.0989s.[2][n 10] Earth's rotation period relative
to the precessing or moving mean March equinox
(when the Sun is at 90° on the equator), is Satellite time lapse imagery of Earth's rotation
86,164.0905 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) showing axis tilt
(23h 56m 4.0905s).[2] Thus the sidereal day is shorter
than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.[161]

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of
celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the celestial
equator, this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from
Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.[162][163]

Orbit
Earth orbits the Sun, making Earth the third-closest
planet to the Sun and part of the inner Solar System.
Earth's average orbital distance is about 150 million km
(93 million mi), which is the basis for the astronomical
unit (AU) and is equal to roughly 8.3 light minutes or
380 times Earth's distance to the Moon. Earth orbits the
Sun every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal
year. With an apparent movement of the Sun in Earth's
sky at a rate of about 1°/day eastward, which is one Exaggerated illustration of Earth's elliptical orbit
apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Due to around the Sun, marking that the orbital extreme
this motion, on average it takes 24 hours—a solar day points (apoapsis and periapsis) are not the
—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so same as the four seasonal extreme points, the
that the Sun returns to the meridian. equinox and solstice
The orbital speed of Earth averages about 29.78 km/s (107,200 km/h; 66,600 mph), which is fast enough
to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about 12,742 km (7,918 mi), in seven minutes, and the
distance from Earth to the Moon, 384,400 km (238,900 mi), in about 3.5 hours.[3]

The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When
combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month,
from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth,
the Moon, and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the Sun
and Earth's north poles, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial
planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the
Earth–Sun plane (the ecliptic), and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–
Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar
eclipses and solar eclipses.[3][164]

The Hill sphere, or the sphere of gravitational influence, of Earth is about 1.5 million km (930,000 mi) in
radius.[165][n 11] This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than
that of the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become
unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.[165] Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated
in the Milky Way and orbits about 28,000 light-years from its center. It is about 20 light-years above the
galactic plane in the Orion Arm.[166]

Axial tilt and seasons

The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°[2]
with the axis of the plane of the Earth's orbit by
definition pointing always towards the Celestial Poles.
Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight
reaching any given point on the surface varies over the
course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in Earth's axial tilt causing different angles of
climate, with summer in the Northern Hemisphere seasonal illumination at different orbital
occurring when the Tropic of Cancer is facing the Sun, positions around the Sun
and in the Southern Hemisphere when the Tropic of
Capricorn faces the Sun. In each instance, winter
occurs simultaneously in the opposite hemisphere.

During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate
becomes cooler and the days shorter.[167] Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle there is
no daylight at all for part of the year, causing a polar night, and this night extends for several months at
the poles themselves. These same latitudes also experience a midnight sun, where the sun remains visible
all day.[168][169]

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices—the points in the orbit
of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is
aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21
December; summer solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is
about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and
winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.[170]
The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo
nutation; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years.[171] The orientation (rather than the
angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800-
year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year.
Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial
bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical
components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. In addition to an annual component to
this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble. Earth's rotational velocity also varies
in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.[172]

Earth's annual orbit is elliptical rather than circular, and its closest approach to the Sun is called
perihelion. In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around 3 January, and its aphelion around 4 July.
These dates shift over time due to precession and changes to the orbit, the latter of which follows cyclical
patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. The annual change in the Earth–Sun distance causes an increase
of about 6.8% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion.[173][n 12] Because the
Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest
approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the
northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to
the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern
Hemisphere.[174]

Earth–Moon system

Moon
The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural
satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the
largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet,
although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet
Pluto.[175][176] The natural satellites of other planets are also
referred to as "moons", after Earth's.[177] The most widely
accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant-impact hypothesis,
states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet
called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains the
Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that
its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.[41]
Earth and the Moon as seen from
Computer simulations suggest that two blob-like remnants of this
Mars by the Mars Reconnaissance
protoplanet could be inside the Earth.[178][179] Orbiter

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes

lunar tides on Earth.[180] The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the
same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet.[181] As
the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar
phases.[182] Due to their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately
38 mm/a (1.5 in/year). Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's
day by about 23 μs/yr—add up to significant changes.[183] During the Ediacaran period, for example,
(approximately 620 Ma) there were 400±7 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.9±0.4 hours.[184]

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate.
Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal
interactions with the Moon.[185] Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques
applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically
unstable, exhibiting large changes over millions of years, as is the case for Mars, though this is
disputed.[186][187]

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the
Sun. The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is
about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.[163] This allows total and
annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.[188]

Asteroids and artificial satellites

Earth's co-orbital asteroids population consists of quasi-satellites,
objects with a horseshoe orbit and trojans. There are at least seven
quasi-satellites, including 469219 Kamoʻoalewa, ranging in
diameter from 10 m to 5000 m.[189][190] A trojan asteroid
companion, 2010 TK7, is librating around the leading Lagrange
triangular point, L4, in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[191] The tiny
near-Earth asteroid 2006 RH120 makes close approaches to the
Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these
approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.[192]
A computer-generated image
mapping the prevalence of artificial
As of September 2021, there are 4,550 operational, human-made satellites and space debris around
satellites orbiting Earth.[193] There are also inoperative satellites, Earth in geosynchronous and low
including Vanguard 1, the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and Earth orbit
over 16,000 pieces of tracked space debris.[n 13] Earth's largest
artificial satellite is the International Space Station (ISS).[194]

Hydrosphere
Earth's hydrosphere is the sum of Earth's water and its distribution. Most of Earth's hydrosphere consists
of Earth's global ocean. Earth's hydrosphere also consists of water in the atmosphere and on land,
including clouds, inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters. The mass of the oceans is
approximately 1.35 × 1018 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of
361.8 million km2 (139.7 million sq mi) with a mean depth of 3,682 m (12,080 ft), resulting in an
estimated volume of 1.332 billion km3 (320 million cu mi).[195]

If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting
world ocean would be 2.7 to 2.8 km (1.68 to 1.74 mi).[196] About 97.5% of the water is saline; the
remaining 2.5% is fresh water.[197][198] Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in ice caps and
glaciers.[199] The remaining 30% is ground water, 1% surface
water (covering only 2.8% of Earth's land)[200] and other small
forms of fresh water deposits such as permafrost, water vapor in
the atmosphere, biological binding, etc.[201][202]

In Earth's coldest regions, snow survives over the summer and

changes into ice. This accumulated snow and ice eventually forms
into glaciers, bodies of ice that flow under the influence of their
own gravity. Alpine glaciers form in mountainous areas, whereas
vast ice sheets form over land in polar regions. The flow of
glaciers erodes the surface, changing it dramatically, with the
formation of U-shaped valleys and other landforms.[203] Sea ice in A view of Earth with its global ocean
the Arctic covers an area about as big as the United States, and cloud cover, which dominate
although it is quickly retreating as a consequence of climate Earth's surface and hydrosphere; at
change.[204] Earth's polar regions, its
hydrosphere forms larger areas of
The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per ice cover.

kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt).[205] Most of this salt was

released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.[206] The oceans are also a reservoir
of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.[207] Sea
water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat
reservoir.[208] Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as
the El Niño–Southern Oscillation.[209]

The abundance of water, particularly liquid water, on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes
it from other planets in the Solar System. Solar System planets with considerable atmospheres do partly
host atmospheric water vapor, but they lack surface conditions for stable surface water.[210] Despite some
moons showing signs of large reservoirs of extraterrestrial liquid water, with possibly even more volume
than Earth's ocean, all of them are large bodies of water under a kilometers thick frozen surface layer.[211]

Atmosphere
The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi),[212] with a scale height
of about 8.5 km (5.3 mi).[3] A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen,
0.934% argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules.[212] Water vapor
content varies between 0.01% and 4%[212] but averages about 1%.[3] Clouds cover around two-thirds of
Earth's surface, more so over oceans than land.[213] The height of the troposphere varies with latitude,
ranging between 8 km (5 mi) at the poles to 17 km (11 mi) at the equator, with some variation resulting
from weather and seasonal factors.[214]

Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 Gya,
forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.[63] This change enabled the proliferation of
aerobic organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of
atmospheric O2 into O3. The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land.[215]
Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases,
causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.[216] This
last phenomenon is the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within
the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the
surface, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention
effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C (0 °F), in
contrast to the current +15 °C (59 °F),[217] and life on Earth
probably would not exist in its current form.[218]
A view of Earth with different layers
of its atmosphere visible: the
troposphere with its clouds casting
Weather and climate
shadows, a band of stratospheric
Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, gradually becoming blue sky at the horizon, and a line of
thinner and fading into outer space.[219] Three-quarters of the green airglow of the lower
atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km (6.8 mi) of thermosphere around an altitude of
100 km, at the edge of space
the surface; this lowest layer is called the troposphere.[220] Energy
from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below,
causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air
then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density
air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives
the weather and climate through redistribution of
thermal energy.[221]

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of

the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° The ITCZ's band of clouds over the Eastern
latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes Pacific and the Americas as seen from space
between 30° and 60°.[222] Ocean heat content and
currents are also important factors in determining
climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that
distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans
to the polar regions.[223]

Earth receives 1361 W/m2 of solar

irradiance. [224][225] The amount of solar energy that
Worldwide Köppen climate classifications
reaches Earth's surface decreases with increasing
latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the
surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean
annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 °C (0.7 °F) per degree of latitude from the
equator.[226] Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately
homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or
equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates.[227]

Further factors that affect a location's climates are its proximity to oceans, the oceanic and atmospheric
circulation, and topology.[228] Places close to oceans typically have colder summers and warmer winters,
due to the fact that oceans can store large amounts of heat. The wind transports the cold or the heat of the
ocean to the land.[229] Atmospheric circulation also plays an important role: San Francisco and
Washington DC are both coastal cities at about the same latitude. San Francisco's climate is significantly
more moderate as the prevailing wind direction is from sea to land.[230] Finally, temperatures decrease
with height causing mountainous areas to be colder than low-lying areas.[231]

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the
atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and
falls to the surface as precipitation.[221] Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river
systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism
for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological
periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a
millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the
average precipitation that falls in each region.[232]

The commonly used Köppen climate classification system has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid,
humid middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific
subtypes.[222] The Köppen system rates regions based on observed temperature and precipitation.[233]
Surface air temperature can rise to around 55 °C (131 °F) in hot deserts, such as Death Valley, and can
fall as low as −89 °C (−128 °F) in Antarctica.[234][235]

Upper atmosphere
The upper atmosphere, the atmosphere above the
troposphere,[236] is usually divided into the
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.[216] Each
layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of
change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the
exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the
geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind.[237]
Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component
Earth's night-side upper atmosphere appearing
that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light
from the bottom as bands of afterglow
and thus is important for life on Earth. The Kármán illuminating the troposphere in orange with
line, defined as 100 km (62 mi) above Earth's surface, silhouettes of clouds, and the stratosphere in
is a working definition for the boundary between the white and blue. Next the mesosphere (pink
atmosphere and outer space.[238] area) extends to the orange and faintly green
line of the lowest airglow, at about one hundred
Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the kilometers at the edge of space and the lower
outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity edge of the thermosphere (invisible). Continuing
with green and red bands of aurorae stretching
to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity.
over several hundred kilometers.
This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere
into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low
molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate
than other gases.[239] The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere
and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source
of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary
precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.[240] Hence the ability of
hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on
Earth.[241] In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an
opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the
upper atmosphere.[242]

Life on Earth
Earth is the only known place that has ever been
habitable for life. Earth's life developed in Earth's early
bodies of water some hundred million years after Earth
formed. Earth's life has been shaping and inhabiting
many particular ecosystems on Earth and has
eventually expanded globally forming an overarching
biosphere.[243]
An animation of the changing density of
Therefore, life has impacted Earth, significantly
productive vegetation on land (low in brown;
altering Earth's atmosphere and surface over long heavy in dark green) and phytoplankton at the
periods of time, causing changes like the Great ocean surface (low in purple; high in yellow)
Oxidation Event.[244] Earth's life has also over time
greatly diversified, allowing the biosphere to have
different biomes, which are inhabited by comparatively similar plants and animals.[245] The different
biomes developed at distinct elevations or water depths, planetary temperature latitudes and on land also
with different humidity. Earth's species diversity and biomass reaches a peak in shallow waters and with
forests, particularly in equatorial, warm and humid conditions. While freezing polar regions and high
altitudes, or extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life.[246]

Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and
interact, and sufficient energy to sustain a metabolism.[247] Plants and other organisms take up nutrients
from water, soils and the atmosphere. These nutrients are constantly recycled between different
species.[248]

Extreme weather, such as tropical cyclones (including hurricanes

and typhoons), occurs over most of Earth's surface and has a large
impact on life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events
caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.[249] Many
places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic
eruptions, tornadoes, blizzards, floods, droughts, wildfires, and
other calamities and disasters.[250] Human impact is felt in many
areas due to pollution of the air and water, acid rain, loss of A High Desert storm in the Mojave
vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of
wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion and
erosion.[251] Human activities release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which cause global
warming.[252] This is driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, a global rise in
average sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas.[253]
Human geography
Originating from earlier primates in Eastern Africa
300,000 years ago humans have since been migrating
and with the advent of agriculture in the 10th
millennium BC increasingly settling Earth's land.[254]
In the 20th century Antarctica had been the last
continent to see a first and until today limited human
presence.
A composite image of artificial light emissions at
Human population has since the 19th century grown
night on a map of Earth
exponentially to seven billion in the early 2010s,[255]
and is projected to peak at around ten billion in the
second half of the 21st century.[256] Most of the growth is expected to take place in sub-Saharan
Africa.[256]

Distribution and density of human population varies greatly around the world with the majority living in
south to eastern Asia and 90% inhabiting only the Northern Hemisphere of Earth,[257] partly due to the
hemispherical predominance of the world's land mass, with 68% of the world's land mass being in the
Northern Hemisphere.[258] Furthermore, since the 19th century humans have increasingly converged into
urban areas with the majority living in urban areas by the 21st century.[259]

Beyond Earth's surface humans have lived on a temporary basis, with only a few special-purpose deep
underground and underwater presences and a few space stations. The human population virtually
completely remains on Earth's surface, fully depending on Earth and the environment it sustains. Since
the second half of the 20th century, some hundreds of humans have temporarily stayed beyond Earth, a
tiny fraction of whom have reached another celestial body, the Moon.[260][261]

Earth has been subject to extensive human settlement, and humans have developed diverse societies and
cultures. Most of Earth's land has been territorially claimed since the 19th century by sovereign states
(countries) separated by political borders, and 205 such states exist today,[262] with only parts of
Antarctica and a few small regions remaining unclaimed.[263] Most of these states together form the
United Nations, the leading worldwide intergovernmental organization,[264] which extends human
governance over the ocean and Antarctica, and therefore all of Earth.

Natural resources and land use

Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.[265] Those termed non-renewable resources,
such as fossil fuels, are only replenished over geological timescales.[266] Large deposits of fossil fuels are
obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, and natural gas.[267] These deposits are used by
humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.[268] Mineral ore bodies
have also been formed within the crust through a process of ore genesis, resulting from actions of
magmatism, erosion, and plate tectonics.[269] These metals and other elements are extracted by mining, a
process which often brings environmental and health damage.[270]
Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological
products for humans, including food, wood,
pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of organic
waste. The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil
and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends on
dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.[271] In
2019, 39 million km2 (15 million sq mi) of Earth's land
surface consisted of forest and woodlands,
12 million km2 (4.6 million sq mi) was shrub and
grassland, 40 million km2 (15 million sq mi) were used Earth's land use for human agriculture in 2019
for animal feed production and grazing, and
11 million km2 (4.2 million sq mi) were cultivated as
croplands.[272] Of the 12–14% of ice-free land that is used for croplands, 2 percentage points were
irrigated in 2015.[273] Humans use building materials to construct shelters.[274]

Humans and the environment

Human activities have impacted Earth's environments.
Through activities such as the burning of fossil fuels,
humans have been increasing the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, altering Earth's energy budget
and climate.[252][276] It is estimated that global
temperatures in the year 2020 were 1.2 °C (2.2 °F)
warmer than the preindustrial baseline.[277] This
increase in temperature, known as global warming, has
contributed to the melting of glaciers, rising sea levels,
increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration
of species to colder areas.[253]
Change in average surface air temperature and
drivers for that change. Human activity has
The concept of planetary boundaries was introduced to
caused increased temperatures, with natural
quantify humanity's impact on Earth. Of the nine
forces adding some variability.[275]
identified boundaries, five have been crossed:
Biosphere integrity, climate change, chemical pollution,
destruction of wild habitats and the nitrogen cycle are thought to have passed the safe threshold.[278][279]
As of 2018, no country meets the basic needs of its population without transgressing planetary
boundaries. It is thought possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of
resource use.[280]

Cultural and historical viewpoint

Human cultures have developed many views of the planet.[281] The standard astronomical symbols of
Earth are a quartered circle, ,[282] representing the four corners of the world, and a globus cruciger, .
Earth is sometimes personified as a deity. In many cultures it is a mother goddess that is also the primary
fertility deity.[283] Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity
or deities.[283] The Gaia hypothesis, developed in the mid-
20th century, compared Earth's environments and life as a
single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization
of the conditions of habitability.[284][285][286]

Images of Earth taken from space, particularly during the

Apollo program, have been credited with altering the way that
people viewed the planet that they lived on, called the
overview effect, emphasizing its beauty, uniqueness and
Tracy Caldwell Dyson, a NASA astronaut,
apparent fragility.[287][288] In particular, this caused a
observing Earth from the Cupola module
realization of the scope of effects from human activity on at the International Space Station on
Earth's environment. Enabled by science, particularly Earth 11 September 2010
observation,[289] humans have started to take action on
environmental issues globally,[290] acknowledging the impact
of humans and the interconnectedness of Earth's environments.[291]

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the
planet. Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually displaced in Ancient Greece by the idea of a spherical
Earth, which was attributed to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides.[292][293] Earth was
generally believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century, when scientists first concluded
that it was a moving object, one of the planets of the Solar System.[294]

It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth's age was at least many millions of
years.[295] Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and
400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and
radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for
determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.[296][297]

See also
Celestial sphere
Earth phase
Earth science
Extremes on Earth
List of Solar System extremes
Outline of Earth
Table of physical properties of planets in the Solar System
Timeline of the far future

Notes
1. All astronomical quantities vary, both secularly and periodically. The quantities given are the
values at the instant J2000.0 of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.
 2. aphelion = a × (1 + e); perihelion = a × (1 – e), where a is the semi-major axis and e is the
eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.
—Wilkinson, John (2009). Probing the New Solar System. CSIRO Publishing. p. 144.
ISBN 978-0-643-09949-4.
3. Earth's circumference is almost exactly 40,000 km because the meter was calibrated on this
measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the
equator.
4. Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding ice shelves, and mapping conventions
for vertical datums, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on
data from the Vector Map and Global Landcover (http://www.landcover.org/) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/) 26 March 2015 at the
Wayback Machine datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6%
and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland are counted as
land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.
5. Source for minimum,[19] mean,[20] and maximum[21] surface temperature
6. If Earth were shrunk to the size of a billiard ball, some areas of Earth such as large
mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of
the planet, including the Great Plains and the abyssal plains, would feel smoother.[91]
7. Including the Somali Plate, which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: Chorowicz,
Jean (October 2005). "The East African rift system". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 43
(1–3): 379–410. Bibcode:2005JAfES..43..379C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JAf
ES..43..379C). doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jafrearsci.2
005.07.019).
8. Locally varies between 5 and 200 km.
9. Locally varies between 5 and 70 km.
10. The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of
mean solar time".—Aoki, S.; Kinoshita, H.; Guinot, B.; Kaplan, G. H.; McCarthy, D. D.;
Seidelmann, P. K. (1982). "The new definition of universal time". Astronomy and
Astrophysics. 105 (2): 359–361. Bibcode:1982A&A...105..359A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/1982A&A...105..359A).

11. For Earth, the Hill radius is , where m is the mass of Earth, a is an
astronomical unit, and M is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about

12. Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the
radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% of the energy at aphelion.
13. As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835
artificial objects, mostly debris. See: Anz-Meador, Phillip; Shoots, Debi, eds. (February
2018). "Satellite Box Score" (https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i
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b/20190402034308/https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2018.

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External links
Earth – Profile (https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/earth/overview/) – Solar System
Exploration – NASA
Earth Observatory (https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/) – NASA
Earth – Videos – International Space Station:
Video (01:02) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ) on YouTube – Earth
(time-lapse)
Video (00:27) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY) on YouTube – Earth
and auroras (time-lapse)
Google Earth 3D (https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/dat
a=!3m1!1e3), interactive map
Interactive 3D visualization of the Sun, Earth and Moon system (https://thehappykoala.githu
b.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%
20Moon%20System)
GPlates Portal (http://portal.gplates.org/) (University of Sydney)

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