1. What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

Answer: AI is the simulation of human intelligence in machines programmed to think and learn. It
enables machines to perform tasks typically requiring human intelligence, like visual perception,
speech recognition, and decision-making.

2. What is Machine Learning (ML)?

Answer: ML is a subset of AI that enables systems to learn and improve from experience
automatically, without being explicitly programmed. It uses algorithms to identify patterns in data.

3. What is the difference between AI, ML, and Deep Learning?

Answer: AI is the broader concept of machines making decisions or taking actions. ML is a subset
focused on algorithms that allow learning from data. Deep Learning, a subset of ML, uses neural
networks with multiple layers to analyze data.
4. 4. What are neural networks?

Answer: Neural networks are computational models inspired by the human brain. They consist of
interconnected nodes (neurons) that process data in layers, enabling deep learning and other
complex AI functions.

5. 5. Explain supervised vs. unsupervised learning.

Answer: In supervised learning, the model is trained on labeled data, where each input has a known
output. In unsupervised learning, the model is trained on data without labeled responses, aiming to
find patterns or groupings.

6. 6. What is a neural network’s activation function?

Answer: Activation functions determine whether a neuron should be activated. They introduce non-
linear properties to the network, enabling it to learn complex data patterns.

7. 7. What is reinforcement learning?

Answer: It’s a type of ML where an agent learns by interacting with its environment, making
decisions, and receiving feedback (rewards or penalties) to maximize a goal.

8. 8. What is transfer learning?

Answer: Transfer learning involves reusing a pre-trained model on a new, similar problem, saving
time and resources, especially when data for the new problem is limited.

9. 9. Explain overfitting and underfitting in ML models.

Answer: Overfitting occurs when a model learns the training data too well, including noise, and
performs poorly on new data. Underfitting happens when a model is too simple, failing to capture
the data’s patterns, resulting in poor performance.

10. 10. What is regularization in ML?

Answer: Regularization involves adding a penalty term to the loss function to prevent overfitting.
Common techniques include L1 (Lasso) and L2 (Ridge) regularization.
 11. 11. Describe a decision tree.

Answer: A decision tree is a model that splits data into branches based on feature values, leading to
decision nodes, and ultimately a prediction outcome. It’s easy to interpret but can be prone to
overfitting.

12. 12. What are hyperparameters?

Answer: Hyperparameters are configuration settings external to the model that need to be set
before training (like learning rate and number of epochs). They differ from parameters learned by
the model.

13. 13. What is gradient descent?

Answer: Gradient descent is an optimization algorithm that minimizes the cost function by
iteratively adjusting parameters in the direction that reduces error.

14. 14. Explain backpropagation in neural networks.

Answer: Backpropagation is an algorithm used to train neural networks. It calculates the gradient of
the error with respect to weights, adjusting them to minimize the error.

15. 15. What is a convolutional neural network (CNN)?

Answer: CNNs are specialized neural networks for image data, using convolutional layers to
automatically detect patterns in images.

16. What are the types of AI?

Answer: The types are Narrow AI (AI focused on a single task), General AI (AI that can perform any
cognitive task a human can), and Superintelligent AI (AI surpassing human intelligence).

17. What is the Turing Test?

Answer: Proposed by Alan Turing, the Turing Test evaluates if a machine's behavior is
indistinguishable from a human’s.

18. What is the significance of the term 'AI Winter'?

Answer: AI Winter refers to periods when AI research and funding stagnated due to unmet
expectations.

19. What is an expert system in AI?

Answer: It’s a computer system that mimics human expertise in specific fields, using a knowledge
base and inference rules.

20. What are the key milestones in AI development?

Answer: Milestones include the creation of neural networks, the Turing Test, IBM’s Deep Blue beating a
chess grandmaster, and recent advances in deep learning.
 21. What is logistic regression?

Answer: Logistic regression is a classification algorithm used to model binary outcomes, predicting
probabilities between 0 and 1.

22. Explain k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN).

Answer: k-NN is a non-parametric algorithm that classifies data points based on the closest training
examples in the feature space.

23. What is Support Vector Machine (SVM)?

Answer: SVM is a classification algorithm that finds the hyperplane that best separates classes in
high-dimensional space.

24. Explain Naïve Bayes Classifier.

Answer: Naïve Bayes is a probabilistic classifier based on Bayes’ theorem, assuming independence
between features.

25. What is K-Means Clustering?

Answer: K-Means is an unsupervised algorithm that partitions data into k clusters, with each point
assigned to the nearest cluster center.

26. Explain Random Forest.

Answer: Random Forest is an ensemble learning method that builds multiple decision trees and
averages their predictions for improved accuracy.

27. What is Principal Component Analysis (PCA)?

Answer: PCA is a dimensionality reduction technique that transforms data into principal
components, reducing feature space.

28. What is the purpose of an Ensemble Method?

Answer: Ensemble methods, like boosting and bagging, combine multiple algorithms to improve
predictive performance and robustness.

29. Explain Gradient Boosting Machines (GBM).

Answer: GBM is an ensemble method that builds models sequentially, focusing on correcting errors
of previous models to improve accuracy.

30. What is XGBoost?

Answer: XGBoost is an optimized gradient boosting algorithm for efficiency, accuracy, and speed,
popular in machine learning competitions.

31. Deep Learning and Neural Networks

32. What is a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)?
Answer: RNNs are neural networks suited for sequential data, where outputs from previous
steps are inputs to the current step.
33. What are Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks?
Answer: LSTMs are a type of RNN with memory cells designed to handle long-term
dependencies in sequence data.
34. What is batch normalization?
Answer: Batch normalization normalizes the inputs of each layer to stabilize and accelerate
neural network training.
35. Explain dropout in neural networks.
Answer: Dropout is a regularization technique where random neurons are ignored during
training, reducing overfitting.
36. What is an autoencoder?
Answer: An autoencoder is a neural network designed to learn efficient representations of data,
often used for dimensionality reduction or denoising.
37. What is GAN (Generative Adversarial Network)?
Answer: GANs consist of a generator and discriminator working in opposition to produce
realistic synthetic data, often used in image generation.
38. What is a Transformer model?

Answer: Transformers are neural network architectures based on self-attention mechanisms, widely
used in natural language processing tasks.

39. What is BERT?

Answer: BERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) is a language model
designed for understanding language context in both directions.
40. Explain the significance of self-attention in deep learning.
Answer: Self-attention allows models to weigh the importance of different words in a sequence,
improving performance on language and sequence tasks.
41. What is the difference between feedforward and recurrent neural networks?
Answer: Feedforward networks process data in one direction without loops, while recurrent
networks have feedback loops suitable for sequence data.
42. What is the confusion matrix?
Answer: The confusion matrix is a table used to evaluate classification models, showing true
positives, false positives, true negatives, and false negatives.
43. Explain Precision, Recall, and F1 Score.
Answer: Precision is the ratio of true positives to predicted positives, recall is the ratio of true
positives to actual positives, and F1 Score is the harmonic mean of precision and recall.
44. What is cross-validation?
Answer: Cross-validation splits data into training and test sets multiple times to validate model
performance and avoid overfitting.
45. What is AUC-ROC?
Answer: The AUC-ROC curve plots the true positive rate against the false positive rate, with the area
under the curve (AUC) indicating model performance.

46. What is Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Mean Squared Error (MSE)?

Answer: MAE measures average absolute errors, while MSE measures the average squared
differences, with MSE penalizing larger errors more heavily.

47. What is the purpose of a learning rate in neural networks?

Answer: The learning rate determines the step size in gradient descent, affecting model
convergence speed and accuracy.

48. How does one handle imbalanced data?

Answer: Techniques like resampling, synthetic data generation (e.g., SMOTE), or adjusting
performance metrics can handle imbalanced data.
49. What is an ROC curve?
Answer: An ROC curve is a graphical representation of a classifier’s performance across different
thresholds, useful for evaluating binary classifiers.
50. What is bias-variance tradeoff?

Answer: The bias-variance tradeoff is the balance between a model’s accuracy on training data (low
bias) and its ability to generalize to new data (low variance).

51. What is stratified sampling?

Answer: Stratified sampling ensures that each class is proportionally represented in training and
test sets, useful for imbalanced datasets.
52. Ethics and Bias in AI
How can bias affect machine learning models?
Answer: Bias in data or algorithms can lead to unfair outcomes, favoring certain groups over
others, resulting in ethical and legal challenges.
53. What are some methods to mitigate bias in AI?
Answer: Techniques include diverse data collection, fairness constraints, transparency in
algorithms, and continual testing for bias.
54. What is the significance of explainable AI?
Answer: Explainable AI makes the decision-making process of AI systems understandable to
humans, improving trust, transparency, and accountability.
55. What are ethical considerations in AI development?
Answer: Ethical considerations include fairness, accountability, transparency, privacy, and
avoiding harm.
56. What is model interpretability, and why is it important?
Answer: Model interpretability enables understanding of a model's predictions, which is crucial
for trust, especially in high-stakes decisions like healthcare and finance.

57. Optimization Techniques in Machine Learning