Module 2

Hydrostatics

Unit 1: Surface Tension

Unit 2: Buoyancy-Archimedes’ Principle
Unit 3: Pressure
 Unit 1
Surface Tension
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Concept of Surface Tension
 3.2 Evidence of Surface Tension
3.3 Factors Affecting Surface Tension
3.4 Molecular Theory of Surface Tension
3.5 Worked examples on surface tension
3.6 Self Assessment Exercise 1
3.5 Cohesive and Adhesive Forces
3.5.1 Excess Pressure
3.6 Angle of Contact
3.7 Capillarity: The Rise and Fall of Liquids in Tubes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
6.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Surface tension is one of the properties of fluids. You must have
observed that when water is dripping very slowly from a
partially closed tap, the water comes out in form of spherical
drops and not as a continuous stream. Also, a clean needle
placed carefully on water surface stays at rest without sinking.
Some insects walk on the surface of water without sinking. All
these observations are consequences of surface tension.
Therefore, in this unit, we shall study the concept of surface
tension and its applications to our daily life.
2.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to explain:
1. the concept of surface tension using molecular ideas.
2. the factors that affect surface tension.
3. the applications of surface tension.
4. the meaning of angle of contact.
5. adhesive and cohesive forces.
6. how liquids rise and fall in capillary tubes.
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Concept of Surface Tension
The property of a liquid that makes it to have minimum surface
area and behaves as if it were under tension like a stretched
elastic membrane is called surface tension. The surface tension of
a liquid is measured by the force acting per unit length on either
side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of the liquid,
the direction of this force being perpendicular to the line and
tangential to the free surface of the liquid. Therefore,
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐹𝐹
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑇𝑇 = = …………………………………………(1)
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝐿
It can also be defined in terms of surface energy as:
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑇𝑇 = = … . .………………………(2)
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴

The unit of surface tension is newton per metre (Nm-1)

3.2 Evidence of Surface Tension

1. When mercury is split on a clean glass plate, it forms globules.

2. When a greased iron needle is placed gently on the surface of water at

rest, the needle floats on the water surface.

3. Rain drops are spherical in shape because each drop tends to acquire
minimum surface area due to surface tension.
4. When a molten metal is poured into water from a suitable
height, the falling stream of metal breaks up and the detached
portion of the liquid in small quantity acquire spherical shapes.

5. Oil drop spreads on cold water, whereas it may remain as a

drop on hot water.

6. The hair of a shaving brush/painting brush when dipped in

water spread out, but as soon as it is taken out, the hair stick
together.
3.3 Factors Affecting Surface Tension
(1) Temperature : The surface tension of liquids decreases with rise
of temperature. The surface tension of a liquid is zero at its
boiling point and it vanishes at critical temperature.
(2) Impurities : The presence of impurities either on the liquid
surface or when dissolved in it, considerably affect the force of
surface tension, depending upon the degree of contamination.
A highly soluble substance like sodium chloride when dissolved
in water, increases the surface tension of water. But the
sparingly soluble substances like phenol when dissolved in
water, decreases the surface tension of water.
3.4 Molecular Theory of Surface Tension
The maximum distance up to which the force of attraction between two
molecules is appreciable is called molecular range (≈10-9 m). A sphere
with a molecule as centre and radius equal to molecular range is called
the sphere of influence. This is illustrated in the figure below:

The liquid enclosed between the free surface (PQ) of the liquid and an
imaginary plane (RS) at a distance r (equal to molecular range) from
the free surface of the liquid form a liquid film.
To understand the tension acting on the free surface of a liquid,
let us consider four liquid molecules like A, B, C and D. Their
sphere of influence are shown in the figure.
(1) Molecule A is well within the liquid, so it is attracted equally
in all directions. Hence, the net force on this molecule is zero
and it moves freely inside the liquid.
(2) Molecule B is a little below the free surface of the liquid and
it is also attracted equally in all directions. Hence, the resultant
force on it is also zero.
(3) Molecule C is just below the upper surface of the liquid film
and the part of its sphere of influence is outside the free liquid
surface.
So, the number of molecules in the upper half (attracting the
molecule upward) is less than the number of molecules in the
lower half (attracting the molecule downward). Thus, molecule C
experiences a net downward force.
(4) Molecule D is just on the free surface of the liquid. The upper
half of the sphere of influence has no liquid molecule. Hence,
molecule D experiences a maximum downward force. Thus, all
molecules lying in the surface film experiences a net downward
force. Therefore, the free surface of the liquid behaves like a
stretched membrane.
 Worked examples on surface tension
1. A wooden stick 2m long is floating on the surface of water. The
surface tension of water is 0.07 N/m. By putting soap solution on
one side of the stick, the surface tension is reduced to 0.06 N/m.
What is the net force on the stick?
Ans: The force on one side of the stick is 𝐹𝐹1 = 𝑇𝑇1 𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿 = 0.07 𝑥𝑥 2 = 0.14 𝑁𝑁
And the force on the other side of the stick is 𝐹𝐹2 = 𝑇𝑇2 𝑥𝑥 𝐿𝐿 = 0.06 𝑥𝑥 2 =
0.12 𝑁𝑁.
So, the net force on the stick is 𝐹𝐹1 − 𝐹𝐹2 = 0.14 𝑁𝑁 − 0.12 𝑁𝑁 = 0.02 𝑁𝑁
2. A 10 cm long wire is placed horizontally on the surface of water and
then gently pulled up with a force of 2 𝑥𝑥 10−2 𝑁𝑁 to keep the wire in
equilibrium. What is the surface tension of water?
Ans: In the case of a wire, the water wets it from two sides. Therefore,
the effective length = 2l
T = F/L = F/2l
2 𝑥𝑥 10−2
∴ T= = 0.1 N/m
2 𝑥𝑥 10 𝑥𝑥10−2

3. A rectangular film of liquid is formed in a frame of wire and a

movable rod of length 4 cm. What force must be applied to the rod to
keep it in equilibrium if the surface tension of the liquid is 40 × 10-3
N/m?
Ans: For the rod also, the liquid wets it from both sides
Hence, the effective length = 2𝑙𝑙 = 2 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑥𝑥10−2 𝑚𝑚 = 0.08 𝑚𝑚
∴ F = T × L = T × 2l
∴ F = 40 𝑥𝑥10−3 𝑥𝑥 0.08 = 3.2 𝑥𝑥10−3 𝑁𝑁
4. A circular loop of wire of radius 0.04 m is lowered into a portion of
crude oil. The force due to the surface tension of the oil is 0.01 N.
Calculate the surface tension of crude oil?
Ans: In this case also, the liquid wets the wire from two sides (inside
and outside). Hence, the effective length = 2l = 2 𝑥𝑥 2πr
T = F/L = F/2l = F/(2 x 2πr)
0.01
∴T= = 0.02 N/m
2 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3.142 𝑥𝑥 0.04
Self Assessment Exercise 1
Calculate the force required to pull away a horizontal circular
loop of wire of radius 0.02 m from the surface of water. The
surface tension of water is 0.075 N/m.
3.5 Cohesive and Adhesive Forces
The force of attraction or repulsion acting between two
molecules is known as intermolecular force. The intermolecular
forces of attraction may be classified into two types: Cohesive
force and Adhesive force.
Cohesive force: The force of attraction between molecules of
same substance is called force of cohesion. This force is lesser in
liquids and least in gases. Some examples of cohesive forces are:
(i) Two drops of liquid coalesce into one when brought in mutual
contact.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky plates of glass joined by
water.
(iii) It is difficult to break a drop of mercury into small droplets
because of large cohesive force between the mercury molecules.
Adhesive force: The force of attraction between the molecules of
different substances is called force of adhesion. Examples are:
(i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the blackboard with a
chalk.
(ii) A piece of paper sticks to another due to large force of
adhesion between the paper and gum molecules.
(iii) Water wets glass surface due to the force of adhesion.
3.5.1 Excess Pressure
Surface tension makes a drop of liquid or bubble to contract and
thus compresses the matter enclosed. This in turn, increases the
internal pressure which prevents further contraction and hence
equilibrium is achieved. So, in equilibrium the pressure inside a
bubble or drop is greater than the pressure outside. Therefore, the
difference in pressure between two sides of the liquid surface is
called excess pressure.
The excess pressure, ΔP of a bubble (or a drop) in liquid is given as:
ΔP = 2T/r………………………………………………..(3)
While the excess pressure inside a soap bubble is given as:
ΔP = 4T/r………………………………………………..(4)
where T is the surface tension and r is the radius of bubble.
So, excess pressure is inversely proportional to the radius of bubble
(or drop). This means that the pressure inside a smaller bubble is
greater than the pressure inside a bigger bubble. So, when two
bubbles of different sizes are in contact with each other, air rushes
from the smaller bubble to the larger one. This makes the smaller
one to shrink, while the bigger one expands till the smaller bubble
reduces to a droplet.
Worked example
If the radius r1 of a soap bubble is four times that of another soap
bubble of radius r2, what is the ratio of their excess pressures?
Ans: The excess pressure inside a soap bubble is ΔP = 4T/r
4𝑇𝑇 4𝑇𝑇
Therefore, ΔP1 = and ΔP2 = but r1 = 4r2
r1 r2
ΔP1 r2 r2 1
∴ = = = = 1:4
ΔP2 r1 4r2 4
Self Assessment Exercise 2
The pressure inside two soap bubbles are 1.01 and 1.02
atmospheres. Find the ratio between their volumes.
3.6 Angle of Contact
Angle of contact between a liquid and a solid is defined as the
angle enclosed between the tangents to the liquid surface and the
solid surface inside the liquid.
Examples of angle of contact are:
(1) Concave meniscus: Liquid wets a solid surface
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐
In this case, θ < 90𝑜𝑜 and 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 > where Fa = Force of adhesion
2
and Fc = Force of cohesion.
(ii) Convex meniscus: Liquid does not wet the solid surface.
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐
For this case, θ > 90𝑜𝑜 and 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 <
2

(iii) Plane meniscus: Liquid does not wet the solid surface.
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐
And in this case, θ = 90𝑜𝑜 and 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 =
2
 Points to note about angle of contact
(i) Its value lies between 0o and 180o.
Boundary Angle of contact
For pure water and glass θ = 0𝑜𝑜
For tap water and glass θ = 8𝑜𝑜
For water and silver θ = 90𝑜𝑜
For mercury and glass θ = 138𝑜𝑜

So, it varies for different contacts of liquids and solids.

(ii) When temperature increases, angle of contact decreases.
(iii) Soluble impurities increase the angle of contact.
(iv) Partially soluble impurities decrease the angle of contact.
3.7 Capillarity
If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid,
it is observed that the liquid in the capillary either ascends or
descends relative to the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is
called capillarity.
Capillary rise or fall depends on the nature of the liquid and the
solid.
The figures below show capillary actions for some liquid-solid pairs.

water rises no rise, no fall mercury falls

To maintain equilibrium, the liquid rises in the capillary tube to a
height h given as:
2𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 θ
h = …..……………………………………. (5)
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

where T is surface tension, θ is angle of contact, r is radius, d is

density and g is acceleration due to gravity.
Examples of capillarity are:
(i) Oil rises in the spaces between the threads of a wick.
(ii) Wood swells in rainy season due to rise of moisture.
(iii) Sandy soil is drier than clay. This is because holes between the
sand particles are not as fine as those of clay that draws up water by
capillary action.
Worked example
If the surface tension of water is 0.08 N/m, what is the capillary
rise in a tube of diameter 1mm assuming the angle of contact θ is
0?
Ans: Given T = 0.08 N/m, θ = 0, r = 0.5 x 10−3 𝑚𝑚, d = 103 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3, g = 9.8
𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠2
2𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 θ 2 𝑥𝑥 0.08 𝑥𝑥 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 0
h = =
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 0.5 𝑥𝑥 10−3 𝑥𝑥 103 𝑥𝑥 9.8
0.16 𝑥𝑥 1
∴= = 0.033 m
4.9
Self Assessment Exercise 3
Two capillaries made of the same material but of different radii
are dipped in a liquid. The rise of liquid in one capillary is 2.2 cm
and that in the other is 6.6 cm. What is the ratio of their radii?
4.0 Conclusion
Surface tension is a property of liquids. It explains why the
surfaces of liquids act as skin. Surface tension also explains the
formation and shapes of the meniscus of liquids inside tubes. It
has been used to explain why some liquids wet and do not wet
glass through the concept of adhesive and cohesive forces of
liquids and that of the glass in which the liquids are placed.
Furthermore, surface tension explains the rise and fall of liquids
in capillary tubes and the formation of bubbles in liquids and
air.
5.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
1.Explain the concept of surface tension using molecular idea.
2.Define the coefficient of surface tension.
3.Define surface tension in terms of surface energy.
4.State the applications of surface tension.
5.State the factors that affect surface tension
6.Explain the meaning of angle of contact
7.Distinguished between adhesive and cohesive forces
8.State the excess pressure in bubbles.
9.State the relationship between the height and depth to which liquid
rises and falls in a capillary tube and surface tension
10. Solve simple problems based on the topic.
6.0 References/Further Reading
Vasudeva, A.S, (2010) Modern Engineering Physics for BE/BTech/B
Arch students, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
Gaur R. K and Gupta S. L. (2010) Engineering Physics, Dhanpat Rai
Publications (P) LTD.
Oludotun J.S.O., (2008) Heat and Property of Matter, National Open
University of Nigeria.
Emeka E. I, (2004) Fundamental Principles of Physics, Mechanics and
Property of Matter. ENIC Publishers.
Online Resources
https://physicswithpradeep (genius Physics)
https://thefactfactor.com/physics/