UNIT – II

DC MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

DC Generator

 A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy

into direct current electricity.
 This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically
induced emf.
 This article outlines basic construction and working of a DC generator.

Construction Of A DC Machine:

 Theoretically, a DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any

constructional changes and vice versa is also possible.
 Therefore, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC
machine.
 These basic constructional details are also valid for both DC Generator and DC
motor.
 Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC machine instead of just
'construction of a dc generator'.
  The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A
DC machine consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor.
 Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described below.

1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron
or steel. It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also
carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two
purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap
uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and
placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way
that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles.
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in
shape with slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin
laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may be
provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is
keyed (fixed) to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in
armature slots. The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also
from the armature core. Armature winding can be wound by one of the two
methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave windings are
generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot will carry
two different coils.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made
through a commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a
dc generator, is to collect the current generated in armature conductors.
Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the
armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which
are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of
armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the
commutator is keyed (or fixed) to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from
carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the
segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or
supply the current.
  According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes
whenever the direction of motion of the conductor changes.
 Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is
moving upward.
 When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that
particular conductor will be reversed to downward.
 Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating.
If you look at the above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced
current is alternating in an armature conductor.
 But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also
gets reversed when the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get
unidirectional current at the terminals.

Types Of A DC Generator:
DC generators can be classified in two main categories, viz; (i) Separately excited and (ii)
Self-excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from an independent
external DC source.
(ii) Self-excited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current produced by the
generator itself. Initial emf generation is due to residual magnetism in field poles. The
generated emf causes a part of current to flow in the field coils, thus strengthening the
field flux and thereby increasing emf generation. Self excited dc generators can further
be divided into three types -
(a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature winding
Construction

A DC generator is also used as a DC motor without changing its construction. Therefore,

a DC motor otherwise a DC generator can be generally called a DC machine. The
construction of a 4-pole DC generator is shown below. This generator comprises
of several parts like yoke, poles & pole shoes, field winding, an armature core, armature
winding, commutator & brushes. But the two essential parts of this device are the stator
as well as the rotor.
Stator
The stator is an essential part of the DC generator, and the main function of this is to
provide the magnetic fields where the coils spin. This includes stable magnets, where
two of them are with reverse poles facing. These magnets are located to fit in the region
of the rotor.

Rotor or Armature Core

Rotor or armature core is the second essential part of the DC generator, and it includes
slotted iron laminations with slots that are stacked to shape a cylindrical armature core.
Generally, these laminations are offered to decrease the loss because of the eddy current.

Armature Windings
The armature core slots are mainly used for holding the armature windings. These are
in a closed circuit winding form, and it is connected in series to parallel for enhancing
the sum of produced current.

Yoke
The external structure of the DC generator is Yoke, and it is made with cast iron
otherwise steel. It gives the necessary mechanical power for carrying the magnetic-
flux given through the poles.
Poles
These are mainly used to hold the field windings. Usually, these windings are wound on
the poles, & they are connected in series otherwise parallel by the armature windings.
In addition, the poles will give joint toward the yoke with the welding method otherwise
by using screws.

Pole Shoe
The pole shoe is mainly utilized for spreading the magnetic flux as well as to avoid the
field coil from falling.

Commutator
The working of the commutator is like a rectifier for changing AC voltage to the DC
voltage within the armature winding to across the brushes. It is designed with a copper
segment, and each copper segment is protected from each other with the help of mica
sheets. It is located on the shaft of the machine.

Working Principle

 The working principle of the DC generator is based on Faraday’s laws

of electromagnetic induction.
 When a conductor is located in an unstable magnetic field, an electromotive
force gets induced within the conductor.
 The induced e.m.f magnitude can be measured from the equation of the
electromotive force of a generator.
 If the conductor is present with a closed lane, the current which is induced will
flow in the lane. In this generator, field coils will generate an electromagnetic
field as well as the armature conductors are turned into the field.
  Therefore, an electromagnetically induced electromotive force (e.m.f) will be
generated within the armature conductors. The path of induced current will be
provided by Fleming’s right-hand rule.
DC Generator E.M.F Equation

The emf equation of dc generator according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic

Induction is Eg= PØZN/60 A
Where Φ is
flux or pole within Webber

‘Z’ is a total no.of armature conductor

‘P’ is a number of poles in a generator
‘A’ is a number of parallel lanes within the armature
‘N’ is the rotation of armature in r.p.m (revolutions per minute)
‘E’ is the induced e.m.f in any parallel lane within the armature
‘Eg’ is the generated e.m.f in any one of the parallel lanes
‘N/60’ is the number of turns per second
Time for one turn will be dt = 60/N sec

Types of DC Generator

The classification of DC generators can be done in two most important categories

namely separately excited as well as self-excited.

Characteristics

The characteristic of the DC generator can be defined as the graphical representation

among the two separate quantities. This graph will show the steady-state characteristics
which explain the main relationship between the terminal voltage, loads & excitation
through this graph. The most essential characteristics of this generator are discussed
below.
Magnetization Characteristics

The magnetization characteristics provide the difference of producing voltage otherwise

no-load voltage through field current at a stable speed. This kind of characteristic is
also known as an open circuit otherwise no-load characteristic.

Internal Characteristics

The dc generator’s internal characteristics can be plotted between the load current as
well as generated voltage.

External or Load Characteristics

The load or external type characteristics provide the main relationships among the load
current as well as terminal voltage at a stable speed.

Advantages

The advantages of a dc generator include the following.

 DC generators generate large output.
 The terminal load of these generators is high.
 The designing of dc generators are very simple
 These are used to generate uneven output power.
 These are extremely consistent with 85-95%.of efficiency ratings
 They give a reliable output.
 They are lightweight as well as compact.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of a dc generator include the following.

 DC generator cannot be used with a transformer

 The efficiency of this generator is low due to many losses like copper, mechanical,
eddy, etc.
 A voltage drop can occur over long distances
 It uses a split ring commutator so it will complicate the machine design
 Expensive
 High maintenance
 The sparks will be generated while generating energy
 More energy will be lost while transmission
Applications of DC Generators

The applications of different types of DC generators include the following.

 The separately excited type DC generator is used for boosting as well

as electroplating. It is used for power and lighting purpose using a field regulator
 The self-excited DC generator or shunt DC generator is used for power as well as
ordinary lighting using the regulator. It can be used for battery lighting.
 The series DC generator is used in arc lamps for lighting, stable current generator,
and booster.
 A compound DC generator is used to provide the power supply for DC welding
machines.
 Level compound DC generator is used to provide a power supply for hostels, lodges,
offices, etc.
 Over compound, DC generator is used to reimburse the voltage drop within Feeders.

DC MOTOR
dcA DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. In a DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct current which is
transformed into the mechanical rotation. In this session, let us know what is a DC
motor, types of DC motor and their applications.

What is a DC Motor?

A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors that convert direct current

electrical energy into mechanical energy.

From the above definition, we can conclude that any electric motor that is operated
using direct current or DC is called a DC motor. We will understand the DC motor
construction and how a DC motor converts the supplied DC electrical energy into
mechanical energy in the next few sections.

Different Parts of a DC Motor

A DC motor is composed of the following main parts::

Armature or Rotor
  The armature of a DC motor is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are
insulated from one another.

 The armature is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a

rotating part that rotates on its axis and is separated from the field coil by an air
gap.

Field Coil or Stator

A DC motor field coil is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce

a magnetic field. This electro-magnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.

Commutator

 The commutator of a DC motor is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper

segments stacked together but insulated from each other using mica.

 The primary function of a commutator is to supply electrical current to the

armature winding.

Brushes

 The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure.

 These brushes conduct electric current from the external circuit to the rotating
commutator.

 Hence, we come to understand that the commutator and the brush unit are
concerned with transmitting the power from the static electrical circuit to the
mechanically rotating region or the rotor.

DC Motor Working

 In the previous section, we discussed the various components of a DC motor.

Now, using this knowledge let us understand the working of DC motors.

 A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is
energised.

 The created magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature.

 The magnetic field enters the armature from the North pole side of the field coil
and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s South pole side.
Working principle of DC motor

When kept in a magnetic field, a current-carrying conductor gains torque and develops
a tendency to move. In short, when electric fields and magnetic fields interact, a
mechanical force arises. This is the principle on which the DC motors work.

Types of DC motor

DC motors have a wide range of applications ranging from electric shavers to

automobiles. To cater to this wide range of applications, they are classified into different
types based on the field winding connections to the armature as:

 Self Excited DC Motor

 Separately Excited DC Motor
Now, let us discuss the various types of DC Motors in detail.

Self Excited DC Motor

In self-excited DC motors, the field winding is connected either in series or parallel to

the armature winding. Based on this, the self-excited DC motor can further be classified
as:

 Shunt wound DC motor

  Series wound DC motor
 Compound wound DC motor

Shunt wound DC motor

In a shunt wound motor, the field winding is connected parallel to the armature as
shown in the figure.

Series wound DC motor

In a series wound DC motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding as shown in the figure.
Compound wound DC motor

DC motors having both shunt and series field winding is known as Compound DC
motor, as shown in the figure. The compound motor is further divided into:

 Cumulative Compound Motor

 Differential Compound Motor
In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetic flux produced by both the windings is
in the same direction. In a differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series
field windings is opposite to the flux produced by the shunt field winding.

Separately Excited DC Motor

In a separately excited DC motor, the field coils are energised from an external source
of DC supply as shown in the figure.

Brushed DC Motor vs Brushless DC Motor

A brushless DC motor, also known as synchronous DC motor, unlike brushed DC

motors, do not have a commutator. The commutator in a brushless DC motor is
replaced by an electronic servomechanism that can detect and adjust the angle of the
rotor.

A brushed DC motor features a commutator that reverses the current every half cycle
and creates single direction torque. While brushed DC motors remain popular, many
have been phased out for more efficient brushless models in recent years.

Applications of DC Motor

The applications of different types of DC motors are listed below:

Shunt DC Motors

Owing to the fairly constant speed and medium starting torque of shunt DC motors,
they are used in the following applications:

1. Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps

2. Lathe machines
3. Blowers and Fans
4. Drilling machines
 5. Milling machines
6. Machine tools

Series DC Motors

Owing to the high starting torque and variable speed of series DC motors, they are used
in the following applications:

 Conveyors
 Hoists, Elevators
 Cranes
 Electric Locomotives

Cumulative Compound DC motors

Owing to the high starting torque of cumulative compound DC motors, they are used in
the following applications:

 Shears
 Heavy Planers
 Rolling mills
 Elevators

Transformer
The transformer, in a simple way, can be described as a device that steps up or steps
down voltage. In a step-up transformer, the output voltage is increased, and in a step-
down transformer, the output voltage is decreased. The step-up transformer will
decrease the output current, and the step-down transformer will increase the output
current to keep the input and output power of the system equal.

What Is a Transformer?

A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The

transmission current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply
voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer
works on the basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Transformer Types
Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector,
transmission and electric energy consumption. There are various types of transformers
which are classified based on the following factors:

 Working voltage range

 The medium used in the core
 Winding arrangement
 Installation location

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

and mutual induction.

There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the transformer core.
The core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high mutual
inductance. When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a
varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change
in magnetic flux induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is
linked to the core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.
Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:

1. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another

2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

The figure shows the formation of magnetic flux lines around a current-carrying wire.
The normal of the plane containing the flux lines is parallel to the normal of a cross-
section of a wire.

the major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of

1. Core
The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low
reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core, as
shown in the picture. It is made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the
losses in a transformer. The factors, such as operating voltage, current, power, etc.,
decide core composition. The core diameter is directly proportional to copper losses and
inversely proportional to iron losses.

2. Windings

Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires
are used due to the following:

 The high conductivity of copper minimises the loss in a transformer because

when the conductivity increases, resistance to current flow decreases.
 The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows it to be made
into very thin wires.
There are mainly two types of windings: primary windings and secondary windings.

 Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which the supply current is fed.
 Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which output is taken

The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation
coating agents.

3. Insulation Agents

Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other and to
avoid short circuits. This facilitates mutual induction. Insulation agents have an
influence on the durability and stability of a transformer.

The following are used as insulation mediums in a transformer

 Insulating oil
 Insulating tape
 Insulating paper
 Wood-based lamination

Ideal Transformer
The ideal transformer has no losses. There is no magnetic leakage flux, ohmic resistance
in its windings and no iron loss in the core.

N1 – Number of turns in the primary

N2 – Number of turns in the secondary

Φm – Maximum flux in the weber (Wb)

T – Time period. It is the time taken for 1 cycle.

The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum value of Φm and decreases
to a negative maximum of Φm. So, flux reaches a maximum in one-quarter of a cycle.
The time taken is equal to T/4.

Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4fΦm

Where, f = frequency

T = 1/f

Induced EMF per turn = Rate of change of flux per turn

Form factor = RMS value / average value

RMS value = 1.11 (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of a sine wave is 1.11]

RMS value of EMF induced in winding = RMS value of EMF per turn x No. of turns

Primary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1

Secondary Winding

RMS value of induced EMF = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2

This is the EMF equation of the transformer.

For an ideal transformer at no load condition,

E1 = Supply voltage on the primary winding

E2 = Terminal voltage (theoretical or calculated) on the secondary winding

Voltage Transformation Ratio

K is called the voltage transformation ratio, which is a constant.

Case 1:If N2 > N1, K>1, it is called a step-up transformer.

Case 2: If N2< N1, K<1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Transformer Efficiency
Comparing system output with input will confirm transformer efficiency. The system is
called better when its efficiency is high.
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Applications of Transformer

 The transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.
 Transformers with multiple secondaries are used in radio and TV receivers, whic
h require several different voltages.
 Transformers are used as voltage regulators.

UNIT III
AC MACHINES

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

 An electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical

energy. The motor consists of two parts: the rotor and the stator.
 The rotor part is not fixed and thus it moves whereas the stator part is fixed and
doesn’t move.
 Magnet and armature are also a part of the electric motor, one of which is
attached to the stator and the other is attached to the rotor.
 There are other types of induction motors, and they are called induction motors
because rotor winding is not connected electrically anyhow to any of the source
supplies and the current and voltage are present through the induction which is
from stator winding.
 A Squirrel Cage Induction Motor is a type of three-phase induction motor.

What is Squirrel Cage Induction Motor?

 A Squirrel Cage Induction Motor is widely used in industrial and commercial
areas, it is called a “Squirrel Cage” because the rotor which is placed inside it
looks like the “Squirrel Cage”.
 The shaft is connected to the rotor which looks like a cage and it works on the
principle of electromagnetism.
 So it uses the electromagnetic induction effect to convert the electrical energy
into rotational energy.
  Also, the torque-speed characteristics can be changed easily in Squirrel Cage
Induction Motor.
 It is used for continuous-speed work areas such as printing equipment and
other small devices.
 The speed torque characteristics can be easily changed by simply changing the
shape of the bars that are present in the rotors.
 The rotor is in a cylindrical shape which is of steel lamination and as the
current passes through the stator windings then the magnetic field is produced,
hence producing current in rotor winding and inducing its magnetic field
respectively. This magnetic field of the stator and rotor together produces a
torque on the Squirrel Cage Induction Motor.

Construction and Components of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

The Squirrel Cage Induction Motor consists of the parts –
 Stator
 Rotor
 Fan
 Bearing

Construction of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

  Stator has a laminated core with spaced slots , which cover the stator winding
and provides the low reluctance path for the flux by AC current .
 The windings are apart by 120 degree -electrically as well as
mechanically .Since the stator winding is connected to AC power supply –
produces the rotating magnetic field.
 The rotor is the moving part of the induction motor which is also responsible
for converting the electrical energy to mechanical output.
 The rotor core is laminated in order to avoid the eddy current loss and
hysteresis loss.
 The iron cores are shorted at both ends and are generally made up of
aluminium or copper.
 This also gives the better transformation ratio between stator and motor – the
reason is that the conductors are skewed , also to prevent cogging. Fan is
present at the back of the rotor for the heat exchange to the environment , the
heat is propelled by the fan to the environment so the temperature of the motor
gets maintained.
 Bearing is used basically to reduce friction , heat generation and to avoid metal
to metal contact and supports rotating shaft which allows rotor to rotate
smoothly- overall used for the smooth rotation of the motor.

Working Principle of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

 The overall working of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor is based on the principle
of electromagnetism.
 As the 3 phase supply is given to the stator winding , a rotating magnetic field
is produced and the speed is called the synchronous speed.
 Then the voltage is induced in the rotor bars and causes current to flow
through it that creates a magnetic field or we can say that a self magnetic
field is generated which gets interact with the field of the stator .
 The interaction between the two generates torque which allows the motor to
start and move , the rotor follows the rotating magnetic field .
 Since there is zero tangential force then the rotor decelerates for sometime .
Then, after this the rotor current gets induced again and tangential force of the
rotor is restored , so the rotor maintains the constant speed which is less than
the synchronous speed .
 The speed difference the rotor and stator fields , induces the rotor current –
which generates torque and motor continues to run .
 So in that case the constant speed of rotor is less than the synchronous speed of
the motor , so , Slip is a measure of the difference between the speed of the
rotating magnetic field and rotor speed .
Types of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Based on the electrical characteristics and the need in the commercial and industrial
applications , the motor is divided into six categories , which are mentioned below:
 Class A
 Class B
 Class C
 Class D
 Class E
 Class F
Class A
 This is the most popular and used type of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor. They
are widely used in machine tools , fans , etc.
 They have normal starting toque, low resistance, slip and higher efficiency at
full load. Also they have slip which 5%less than the synchronous speed.
 The main disadvantage is the high starting current at rated voltage.
Class B
 They operate at high reactance and can be easily replaced with the Class A type
for the new installations and requirements , especially when reduced starting
voltage is needed.
 They start at full load and are used in high inertia uses such as large fans , and
so on .
 They have normal starting torque , low slip and the starting current , high
pullout torque but still lest than that of class A and Class B design is more
preferred somehow because of the low start current characteristics.
Class C
 These type have low starting current and high starting torque and have low
starting current characteristics , they are also called as double cage motors .
 Most commonly used applications are used in high starting torque applications
such as Conveyors , crushers , reciprocating pumps , etc.
 It has low slip and less pullout torque as compared to than that of class A.
Class D
 These motors have high resistance and also have high starting torque and low
starting current , and a large amount of slip at full load .
 Common applications for these type of motors are bulldozers, shears , etc.
 They have low operating efficiency and the high rotor resistance makes these
motors strong .
 In this class of motor, full load slip is high because rotor resistance is always
high.
Class E
 These motors operating at normal starting current and low starting torque ,
normal starting current and have low slip at rated load .
 They require compensator because starting current is high for the motors
above 5 kW ratings .
Class F
 These motors operate at low starting current and low starting torque and at
normal slip.
 They maintain a constant speed , self starting and require low maintenance .
Most commonly used in centrifugal pumps.

Difference Between Squirrel Cage Induction Motor and Slip Ring Induction Motor
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Slip Ring Induction Motor

The rotor of the motor is not simply

The rotor of the motor is Squirrel cage
constructed , it is slip ring type and
type that is simple and rugged.
consist of slip rings, brushes , etc.

Cost and maintenance is less. High maintenance and expensive .

 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Slip Ring Induction Motor

No External resistance is added to the

rotor because the rotor bar is shorted at External resistance is added to the rotor.
the end.

The construction is complicated and

Simple construction and high efficiency.
efficiency is low.

Poor power factor and small copper Power factor can be improved at
losses. starting.

Parallel slots cylindrical laminated core

The slots of rotor are skewed.
are constructed.

Applications of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Some of the commonly used applications are as follows:
 Used in industrial drives as Pumps, fans , blowers , conveyors etc.
 Used in refrigeration systems such as in freezers , A.C , refrigerators, etc.
 Used in commercial and other buildings in pumps, elevators, ventilation
systems ,etc.
 Used in wind turbines, hydroelectric power plants , etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of the Squirrel Cage Induction Motor are
as follows:
Advantages of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
 High Reliability : Due to robust construction , we can say that these motors are
highly reliable and can run for long terms .
 High Efficiency : At full load conditions , these motors have high efficiency , since
they have minimal losses ,less energy consumptions which saves energy and makes
them long-lasting.
 Cost Effective : As discussed already , the construction is simple so this makes
these motors cost effective in all terms either in purchasing terms on in
maintaining terms .
 Simple and Robust Construction: These rotors have a simple design with rotors of
shorted bars and there is no need of brushes and slip rings , which makes them
robust and requires less maintenance .
 Explosion Proof: These motors are explosion proof as there are no brushes so there
is no risk of sparking.
 Speed Regulation : As these motors maintains constant speed so we can say that
they have good speed regulation .
Disadvantages of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
 Sensitive: These motors are most sensitive in the fluctuations of supply voltage.
 Poor starting torque: Due to the low rotor resistance , the starting torque is very
poor.
 Energy consuming : In the starting process ,they consume a lot of energy although
they are energy efficient .
 Speed Control: Squirrel Cage Induction Motor have very poor speed control.
 Single-Phase Induction Motor – Construction, Operation & Types of 1-
Phase Induction Motors
 The single-phase motors are more preferred over a three-phase induction motor
for domestic, commercial applications.
 Because form utility, only single-phase supply is available. So, in this type of
application, the three-phase induction motor cannot be used.
 in the following post, we will be showing the construction and different types of
1-phase induction motors with working and applications.

Construction of Single-Phase Induction Motor

 A single phase induction motor is similar to the three phase squirrel cage
induction motor except there is single phase two windings (instead of one three
phase winding in 3-phase motors) mounted on the stator and the cage winding
rotor is placed inside the stator which freely rotates with the help of mounted
bearings on the motor shaft.
 The construction of a single-phase induction motor is similar to the construction
of a three-phase induction motor.

Similar to a three-phase induction motor, single-phase induction motor also has two
main parts;
 Stator
 Rotor
Stator
 In stator, the only difference is in the stator winding. The stator winding is
single-phase winding instead of three-phase winding.
 The stator core is the same as the core of the three-phase induction motor.
 In a single-phase induction motor, there are two winding are used in stator
except in shaded-pole induction motor.
 Out of these two windings, one winding is the main winding and the second is
auxiliary winding.
 The stator core is laminated to reduce the eddy current loss. The single-phase
supply is given to the stator winding (main winding)
Rotor
  Rotor of single-phase induction motor is the same as a rotor of squirrel cage
induction motor.
 Instead of rotor winding, rotor bars are used and it is short-circuited at the end
by end-rings.
 Hence, it makes a complete path in the rotor circuit.
 The rotor bars are braced to the end-rings to increase the mechanical strength
of the motor.
The rotor slots are skewed at some angle to avoid magnetic coupling. And it also used to
make a motor run smooth and quiet.
The following fig shows the stator and rotor of a 1-phase induction motor.

Working of Single-phase Induction Motor

 Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding).
 The alternating current flowing through the stator winding produces magnetic
flux. This flux is known as the main flux.
 Now we assume that the rotor is rotating and it is placed in a magnetic field
produced by the stator winding.
 According to Faraday’s law, the current start flowing in the rotor circuit it is a
close path. This current is known as rotor current.
 Due to the rotor current, the flux produced around the rotor winding. This flux
is known as rotor flux.
 There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is
the rotor flux which is produced by the rotor.
  Interaction between main flux and rotor flux, the torque produced in the rotor
and it starts rotating.
 The stator field is alternating in nature. The speed of the stator field is the same
as synchronous speed. The synchronous speed of the motor depends on the
number of pole and supply frequency.
 It can represent by two revolving fields. These fields are equal in magnitude and
rotating in the opposite direction.
 Let say Φm is a maximum field induced in the main winding. So, this field is
divided into two equal parts and that is Φm/2 and Φm/2.
 Out of these two fields, one field Φf is rotating in an anticlockwise direction and
the second field Φb is rotating in a clockwise direction. Therefore, the resultant
field is zero.
Φr = Φf – Φb

Φr = 0
Now consider the resultant field at different instants.

 When a motor starts, two fields are induced as shown in the above figure. These
two fields are the same magnitude and opposite direction. So, resultant flux is
zero.
 In this condition, the stator field cannot cut by rotor field and resultant torque is
zero. So, the rotor cannot rotate but it produces humming.
Now consider after the rotation of 90˚, both filed are rotated and pointing in the same
direction. Therefore, the resultant flux is a summation of both fields.

Φr = Φf + Φb

Φr = 0
 In this condition, the resultant filed is equal to the maximum field induced by the
stator. Now, both fields rotate separately and it is alternative in nature.
 So, both fields cut by the rotor circuit and EMF induced in the rotor conductor.
Due to this EMF, the current starts flowing in the rotor circuit and it induces a
rotor flux.
 Due to the interaction between stator flux and rotor flux motor continues to
rotate. This theory is known as Double Revolving Theory or double field
revolving theory.
 Now, from the above explanation, we can conclude that the single-phase
induction motor is not self-starting.
 To make this motor self-starting motor, we need stator flux rotating in nature
instead of alternating nature. This can be done by various methods.

Types of Single-phase Induction Motors

The single-phase induction motors are classified as;
 Split Phase Induction Motor
 Shaded Pole Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor
 Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor
Split Phase Induction Motor
 In this type of motor, an extra winding is wounded on the same core of the stator.
So, there are two windings in the stator.
 One winding is known as the main winding or running winding and second
winding is known as starting winding or auxiliary winding. A centrifugal switch
is connected in series with the auxiliary winding.
 The auxiliary winding is highly resistive winding and the main winding is highly
inductive winding. The auxiliary winding has few turns with a small diameter.
 The aim of auxiliary winding is to create a phase difference between both fluxes
produced by the main winding and rotor winding.

 The connection diagram is as shown in the above figure. The current flowing
through the main winding is IM and current flowing through the auxiliary
winding is IA. Both windings are parallel and supplied by voltage V.
 The auxiliary winding is highly resistive in nature. So, the current IA is almost in
phase with supply voltage V.
 The main winding is highly inductive in nature. So, the current IM lags behind
the supply voltage with a large angle.
 The total stator flux is induced by the resultant current of these two winding. As
shown in the phasor diagram, the resultant current is represented as (I).
 It will create a phase difference between fluxes and resultant flux produces a
rotating magnetic field. And the motor starts rotating.
 Auxiliary winding only uses to start the motor. This winding is not useful in
running condition. When the motor reaches 75 to 80 % of synchronous speed,
the centrifugal switch opens. So, the auxiliary winding is out from the circuit.
And motor runs on only main winding.
  The phase difference creates by this method is very small. Hence, the starting
torque of this motor is poor. So, this motor is used in low starting torque
applications like a fan, blower, grinder, pumps, etc.

Shaded Pole Induction Motor

 As compared to other types of single-phase induction motor, this motor has a
different construction and working principle. This type of motor does not
require auxiliary winding.
 This motor has stator salient pole or projecting pole and the rotor is the same as
squirrel cage induction motor. The stator poles are constructed specially to
create a rotating magnetic field.
 A pole of this motor is divided into two parts; shaded part and un-shaded part. It
can be created by cutting pole into unequal distances.
 A copper ring is placed in the small part of the pole. This ring is a highly
inductive ring and it is known as a shaded ring or shaded band.
 The part at which shaded ring is paced is known as shaded part of the pole and
the remaining part is an unshaded part.
The construction of this motor is as shown in the below figure.

When an alternating supply passing through the stator winding, an alternating flux induced in the
stator coil. Due to this flux, some amount of flux will link with shaded ring and current will flow
through a shaded ring.

According to Len’z law, the current passing through coil is opposite in nature, and flux
produced due to this coil will oppose the main flux.
The shaded ring is a highly inductive coil. So, it will oppose the main flux when both
fluxes are in the same direction and it will increase the main flux when both fluxes are
in the opposite direction.
So, it will create a phase difference between the main flux (stator flux) and rotor flux.
By this method, a phase difference is very less. Hence, the starting torque is very less. It
is used in applications like toy motor, fan, blower, record player, etc.
 Related Post: Cable Size Calculation for LT & HT Motors
Capacitor Start Induction Motor
This type of motor is an advanced version of the Split phase induction motor. The
disadvantage of split-phase induction is low torque production. Because in this motor,
the phase difference created is very less.
This disadvantage compensates in this motor with the help of a capacitor connected in
series with auxiliary winding. The circuit diagram of this motor is as shown in the below
figure.

The capacitor used in this motor is a dry-type capacitor. This is designed to use with
alternating current. But this capacitor is not used for continuous operation.
In this method also, a centrifugal switch is used which disconnects the capacitor and
auxiliary winding when the motor runs 75-80% of synchronous speed.
The current through auxiliary will lead the supply voltage by some angle. This angle is
more than the angle increased in a split-phase induction motor.
So, the starting torque of this motor is very high compared to the split-phase induction
motor. The starting torque of this motor is 300% more than the full load torque.
Due to high starting torque, this motor is used in the applications where high starting
torque is required like, a Lath machine, compressor, drilling machines, etc.
 Related Post: Motor Efficiency and How to improve it?
Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor
In this type of motor, two capacitors are connected in parallel with series in auxiliary
winding. Out of these two capacitors, one capacitor is used only for starting (starting
capacitor) and another capacitor is connected permanently with the motor (running
capacitor).
The circuit diagram of this figure is as shown in the below figure.

The starting capacitor has high capacitance value and a running capacitor has low
capacitance value. The starting capacitor is connected in series with a centrifugal switch
that will open when the speed of the motor is 70% of synchronous speed.
During running conditions, both running winding and auxiliary winding connected with
motor. The starting torque and efficiency of this motor are very high.
Therefore, this can be used in the application where high starting torque is required like
a refrigerator, air conditioner, ceiling fan, compressor, etc.
 Related Post: DC Machine – Construction, Working, Types and Applications
Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor
The low-value capacitor is connected constantly with the auxiliary winding. Here, the
capacitor has low capacitance.
The capacitor is used to increase the starting torque but it is low compared to the
capacitor start induction motor.
The circuit diagram and phasor diagram of this motor is as shown in the below figure.
The power factor and efficiency of this motor are very high and also it has a high
starting torque that is 80% of full load torque.
This type of motor is used in the application like an exhaust fan, blower, heater, etc.
 Related Post: What is Motor Starter? Types of Motor Starters and Motor Starting
Methods
Applications of Single Phase Induction Motors
Single phase motors are not self starting and less efficient than three phase induction
motor and available in 0.5HP to 15HP and still they are widely used for multiple
purposes such as:
 Clocks
 Refrigerators, freezers and heaters
 Fans, table fans, ceiling fan, exhaust fans, air coolers and water coolers.
 Blowers
 Washing machines
 machine tools
 Dryers
 Type writers, photostats and printers
 Water pumps and submersible
 Computers
 Grinders
 Drilling machines
 Other Home instrument, equipment and devices etc.

Double Revolving Field Theory

According to the double revolving field theory of single-phase induction motor, a

stationary pulsating magnetic field can be resolved into two rotating magnetic fields.
Both the magnetic fields are of equal magnitude but rotating in opposite directions. The
motor responds to each magnetic field separately and the net torque produced in the
motor is equal to the sum of the torques due to each of the two magnetic fields.

Mathematically, an alternating magnetic field whose field axis is fixed in the space is
given by,

B(θ)=Bmaxsinωtcosθ…(1)�(�)=�maxsin��cos�…(1)

Where, Bmax is the maximum value of magnetic flux density which is sinusoidally
distributed in the air-gap of the motor.

This magnetic field is produced by a properly distributed stator winding carrying a

current of frequency ω and θ is the space displacement angle measured form the axis of
the stator winding.

(∵sinXsinY=12sin(X−Y)+12sin(X+Y)(∵sin�sin�=12sin(�−�)+12sin(�+�)
∴B(θ)=12Bmaxsin(ωt−θ)+12Bmaxsin(ωt+θ)…(2)∴�(�)=12�maxsin(��−�)+12�maxsin(
��+�)…(2)

The first term of eqn. (2) represents a revolving field which is moving in the positive θ
direction and has a maximum value equal to 1212 while the second term represents a
revolving magnetic field which is moving in the negative θ direction and has a
maximum value also equal to 12Bmax12���� .

The magnetic field rotating in positive θ direction is known as the forward rotating field,
while the magnetic field rotating in the negative θ direction is known as the backward
rotating field.

The positive direction is the direction in which the single-phase induction motor is
started initially. Both the magnetic fields rotate at synchronous speed in opposite
direction. Hence,

Forwardrotatingfield=12Bmaxsin(ωt−θ)Forwardrotatingfield=12�maxsin(��−�)

And

Backwardrotatingfield=12Bmaxsin(ωt+θ)Backwardrotatingfield=12�maxsin(��+�)

Therefore, it can be concluded that a stationary magnetic field can be resolved into two
rotating magnetic fields, both of equal in magnitude and rotating at synchronous speed
in opposite directions at the same frequency as the stationary magnetic field pulsates.
Such a theory which is based on a resolution of a stationary pulsating magnetic field
into two opposite rotating magnetic fields is known as double-revolving field theory of
single-phase induction motors.

When the rotor is stationary, the two torques produced are equal and opposite. Hence,
at standstill, the net torque is zero. However, if the rotor is given an initial rotation by
some auxiliary means in either directions, then the torque due to the rotating magnetic
field acting in the either direction of initial rotation will be more than the torque due to
the other rotating magnetic field. Thus, the motor develops a net torque in the same
direction as the initial rotation. Therefore, the motor will keep running in the same
direction of the initial rotation.

UNIT IV
ELECTRONICS

Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and

insulators. Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic
semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type
semiconductors.

The P-N junction is formed between the p-type and the n-type semiconductors. In this
session, let us know more about the P-N Junction.

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor

material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.

In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side or
the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the
negative side has an excess of electrons. The process of doping is explained in further
detail in the next section.

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a P-N junction, there

will be a grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to
the other by scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of doping.
We will understand the process of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider
a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent
impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This sheet
will now contain both the p-type region and the n-type region and a junction between
these two regions. The processes that follow after forming a P-N junction are of two
types – diffusion and drift. There is a difference in the concentration of holes and
electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side,
and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a diffusion
current across the junction.

Read More: Semiconductor Materials

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionised donor is left
behind on the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive
charge is developed on the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the
p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left behind on the p-side, resulting in the
formation of a layer of negative charges in the p-side of the junction. This region of
positive charge and negative charge on either side of the junction is termed as the
depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the junction,
an electric field with the direction from a positive charge towards the negative charge is
developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to
the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed the drift. Here, we see that the
direction of the drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:

  P-type
 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the
voltage applied:

 Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the
p-type while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-
type and the positive is connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the n-type to the
negative terminal, then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. When the P-N
junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the applied
electric field are in opposite directions. When both the electric fields add up, the
resultant electric field has a magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results
in a less resistive and thinner depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance
becomes negligible when the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V,
the resistance of the depletion region becomes completely negligible, and the current
flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal and the n-type is
connected to the positive side, the P-N junction is reverse biased. In this case, the built-
in electric field and the applied electric field are in the same direction. When the two
fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in
electric field, creating a more resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region
becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes larger.

P-N Junction Formula

The formula used in the P-N junction depends upon the built-in potential difference
created by the electric field is given as:

�0=����[��.����2]

Where,

 E0 is the zero bias junction voltage

  VT is the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature
 ND and NA are the impurity concentrations
 ni is the intrinsic concentration.

How does current flow in the PN junction diode?

The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the junction takes place
when there is an increase in the voltage. Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side
towards the n-side of the junction takes place along with the increase in the voltage.
This results in the concentration gradient between both sides of the terminals. Due to
the concentration gradient formation, charge carriers will flow from higher-
concentration regions to lower-concentration regions. The movement of charge carriers
inside the P-N junction is the reason behind the current flow in the circuit.

V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current
through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along
the y-axis. The above graph is the V-I characteristics curve of the P-N junction diode.
With the help of the curve, we can understand that there are three regions in which the
diode works, and they are:

 Zero bias
  Forward bias
 Reverse bias
When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external voltage
applied and this means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow
of current.

When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the
positive terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external
voltage. When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential
barrier. For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when
the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.

When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve obtained
is non-linear as the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once
the diode overcomes the potential barrier, the diode behaves normally, and the curve
rises sharply as the external voltage increases, and the curve obtained is linear.

When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the
negative terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external
voltage. This results in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current
flows in the beginning as minority carriers are present in the junction.

When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic
energy which affects the majority charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down.
This may also destroy the diode.

Applications of P-N Junction Diode

 P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the
light when the configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.
 It can be used as a solar cell.
 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.
 It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled
oscillator in varactors.

Zener diode

r Diode
Discover the versatile functionality of Zener diodes, which enable the flow of current in
both forward and reverse directions. As one of the most widely used semiconductor
diodes, Zener diodes play a crucial role in electronic circuits. This article provides an in-
depth exploration of Zener diodes, covering their explanation, definition, operation in
reverse bias, breakdown mechanisms (avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown),
circuit symbol, V-I characteristics, and specifications. Additionally, we delve into the
applications of Zener diodes and address frequently asked questions for a
comprehensive understanding of this essential electronic component.

Zener Diode Explanation

A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped

semiconductor device engineered to function in the reverse direction. When the voltage
across a Zener diode’s terminals is reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage (also known
as the knee voltage), the junction experiences a breakdown, allowing current to flow in
the opposite direction. This phenomenon, known as the Zener Effect, is a key
characteristic of Zener diodes.

Zener Diode Definition

A Zener diode is a highly doped semiconductor device specifically designed to function

in the reverse direction. It is engineered with a wide range of Zener voltages (Vz), and
certain types are even adjustable to achieve variable voltage regulation.

How does a Zener Diode work in reverse bias?

A Zener diode functions similarly to a regular diode when forward-biased. However, in

reverse-biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode. As the reverse
voltage increases and reaches the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), current
begins to flow through the diode. This current reaches a maximum level determined by
the series resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains constant across a wide range of
applied voltages.

There are two types of breakdowns in a Zener Diode: Avalanche Breakdown and Zener
Breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode

Avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and Zener diodes when subjected
to high reverse voltage. When a significant reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction,
the free electrons gain enough energy to accelerate at high velocities. These high-
velocity electrons collide with other atoms, causing the ejection of additional electrons.
This continuous collision process generates a large number of free electrons, resulting in
a rapid increase in electric current through the diode. In the case of a normal diode, this
sudden surge in current could permanently damage it. However, a Zener diode is
specifically designed to withstand avalanche breakdown and can handle the sudden
current spike. Avalanche breakdown typically occurs in Zener diodes with a Zener
voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode

When the reverse bias voltage applied to a Zener diode approaches its Zener voltage,
the electric field within the depletion region becomes strong enough to attract and
remove electrons from their valence band. These valence electrons, energized by the
intense electric field, break free from their parent atoms. This phenomenon takes place
in the Zener breakdown region, where even a slight increase in voltage leads to a rapid
surge in electric current.

Avalanche Breakdown vs. Zener Breakdown

The Zener effect is predominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts, while the avalanche effect
becomes more prominent beyond that threshold. Although both effects are similar, the
distinction lies in the fact that the Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon, whereas the
avalanche effect involves the movement of electrons in the valence band, similar to an
electric current. The avalanche effect allows a larger current through the diode
compared to what a Zener breakdown would permit.

Read More: Difference Between Zener Breakdown and Avalanche Breakdown

Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode

Zener diodes come in various packaging options, depending on their power dissipation
requirements. Some are designed for high-power applications, while others are
available in surface mount formats. The most commonly used Zener diode is packaged
in a small glass enclosure, with a distinctive band indicating the cathode side of the
diode.
 Zener diode symbol and package outlines

The symbol used to represent a Zener diode in circuit diagrams is similar to that of a
regular diode, but with a unique addition. It consists of a triangle or arrowhead
pointing towards the cathode side (the side with the band) of the diode. This triangle is
accompanied by two perpendicular lines at the cathode end, one extending upwards and
the other extending downwards. These lines indicate the specific behaviour of the Zener
diode and help distinguish it from other types of diodes in circuit diagrams. The symbol
provides a visual representation that allows engineers and technicians to easily identify
and understand the presence of a Zener diode in a circuit.

V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.
 When reverse-biased voltage is applied to a Zener diode, it allows only a small amount of
leakage current until the voltage is less than Zener voltage.
The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode.
From the graph, we understand that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics
of P-N junction diode.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse saturation current
Io flows across the diode. This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers.
As the reverse voltage increases, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse
current increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown has
occurred. We call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, and Vz denotes it.

Zener Diode Specifications

Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:

 Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown voltage ranges

from 2.4 V to 200 V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV while the maximum for the
surface-mounted device is 47 V.
 Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener Voltage (Vz –
200μA to 200 A)
 Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for the diode to
break down.
 Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate. It
is given by the product of the voltage of the diode and the current flowing
through it.
 Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability
 Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%
 Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode exhibits.

Application of Zener Diode

Following are the applications of Zener diode:

Zener diode as a voltage regulator:

The zener diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across small
loads. The Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias, and
once the Zener diode exceeds knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become
constant. The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of
currents.

Read More: Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

Zener diode in over-voltage protection:

When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across
the resistor drops resulting in a short circuit, this can be avoided by using the Zener
diode.

Zener diode in clipping circuits:

Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting the parts
of either one or both the half cycles of an AC waveform.

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORipolar Junction Transistor

W. Shockley, J. Barden, and W. Brattain invented the transistor in 1947. The term
‘transistor’ is derived from the words ‘transfer’ and ‘resistor.’ These words describe
the operation of a BJT which is the transfer of an input signal from a low resistance
circuit to a high resistance circuit. In this article, let us learn more about the Bipolar
Junction Transistor.

What is a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)?

A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of

two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current
controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the
emitter. A signal of a small amplitude applied to the base is available in the amplified
form at the collector of the transistor. This is the amplification provided by the BJT.
Note that it does require an external source of DC power supply to carry out the
amplification process.

Bipolar Junction Transistor Symbol

Construction of Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJT is a semiconductor device that is constructed with 3 doped semiconductor Regions

i.e. Base, Collector & Emitter separated by 2 p-n Junctions.

Bipolar transistors are manufactured in two types, PNP and NPN, and are available as
separate components, usually in large quantities. The prime use or function of this type
of transistor is to amplify current. This makes them useful as switches or amplifiers.
They have a wide application in electronic devices like mobile phones, televisions, radio
transmitters, and industrial control.

Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are three operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor:

 Active region: The region in which the transistors operate as an amplifier.

 Saturation region: The region in which the transistor is fully on and operates as
a switch such that collector current is equal to the saturation current.
 Cut-off region: The region in which the transistor is fully off and collector
current is equal to zero.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:

 PNP bipolar junction transistor

 NPN bipolar junction transistor

PNP BJT

In PNP BJT, the n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two p-type
semiconductors. The two p-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector
respectively while the n-type semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure
below.

The current enters the transistor through the emitter such that the emitter-base
junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
NPN BJT

In NPN BJT, p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two n-type

semiconductors. The two n-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector
respectively while the p-type semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure
below.

Current entering the emitter, base, and collector has the sign convention of positive
while the current that leaves the transistor has the sign convention of negative.

Function of Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJTs are of two types namely NPN and PNP based on doping types of the three main
terminals. An NPN transistor consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin
p-doped anode region and PNP transistor also consists of two semiconductor junctions
that have a thin n- doped cathode region.
The flow of charge in a Bipolar transistor is due to the diffusion of charge carriers
between the two regions belonging to different charge concentrations. Regions of BJT
are known as the base, collector, and emitter.

The emitter region is highly doped when compared to other layers. Both collector and
base layers have the same charge carrier concentrations. Among these junctions, the
base-emitter junction is forward biased, and the base-collector junction is reverse
biased. Forward biased means p-doped region has more potential than the n-doped side.

Voltage, Charge Control and Current

The base-emitter current is controlled by the collector-emitter current. This conclusion

is drawn by the current-voltage relation of the base-emitter junction. Collector current
has a base region where minority carriers are concentrated.
Transistor models such as the Glenn poon model are responsible for the distribution of
the charge which explains the behaviour of a transistor.

Configuration of Bipolar Junction Transistors

Since a Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three-terminal device, there are three ways to
connect it within an electric circuit while one terminal is the same for both output and
input. Every method of connection responds differently to the input signals within a
circuit.

 Common Emitter Configuration – has both voltage and current gain

 The common Collector Configuration – has no voltage gain but has a current
gain
 The common base configuration – has no current gain but has a voltage gain

Characteristics of different transistor configurations are given in the following table:

Characteristics Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

Power Gain low Very high medium

Current gain low medium high

Voltage gain High Medium low

Phase angle 0 180 0

Output impedance Very high high low

Input Impedance Low medium high

Applications of BJT

We know that a bipolar junction transistor is used as a switch, as an amplifier, as a

filter, and even as an oscillator. Below is the list of other applications of bipolar junction
transistor:

 BJT is used as a detector or also known as a demodulator.

 BJT finds application in clipping circuits so that the waves can be shaped.
 Logic circuits and switching circuits use BJT.

MOSFET

MOSFETs or Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors, were invented to overcome
the disadvantages posed by FETs, such as the slow operation, high drain resistance, and
moderate input impedance. In this article, let us learn about the basics of MOSFET.

MOSFET Basics

What Is a MOSFET?

Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistors commonly known as MOSFETs are
electronic devices used to switch or amplify voltages in circuits. It is a voltage controlled
device and is constructed by three terminals. The terminals of MOSFET are named as
follows:

 Source
 Gate
 Drain
 Body

MOSFET Construction

The circuit of MOSFET is typically represented as follows:

  The p-type semiconductor forms the base of the MOSFET.
 The two types of the base are highly doped with an n-type impurity which is
marked as n+ in the diagram.
 From the heavily doped regions of the base, the terminals source and drain
originate.
 The layer of the substrate is coated with a layer of silicon dioxide for insulation.
 A thin insulated metallic plate is kept on top of the silicon dioxide and it acts as a
capacitor.
 The gate terminal is brought out from the thin metallic plate.
 A DC circuit is then formed by connecting a voltage source between these two n-
type regions.

Working Principle of MOSFET

When voltage is applied to the gate, an electrical field is generated that changes the
width of the channel region, where the electrons flow. The wider the channel region, the
better conductivity of a device will be.

Similar Reading

Field Effect Transistors Bipolar Junction Transistor

MOSFET Types
The classification of MOSFET based on the construction and the material used is given
below in the flowchart.

MOSFETs are of two classes: Enhancement mode and depletion mode. Each class is
available as n-channel or p-channel; hence overall they tally up to four types of
MOSFETs.

Depletion Mode

When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, the channel shows maximum
conductance. When the voltage across the gate terminal is either positive or negative,
then the channel conductivity decreases.

Enhancement Mode

When there is no voltage across the gate terminal, then the device does not conduct.
When there is the maximum voltage across the gate terminal, then the device shows
enhanced conductivity.

The N-channel MOSFETs are abbreviated as NMOS and are symbolically represented
as shown in the figure below:
Similarly, the P-channel MOSFETs are abbreviated as PMOS and are symbolically
represented as follows:
Operating Regions of MOSFET

A MOSFET is seen to exhibit three operating regions. Here, we will discuss those
regions.

Cut-Off Region

The cut-off region is a region in which there will be no conduction and as a result, the
MOSFET will be OFF. In this condition, MOSFET behaves like an open switch.

Ohmic Region

The ohmic region is a region where the current (IDS)increases with an increase in the
value of VDS. When MOSFETs are made to operate in this region, they are used as
amplifiers.

Saturation Region

In the saturation region, the MOSFETs have their IDS constant in spite of an increase
in VDS and occurs once VDS exceeds the value of pinch-off voltage VP. Under this
condition, the device will act like a closed switch through which a saturated value
of IDS flows. As a result, this operating region is chosen whenever MOSFETs are
required to perform switching operations.

MOSFET as a Switch

MOSFETs are commonly used as switches. The circuit below shows the configuration of
MOSFET when it is used as a switch.

In the circuit arrangement, an Enhancement-mode N-channel MOSFET is used to

switch a simple lamp “ON” and “OFF.” The input fate voltage Vgs is adjusted to an
appropriate positive voltage to switch “ON” the device and the voltage level is set to a
negative value or zero to turn it “OFF.”

The switching characteristics for both N-channel and P-channel type MOSFET are
summarised in the table below:
MOSFET Type VGS ≪ 0 VGS = 0 VGS ≫ 0

N-channel Enhancement OFF OFF ON

N-channel Depletion OFF ON ON

P-channel Enhancement ON OFF OFF

P-channel Depletion ON ON OFF

MOSFET vs BJT

In this section, let us discuss some differences between MOSFET and BJT.

MOSFET BJT

There are two types of MOSFET and they are BJT is of two types and they are named as:
named: N-type or P-type PNP and NPN

MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device BJT is a current-controlled device

The input resistance of MOSFET is high. The input resistance of BJT is low.

Used in high current applications Used in low current applications

MOSFET applications

 Radiofrequency applications use MOSFET amplifiers extensively.

 MOSFET behaves as a passive circuit element.
 Power MOSFETs can be used to regulate DC motors.
 MOSFETs are used in the design of the chopper circuit.

Advantages of MOSFET

 MOSFETs operate at greater efficiency at lower voltages.

 Absence of gate current results in high input impedance producing high
switching speed.

Disadvantages of MOSFET
  MOSFETs are vulnerable to damage by electrostatic charges due to the thin
oxide layer.
 Overload voltages make MOSFETs unstable.
IGBT – Working, Types, Structure, Operation & Applications
Thyristors are the most used components in modern electronics and logic circuits are
used for switching and amplification. BJT and MOSFET are the most used types of the
transistor where each of them has its own advantage over the other and some
limitations. The IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) takes the best parts of
both BJT and MOSFET into a single transistor. It takes the input characteristics (high
input impedance) of MOSFET (Insulated Gate) and the output characteristics of BJT
(Bipolar nature).
What is IGBT?
The IGBT or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is the combination of BJT and
MOSFET. Its name also implies the fusion between them. “Insulated Gate” refers to the
input part of MOSFET having very high input impedance. It does not draw any input
current rather it operates on the voltage at its gate terminal. “Bipolar” refers to the
output part of the BJT having bipolar nature where the current flow is due to both
types of charge carriers. It allows it to handle very large currents and voltages using
small voltage signals. This hybrid combination makes the IGBT a voltage-controlled
device.

It is a four-layer PNPN device having three PN junctions. It has three terminals Gate
(G), Collector(C) and Emitter (E). The terminal’s name also implies being taken from
both transistors. Gate terminal as it is the input part, taken from MOSFET while the
collector and emitter as they are the output, taken from the BJT.

Construction of IGBT
IGBT is made of four layers of semiconductor to form a PNPN structure. The collector
(C) electrode is attached to P layer while the emitter (E) is attached between the P and
N layers. A P+ substrate is used for the construction of IGBT. An N- layer is placed on
top of it to form PN junction J1. Two P regions are fabricated on top of N- layer to form
PN junction J2. The P region is designed in such a way to leave a path in the middle for
the gate (G) electrode. N+ regions are diffused over the P region as shown in the figure.

The emitter and gate are metal electrodes. The emitter is directly attached to the N+
region while the gate is insulated using a silicon dioxide layer. The base P+ layer inject
holes into N- layer that is why it is called injector layer. While the N- layer is called the
drift region. Its thickness is proportional to voltage blocking capacity. The P layer
above is known as the body of IGBT.
The N- layer is designed to have a path for current flow between the emitter and
collector through the junction using the channel that is created under the influence of
the voltage at the gate electrode.
 Related Post: What is the Difference Between DIAC and TRIAC?
Equivalent Structure of IGBT
As we know that IGBT is the combination of input of MOSFET and output of BJT, it
has an equivalent structure to N-channel MOSFET and a PNP BJT in Darlington
configuration. The resistance of the drift region can also be incorporated.
If we look at the structure of the IGBT above, there is more than one path for the
current to flow. The current path is directed from collector to emitter. The first path is
“collector, P+ substrate, N-, P, emitter”. This path is already mentioned using the PNP
transistor in an equivalent structure. The 2nd path is “collector, P+ substrate, N-, P, N+,
emitter”. To include this path, another NPN transistor must be included in the structure
as shown in the figure below.

Working of IGBT
The two terminals of IGBT collector (C) and emitter (E) are used for the conduction of
current while the gate (G) is used for controlling the IGBT. Its working is based on the
biasing between Gate-Emitter terminals and Collector-Emitter terminals.

The collector-emitter is connected to Vcc such that the collector is kept at a positive
voltage than the emitter. The junction j1 becomes forward biased and j2 becomes
reverse biased. At this point, there is no voltage at the gate. Due to reverse j2, the IGBT
remains switched off and no current will flow between collector and emitter.
Applying a gate voltage VG positive than the emitter, negative charges will accumulate
right beneath the SiO2 layer due to capacitance. Increasing the VG increases the number
of charges which eventually form a layer when the VG exceeds the threshold voltage, in
the upper P-region. This layer form N-channel that shorts N- drift region and N+ region.
The electrons from the emitter flow from N+ region into N- drift region. While the holes
from the collector are injected from the P+ region into the N- drift region. Due to the
excess of both electrons and holes in the drift region, its conductivity increase and starts
the conduction of current. Hence the IGBT switches ON.
 Related Post: Types of Transistors – BJT, FET, JFET, MOSFET, IGBT & Special
Transistors
Types of IGBT
There are two types of IGBT based on the inclusion of N+ buffer layer. The inclusion of
this extra layer divides them into symmetrical and asymmetrical IGBT.
Punch through IGBT
The Punch through IGBT includes N+ buffer layer due to which it is also known as an
asymmetrical IGBT. They have asymmetric voltage blocking capabilities i.e. their
forward and reverse breakdown voltages are different. Their reverse breakdown
voltage is less than its forward breakdown voltage. It has faster switching speed.
Punch through IGBTs is unidirectional and cannot handle reverse voltages. Therefore,
they are used in DC circuits such as inverters and chopper circuits.

Non Punch through IGBT

They are also known as symmetrical IGBT due to the absence of extra N+ buffer layer.
The symmetry in structure provides symmetrical breakdown voltage characteristics i.e.
the forward and reverse breakdown voltages are equal. Due to this reason, they are
used in AC circuits.
V-I Characteristics of IGBT
Unlike BJT, IGBT is a voltage-controlled device that requires only a small voltage at its
gate to control the collector current. However, the gate-emitter voltage VGE needs to be
greater than the threshold voltage.
Transfer characteristics of the IGBT show the relation of input voltage VGE to output
collector current IC. When the VGE is 0v, there is no IC and the device remains switched
off. When the VGE is slightly increased but remains below threshold voltage VGET, the
device remains switched off but there is a leakage current. When the VGE exceeds the
threshold limit, the IC starts to increase and the device switches ON. Since it is a
unidirectional device, the current only flows in one direction.
The given graph shows the relation between the collector current IC and collector-
emitter voltage VCE at different levels of VGE. At VGE < VGET the IGBT is in cutoff
mode and the IC = 0 at any VCE. At VGE > VGET, the IGBT goes into active mode, where
the IC increases with an increase in VCE. Furthermore, for each VGE where VGE1 < VGE2 <
VGE3, the IC is different.
The reverse voltage should not exceed the reverse breakdown limit. So does the forward
voltage. If they exceed their respective breakdown limit, uncontrolled current starts
passing through it.
General Comparison with BJT and MOSFET
As we have discussed above, IGBT takes the best parts of both BJT and MOSFET.
Therefore, it is superior in almost every way. Here is a chart of some of the
characteristics showing the comparison between IGBT, BJT and MOSFET. we are
comparing power devices in their max capabilities.
Characteristic Power BJT Power MOSFET IGBT

Voltage Rating High < 1kV High < 1kV Very High > 1k

Current Rating High < 500 A Low < 200 A Very High > 500

Input Parameter Base Current, Ib Voltage, VGS Voltage, VGE

 Current gain (hfe) Voltage, VGS Voltage, VGE
Input Drive
20-200 3-10V 4-8V

Input Drive Power High Low Low

Input Drive Circuitry Complex Simple Simples

Input Impedance Low High High

Output Impedance Low Medium Low

Switching Loss High Low Medium

Switching Speed Low Fast Medium

Cost Low Medium High

Advantages & Disadvantages of IGBT

Advantages
IGBT as a whole has the advantages of both BJT and MOSFET.
 It has higher voltage and current handling capabilities.
 It has a very high input impedance.
 It can switch very high currents using very low voltage.
 It is voltage-controlled i.e. it has no input current and low input losses.
 The gate drive circuitry is simple and cheap.
 It can be easily switched ON by applying positive voltage and OFF by applying zero
or slightly negative voltage.
 It has very low ON-state resistance
 It has a high current density, enabling it to have a smaller chip size.
 It has a higher power gain than both BJT and MOSFET.
 It has a higher switching speed than BJT.
Disadvantages
 It has a lower switching speed than MOSFET.
 It is unidirectional it cannot conduct in reverse.
 It cannot block higher reverse voltage.
 It is costlier than BJT and MOSFET.
 It has latching problems due to the PNPN structure resembling thyristor.
Applications of IGBT
IGBTs have numerous applications used in AC as well as DC circuits. Here are some of
the important applications of IGBT
 It is used in SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) to supply power to sensitive
medical equipment and computers.
 It is used in UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) system.
 It is used in AC and DC motor drives offering speed control.
 It is used in chopper and inverters.
 It is used in solar inverters.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) | Construction & Working
The silicon controlled rectifier ( SCR ) is a three terminal semiconductor switching
device which can be used as a controlled switch to perform various functions such as
rectification, inversion and regulation of power flow.
An SCR can handle currents upto several thousand amperes and voltages upto more
than 1kV.

The SCR has appeared in the market under different names such as thyristor, thyrode
transistor.
Like the diode, SCR is a unidirectional device,i.e. it will only conduct current in one
direction only, but unlike a diode, the SCR can be made to operate as either an open-
circuit switch or as a rectifying diode depending upon how its gate is triggered.

In other words, SCR can operate only in the switching mode and cannot be used for
amplification.

Hence, it is extensively used in switching d.c. and a.c., rectifying a.c. to give controlled
output, converting d.c. into a.c. etc.

Constuctional Details of SCR

When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor, the resulting three pn junctions
device is called a silicon controlled rectifier.

Fig.1(i) shows the construction of an SCR.

Fig.1 (i)

It is clear that it is essentially an ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn)
combined in one unit to form pnpn device.

Three terminals are taken; one from the outer p-type material called anode A, second
from the outer layer of n-type material called cathode K and the third from the base of
transistor section and is called gate G.

In the normal operating conditions of SCR, anode is held at high positive potential w.r.t.
cathode and gate at small positive potential w.r.t. cathode.

Fig.1 (ii) shows the symbol of SCR.

 Fig.1 (ii)

Working of SCR
In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series with anode.

The anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t. cathode.

The working of SCR can be studied under the following two heads:

1. When gate is open:

Fig.2 shows the SCR circuit with gate open i.e. no voltage applied to the gate.

Fig.2

Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while junction J1 and J3 are forward
biased.
Hence, the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just as in a npn transistor with base
open.
Consequently, no current flows through the load RL and the SCR is cut off.
However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the
reverse biased junction J2 breaks down.
The SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be in the ON state.

The applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called
Breakover voltage.
2. When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode
The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying a small
positive potential to the gate as shown in fig.3.

Fig.3

Now junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased.

The electrons from n-type material start moving across junction J3 towards left whereas
holes from p-type towards the right.
Consequently, the electrons from junction J3 are attracted across the junction J2 and
gate current starts flowing .
As soon as the gate current flows, anode current increases.

The increased current in turn makes more electrons available at junction J2.
This process continues and in an extremely small time, junction J2 breaks down and the
SCR starts conducting heavily.
Once SCR starts conducting, the gate loses all control. Even if gate voltage is removed,
the anode current does not decrease at all.

The only way to stop conduction i.e. to bring the SCR in off condition, is to reduce the
applied voltage to zero.

Conclusion
The following conclusions are drawn from the working of SCR:

1. An SCR has two states i.e. either it does not conduct or it conducts heavily. There is
no state inbetween. Therefore, SCR behaves like a switch.
2. There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The first method is to keep the gate open
and make the supply voltage equal to the breakover voltage. The second method is
to operate SCR with supply voltage less than breakover voltage and then turn it on
by means of a small voltage applied to the gate.
3. Applying small positive voltage to the gate is the normal way to close an SCR
because the breakover voltage is usually much greater than supply voltage.
4. To open the SCR e. to make it non-conducting, reduce the supply voltage to zero.
Equivalent Circuit of SCR
The SCR shown in fig.4 (i) can be visualized as separated into two transistors as shown
in fig.4 (ii).
(i) (ii)
(iii)

Fig.4

Thus, the equivalent circuit of SCR is composed of pnp transistor and npn transistor
connected as shown in fig 4.(iii).

It is clear that collector of each transistor is coupled to the base of of the other, thereby
making a positive feedback loop.

The working of SCR can be easily explained from its equivalent circuit.

Fig.5 shows the equivalent circuit of SCR with supply voltage V and load resistance RL.

Fig.5

Assume the supply voltage V is less than breakover voltage as is usually the case.

With gate open (i.e. switch S open), there is no base current in transistor TR2. Therefore,
no current flows in the collector of TR2 and hence that of TR1.
Under such conditions, the SCR is open.

However, if the switch S is closed, a small gate current will flow through the base of
TR2 which means its collector current will increase.
The collector current of TR2 is the base current of TR1. Therefore, collector current of
TR1 increases.
But collector current of TR1 is the base current of TR2. This action is accumulative since
an increase of current in one transistor causes an increase of current in the other
transistor.
As a result of this action, both transistors are driven into saturation, and hence heavy
current flows through the load RL.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

as a Rectifier: Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier

The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits. These circuits are
used to describe the conversion of a.c signals to d.c in power supplies. Diode rectifier
gives an alternating voltage which pulsates in accordance with time. The filter smoothes
the pulsation in the voltage and to produce d.c voltage, a regulator is used which
removes the ripples.

There are two primary methods of diode rectification:

 Half Wave Rectifier

 Full Wave Rectifier

What Is Half Wave Rectifier?

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified. When the p-n
junction diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversed biased
it provides high resistance. During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the
input voltage is applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During
alternate half-cycles, the optimum result can be obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the positive half of
the input, the current will flow from positive to negative which will generate only a
positive half cycle of the a.c supply. When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the
voltage will be decreasing at the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in
the a.c supply will reduce, and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to the load resistor.

In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive and
the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no current
generated, and we cannot get power at the load resistance. A small amount of reverse
current will flow during reverse bias due to minority carriers.
Read More: Half-wave Rectifier

Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of half-wave rectifier:

Ripple Factor

Ripples are the oscillations that are obtained in DC which are corrected by using filters
such as inductors and capacitors. These ripples are measured with the help of the ripple
factor and are denoted by γ. Ripple factor tells us the number of ripples presents in the
output DC. Higher the ripple factor, more is the oscillation at the output DC and lower
is the ripple factor, less is the oscillation at the output DC.

Ripple factor is the ratio of RMS value of the AC component of the output voltage to the
DC component of the output voltage.

�=(�������)2−1

DC Current

DC current is given as:

���=�����

Where,

 Imax is the maximum DC load current

DC Output Voltage

The output DC voltage appears at the load resistor RL which is obtained by multiplying
output DC voltage with the load resistor RL. The output DC voltage is given as:

���=������

Where,

 VSmax is the maximum secondary voltage

Form Factor
The form factor is the ratio of RMS value to the DC value. For a half-wave rectifier, the
form factor is 1.57.

Rectifier Efficiency

Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power. For a half-
wave rectifier, rectifier efficiency is 40.6%.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Affordable
 Simple connections
 Easy to use as the connections are simple
 Number of components used are less

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Ripple production is more

 Harmonics are generated
 Utilization of the transformer is very low
 The efficiency of rectification is low

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:

 Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for
power rectification as powering equipment.
 Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM
signals.
 Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the
incoming waveform.

What Is Full Wave Rectifier?

Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output current
which is purely DC. The main advantage of a full-wave rectifier over half-wave rectifier
is that such as the average output voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier, there is less
ripple produced in full-wave rectifier when compared to the half-wave rectifier.

Read More: Full-wave Rectifier

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the p-n junction is
forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and when it is reverse biased it gives
high resistance. The circuit is designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the
diode is forward biased then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so on.

Characteristics of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of full-wave rectifier:

Ripple Factor

Ripple factor for a full-wave rectifier is given as:

�=(�������)2−1

DC Current

Currents from both the diodes D1 and D2 are in the same direction when they flow
towards load resistor RL. The current produced by both the diodes is the ratio of
Imax to π, therefore the DC current is given as:

���=2�����

Where,

 Imax is the maximum DC load current

DC Output Voltage

DC output voltage is obtained at the load resistor RL and is given as:

���=2�����

Where,

 Vmax is the maximum secondary voltage

Form Factor

The form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the output DC voltage. The
form factor of a full-wave rectifier is given as 1.11

Rectifier Efficiency

Rectifier efficiency is used as a parameter to determine the efficiency of the rectifier to

convert AC into DC. It is the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power. The
rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is 81.2%.

Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers, and they are:

 Two diodes full-wave rectifier circuit (requires a center-tapped transformer and

is used in vacuum tubes)
 Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require a centre-tapped transformer and is used
along with transformers for efficient usage)

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high

 The power loss is very low
 Number of ripples generated are less

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 Very expensive

Applications of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:

  Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding and for
this bridge rectifiers are used.
 Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated radio
signals.

Difference between Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier

Parameter Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier is a A full-wave rectifier is a

rectifier which is used for rectifier which is used for
Definition
converting the one-half cycle of converting both the half cycles
AC input to DC output of AC input into DC output

2 or 4 depending on the type of

No. of diodes used 1
circuit

Form factor 1.57 1.11

Rectifier efficiency 40.6% 81.2%

Ripple factor of a half-wave Ripple factor of a full-wave

Ripple factor
rectifier is more rectifier is less

BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Many electronic circuits require a rectified DC power supply to power various
electronic basic components from the available AC mains supply. Rectifiers are used to
convert an AC power to a DC power. Among the rectifiers, the bridge rectifier is the
most efficient rectifier circuit.

We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more
diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to
a direct (DC) current. In the next few sections, let us learn more about its construction,
working, and more.

Construction

The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge rectifier
circuit is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are
connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current
(AC) into Direct Current (DC). The main advantage of this configuration is the absence
of the expensive centre-tapped transformer. Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.

The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is
obtained across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four
diodes are arranged in such a way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each
half cycle. D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct electric current during the positive half
cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct electric current during a negative half cycle.

Working

When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive
during the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes
D1 and D3 becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.

The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:
During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes
negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to
be reverse biased.

The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:
From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor RL is
the same during the positive and negative half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity
may be either completely positive or negative. In our case, it is completely positive. If
the diodes’ direction is reversed, we get a complete negative DC voltage.

Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half
cycles of the input AC signal.

The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.

Similar Articles
Full Wave Rectifier Half Wave Rectifier

Characteristics of Bridge Rectifier

Ripple Factor

The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as the ripple
factor. The output DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a smooth DC signal while
the output with high ripples is considered a high pulsating DC signal.

Mathematically, the ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to pure DC
voltage.
The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier is given by
�=(����2���)−1

For bridge rectifiers, the ripple factor is 0.48.

Peak Inverse Voltage

The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is known
as a peak inverse voltage. During the positive half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3 are in the
conducting state while D2 and D4 are in the non-conducting state. Similarly, during the
negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D4 are in the conducting state, and diodes D1 and
D3 are in the non-conducting state.

Efficiency

The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts Alternating
Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
DC output power to the AC input power. The maximum efficiency of a bridge rectifier
is 81.2%.
�=��������������������������

Advantages

 The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is higher than the efficiency of a half-wave
rectifier. However, the rectifier efficiency of the bridge rectifier and the centre-
tapped full-wave rectifier is the same.
 The DC output signal of the bridge rectifier is smoother than the output DC
signal of a half-wave rectifier.
 In a half-wave rectifier, only half of the input AC signal is used, and the other
half is blocked. Half of the input signal is wasted in a half-wave rectifier.
However, in a bridge rectifier, the electric current is allowed during both positive
and negative half cycles of the input AC signal. Hence, the output DC signal is
almost equal to the input AC signal.

Disadvantages

 The circuit of a bridge rectifier is complex when compared to a half-wave

rectifier and centre-tapped full-wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers use 4 diodes
while half-wave rectifiers and centre-tapped full wave rectifiers use only two
diodes.
 When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a centre-tapped full-
wave rectifier, only one diode conducts during each half cycle. But in a bridge
 rectifier, two diodes connected in series conduct during each half cycle. Hence,
the voltage drop is higher in a bridge rectifier.

LOGIC GATES

Logic gates are an important concept if you are studying electronics. These are
important digital devices that are mainly based on the Boolean function. Logic gates are
used to carry out logical operations on single or multiple binary inputs and give one
binary output. In simple terms, logic gates are the electronic circuits in a digital system.

ypes of Basic Logic Gates

There are several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital systems. The
common ones are

 OR Gate
 AND Gate
 NOT Gate
 XOR Gate
Additionally, these gates can also be found in a combination of one or two. Therefore,
we get other gates, such as NAND Gate, NOR Gate, EXOR Gate and EXNOR Gate.

Also Read: Transistor

OR Gate

In an OR gate, the output of an OR gate attains state 1 if one or more inputs attain state
1.
The Boolean expression of the OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A ‘OR’ B.

The truth table of a two-input OR basic gate is given as

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

AND Gate

In the AND gate, the output of an AND gate attains state 1 if and only if all the inputs
are in state 1.

The Boolean expression of AND gate is Y = A.B

The truth table of a two-input AND basic gate is given as

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 0
1 0 0

1 1 1

NOT Gate

In a NOT gate, the output of a NOT gate attains state 1 if and only if the input does not
attain state 1.

The Boolean expression is

�=�¯

It is read as Y equals NOT A.

The truth table of NOT gate is as follows

A Y

0 1

1 0

When connected in various combinations, the three gates (OR, AND and NOT) give us
basic logic gates, such as NAND and NOR gates, which are the universal building blocks
of digital circuits.
NAND Gate

This basic logic gate is the combination of AND and NOT gates.

The Boolean expression of the NAND gate is

�=�.�―

The truth table of a NAND gate is given as

A B Y

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

NOR Gate

This gate is the combination of OR and NOT gates.

The Boolean expression of the NOR gate is

�=�+�―

The truth table of a NOR gate is as follows

A B Y

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

Exclusive-OR gate (XOR Gate)

In an XOR gate, the output of a two-input XOR gate attains state 1 if one adds only
input and attains state 1.
The Boolean expression of the XOR gate is

�.�¯+�¯.�
or
�=�⨁�

The truth table of an XOR gate is

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Exclusive-NOR Gate (XNOR Gate)

In the XNOR gate, the output is in state 1 when both inputs are the same, that is, both 0
or both 1.
The Boolean expression of the XNOR gate

The truth table of an XNOR gate is given below

A B Y

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Application of Logic Gates

Logic gates have a lot of applications, but they are mainly based on their mode of
operations or their truth table. Basic logic gates are often found in circuits such as
safety thermostats, push-button locks, automatic watering systems, light-activated
burglar alarms and many other electronic devices.

One of the primary benefits is that basic logic gates can be used in various combinations
if the operations are advanced. Besides, there is no limit to the number of gates that can
be used in a single device. However, it can be restricted due to the given physical space
in the device. In digital integrated circuits (ICs), we will find an array of the logic gate
area unit.
De Morgan’s Theorem

The first theorem – It states that the NAND gate is equivalent to a bubbled OR gate.

�.�¯=�¯+�¯

The second theorem – It states that the NOR gate is equivalent to a bubbled AND gate.

�+�―=�¯.�¯

Important Conversions

1) The ‘NAND’ gate: From ‘AND’ and ‘NOT’ gates.

Boolean expression and truth table

�=�.�―

A B Y′=A⋅B �=�.�―

0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

(2) The ‘NOR’ gate: From ‘OR’ and ‘NOT’ gates.

Boolean expression and truth table

�=�+�―

A B Y′=A+B �=�+�―

0 0 0 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 1 0

(3) The ‘XOR’ gate: From ‘NOT’, ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ gates.

The logic gate, which gives a high output (i.e., 1) if either input A or input B but not
both are high (i.e. 1), is called the exclusive OR gate or the XOR gate. It may be noted
that if both the inputs of the XOR gate are high, then the output is low (i.e., 0).
Boolean expression and truth table

�.�¯+�¯.�
or
�=�⨁�

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
(4) The Exclusive-nor (XNOR) gate XOR + NOT

Boolean expression

�=(�⨁�)¯

A B Output

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

UNIT – 5
INTRODUCTION OF MEASUREMENT

Electrical energy is being used in the manufacture of many commodities. In order to

ensure quality and efficiency, it is important that we should be able to measure
accurately the electrical quantities involved. The instruments used to measure electrical
quantities (e.g. current, voltage, power, energy etc.) are called electrical instruments.
These instruments are generally named after the electrical quantity to be measured.
Thus the instruments which measure current, voltage, power and energy are called
ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter and energy meter respectively.

The accuracy, convenience and reliability of electrical instruments are mainly

responsible for the widespread use of electrical methods of measurements.

Basic requirements for a meaningful measurement

The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable
(verifiable).

Significance of Measurement

Importance of Measurement is simply and eloquently expressed in the following

statement of famous physicist Lord Kelvin: "often say that when you can measure what
you are speaking about and can express it in numbers, you know something about it;
when you cannot express in it numbers your knowledge is of meager and unsatisfactory
kind"

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

(i) Direct Methods

(ii) Indirect Methods

(i) Direct Methods: In these methods, the unknown quantity (called the measurand) is
directly compared against a standard.

(ii) Indirect Method: Measurements by direct methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. In engineering applications measurement systems are used which
require need of indirect method for measurement purposes.

Instruments and Measurement Systems

Measurement involves the use of instruments as a physical means of determining
quantities or variables. Because of modular nature of the elements within it, it is
common to refer the measuring instrument as a Measurement System.

Evolution of Instruments

(i) Mechanical

(ii) Electrical

(iii) Electronic Instruments.

(i) Mechanical: These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. But
their disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of
dynamic and transient conditions.

(ii) Electrical: It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are rapid than
mechanical methods. But it depends on the mechanical movement of the meters. The
response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.

(iii) Electronic: It is more reliable than other system. It uses semiconductor devices and
weak signal can also be detected.

Classification of Instruments

i. Absolute Instruments.

ii. Secondary Instruments.

Absolute: These instruments give the magnitude if the quantity under measurement
terms of physical constants of the instrument.

Secondary: These instruments are calibrated by the comparison with absolute

instruments which have already been calibrated. Further it is classified as

a. Deflection Type Instruments

b. Null Type Instruments.

Functions of instrument and measuring system can be classified into three. They are:

i. Indicating function.
ii. Recording function.

iii. Controlling function.

Application of measurement systems are:

i. Monitoring of process and operation.

ii. Control of processes and operation.

iii. Experimental engineering analysis.

1. Types of Instrumentation System

Intelligent Instrumentation (data has been refined for the purpose of presentation)

Dumb Instrumentation (data must be processed by the observer)

2. Elements of Generalized Measurement System

i. Primary sensing element.

ii. Variable conversion element.

iii. Data presentation element.

Primary Sensing Element: The quantity under measurement makes its first contact
with the primary sensing element of a measurement system.

Variable Conversion Element: It converts the output of the primary sensing element
into suitable form to preserve the information content of the original signal.

Data Presentation Element: The information about the quantity under measurement
has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, control or analysis purpose.

UNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

The measurement system consists of several elements or blocks. It is possible to identify

four types of element, although in a given system one type of element may be missing or
may occur more than once. The four types are shown in Figure 4.1 and can be defined
as follows.
Most of the measurement system contains following main functional elements as shown
in figure

1. Primary Sensing Element.

2. Variable Conversion Element

3. Variable Manipulation Element

4. Data Transmission Element

5. Data Presentation Element

1. Primary Sensing Element: The measurand is first detected by primary sensing

element. The primary sensing element transfers the measurand to variable conversion
element for further processing. The output signal of a primary sensing element is a
physical variable such as displacement or voltage.

2. Variable Conversion Element: The output signal of a primary sensing element may
require to be converted to more suitable variables while preserving its information
content. This function is performed by variable conversion element and it may be
considered as an intermediate transducer

3. Variable Manipulation Element: This element is an intermediate stage of a measuring

system. It modifies the direct signal by amplification, filtering, etc; so that a desired
output is produced the physical nature of the variable remains unchanged during this
stage.

4. Data Transmission Element: When the functional elements of the measuring system
are spatially separated then it becomes necessary to transmit signals from one element
to another. This function is performed by data transmission element. It is an essential
functional element where remote control operation is desired.

5. Data Presentation Element: Usually information about the quantity being measured
is to be communicated to human observer for monitoring control and analysis purpose.
This is therefore, to be presented in form of human sensory capability. This function
MOX is done by data presentation element.
STANDARDS AND CALIBRATION

Standard

A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The term 'standard'

is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical quantity.

Types of Standards

i) International Standards (defined based on international agreement)

ii) Primary Standards (maintained by national standards laboratories)

iii) Secondary Standards (used by industrial measurement laboratories)

iv) Working Standards (used in general laboratory)

i) International standards:

International standards are standards developed by international standards

organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use
worldwide. The most prominent organization is the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).

Purpose of International Standards:

International standards may be used either by direct application or by a process of

modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. The adoption of
international standards results in the creation of equivalent, national standards that are
substantially the same as international standards in technical content, but may have (i)
editorial differences as to appearance, use of symbols and measurement units,
substitution of a point for a comma as the decimal marker, and (ii) differences resulting
from conflicts in governmental regulations or industry-specific requirements caused by
fundamental climatic, geographical, technological, or infrastructural factors, or the
stringency of safety requirements that a given standard authority considers appropriate.

International standards are one way of overcoming technical barriers in international

commerce caused by differences among technical regulations and standards developed
independently and separately by each nation, national standards organization, or
company. Technical barriers arise when different groups come together, each with a
large user base, doing some well-established thing that between them is mutually
incompatible. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or
overcoming this problem.

ii) Primary Standard:

A primary standard in metrology is a standard that is sufficiently accurate such that it is

not calibrated by or subordinate to other standards. Primary standards are defined via
other quantities like length, mass and time. Primary standards are used to calibrate
other standards referred to as working standards.

iii) Secondary Standard:

Secondary reference standards are very close approximations of primary reference

standards.

iv) Working standards:

Although the SI definition of the "meter" is based on a laboratory procedure combining

the speed of light and the duration of a second, a machine shop will have a physical
working standard (gauge blocks for example) that are used for checking its measuring
instruments. Working standards and certified reference materials used in commerce
and industry have a traceable relationship to the secondary and primary standards.

Working standards are expected to deteriorate, and are no longer considered traceable
to a national standard after a time period or use count expires.

Laboratory Standards:

National organizations provide calibration and private industrial laboratories with

items, processes and/or certification so they can provide certified traceability to national
standards. Laboratory standards are kept in controlled conditions to maintain their
precision, and used as a reference for calibration and creating working standards.
Sometimes they are (incorrectly) called "secondary standards" because of their high
quality and reference suitability.

Calibration

Calibration in measurement technology and metrology is the comparison of

measurement values delivered by a device under test with those of a calibration
standard of known accuracy. Such a standard could be another measurement device of
known accuracy, a device generating the quantity to be measured such as a voltage, or a
physical artefact, such as a metre ruler. The outcome of the comparison can result in no
significant error being noted on the device under test, a significant error being noted
but no adjustment made, or an adjustment made to correct the error to an acceptable
level. Strictly, the term calibration means just the act of comparison, and does not
include any subsequent adjustment. The calibration standard is normally traceable to a
national standard held by a National Metrological Institute.

Importants of Calibration

Calibration defines the accuracy and quality of measurements recorded using a piece of
equipment. Over time there is a tendency for results and accuracy to 'drift' particularly
when using particular technologies or measuring particular parameters such as
temperature and humidity. To be confident in the results being measured there is an on-
going need to service and maintain the calibration of equipment throughout its lifetime
for reliable, accurate and repeatable measurements.

The goal of calibration is to minimize any measurement uncertainty by ensuring the

accuracy of test equipment. Calibration quantifies and controls errors or uncertainties
within measurement processes to an acceptable level. So if you know that a particular
food product needs to be kept above 68°C and the instrument system you are using
displays a figure of 68.8°C then provided the system is calibrated to be accurate within
0.5°C at 68°C you can be confident the food is safe, if the system has an accuracy of 1°C
though then you cannot be certain that the food's temperature has been correctly
controlled. Food is, of course, only one example of why it is essential to have a
confirmed calibrated level of accuracy. Manufacturing processes that require specific
controlled curing temperatures are another in fact the list goes on. In summary,
calibration is vitally important wherever measurements are important, it enables users
and businesses to have confidence in the results that they monitor record and
subsequently control.
Types of calibration:

The process of testing calibration can be performed on a number of products and types
of equipment, across multiple sectors. Following are some of the most common types of
calibrations service used today;

Pressure calibration

This is a widely used calibration process in which gas and hydraulic pressure are
measured across a broad spectrum. A number of pressure balances and calibrators are
generally used, along with a variety of pressure gages. Examples of pressure equipment
that can be tested for calibration include;

i. Barometers

ii. Analogue Pressure Gauges

iii. Digital Pressure Gauges

iv. Digital Indicators

v. Transmitters

vi. Test Gauges

Electrical Calibration

This calibration service is used to measure voltage, current frequency and resistance.
The process also monitors resistance and thermocouple simulation covering process
instrumentation. Examples of electrical equipment that can be tested for calibration
include;

i. Multi-meters

ii. Counter timers

iii. Insulation Testers

iv. Loop Testers

v. Clamp Meters
vi. RCD

vii. Data Loggers

Mechanical calibration

Generally speaking, mechanical calibration housing facilities will be temperature

controlled. A number of dimensional, mass, force, torque and vibration elements will be
calibrated during the testing process. Examples of mechanical equipment that can be
tested for calibration include;

i. Weight & Mass Sets

ii. Torque Wrenches & Screwdrivers

iii. Scales/Balances

iv. Micrometers, Verniers, Height Gauges

v. Accelerometers

vi. Load Cells & Force Gauges

Temperature and humidity calibration

Temperature calibration usually takes place in a controlled environment. A number of

different types of equipment can be tested using temperature calibration, including the
following;

i. Thermometers/Thermocouples

ii. Dial Thermometers

iii. PRTS and Thermistors

iv. Thermal Cameras

v. Infrared Meters

vi. Chambers/Furnaces

vii. Weather Stations

viii. Data Acquisition Systems

Again, humidity calibration will usually take place in a controlled environment and will
generally cover a range of 10 - 98% RH. A variety of instruments can be tested for
humidity calibration, including the following;

i. Humidity Recorders

ii. Humidity Generators

iii. Digital Indicators and Probes

iv. Transmitters

v. Psychrometers

vi. Thermohygrographs

vii. Tinytag Sensors

The calibration processes listed above are perhaps the most commonly-used and more
widely-know about methods. However, calibration is used on a much wider scale in
many industries. A few additional examples of calibration types are;

i. Waterflow Calibration

ii. Oilflow Calibration

iii. Air Velocity Calibration

iv. Air Flow Calibration

In the majority of cases, an industry or company will require a combination of

calibration techniques to fully test all of their equipment and devices - to this end, one
piece of equipment may undergo a number of strict calibration tests to be deemed safe
for use and performing at optimal standards. The standards used to verify calibration
levels differ somewhat, depending on a number of factors, including; the industry sector,
the location (Country), the type of equipment involved and the specification of the
calibration testing equipment used.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The various electrical measuring instruments can be broadly divided into two classes
viz.

(i) Absolute instruments (ii) Secondary instruments.

(i) Absolute instruments: Those instruments which give the value of the quantity to be
measured in terms of the constants of the instrument and its deflection are
called absolute instruments. For example, a tangent galvanometer which is used to
measure current is an absolute instrument. It is because a tangent galvanometer gives
the value of current being measured in terms of the tangent of the angle of deflection,
the radius and number of turns of the coil and the horizontal component of earth's
magnetic field. No previous calibration or comparison is necessary in case of absolute
instruments. They are used only in standard laboratories as standardising instruments.

(ii) Secondary instruments: Those instruments in which the electrical quantity being
measured is given directly by the deflection of the instrument are called secondary
instruments. These instruments are provided with a calibrated scale. The calibration is
done with the help of an absolute instrument or another calibrated instrument. These
are the secondary instruments which are most generally used in everyday work. For
example, they are very commonly used in laboratories, power stations, substations,
industries etc.

Types of Secondary Instruments

Secondary instruments may be classified according to their functions as

(i) indicating instruments

(ii) integrating instruments and

(iii) recording instruments.

(i) Indicating instruments Those instruments which directly indicate the value of the
electrical quantity at the time when it is being measured are called indicating
instruments e.g. ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeters. In such instruments, a pointer
moving over a graduated scale directly gives the value of the electrical quantity being
measured. For example, when an ammeter is connected in the circuit, the pointer of the
meter directly indicates the value of current flowing in the circuit at that time.
(ii) Integrating instruments Those instruments which measure the total quantity of
electricity (in ampere-hours) or electrical energy (in watt-hours) in a given time are
called integrating instruments e.g. ampere-hour meter and watt-hour meter. In such
instruments, there are sets of dials and pointers which register the total quantity 210 of
electricity or electrical energy supplied to the load.

(iii) Recording instruments Those instruments which give a continuous record of the
variations of the electrical quantity to be measured are called recording instruments. A
recording instrument is merely an indicating instrument with a pen attached to its
pointer. The pen rests lightly on a chart wrapped over a drum moving with a slow
uniform speed. The motion of the drum is in a direction perpendicular to the direction
of the pointer. The path traced out by the pen indicates the manner in which the bell
quantity, being measured, has varied during the time of the record. Recording
voltmeters are used in supply stations to record the voltage of the supply mains during
the day. Recording ammeters are employed in supply stations for registering the
current taken from the batteries.

Types of Indicating Instruments

The following types of ammeters and voltmeters are in common use:

(a) Moving coils (i) Permanent magnet form (ii) Dynamometer form

(b) Moving iron

(c) Hot wire

(d) Electrostatic (voltmeters only)

(e) Induction.

Here we will concentrate mainly on moving coil and moving iron types whereas a brief
introduction for the others will be given. Of the above mentioned, the magnet moving
coil is used for de only whereas induction type are used for ac measurement. The other
types can be used both for de as well as ac a circuits.

MOVING COIL TYPE

There are two types of moving coil

1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Type

2. Dynamometer Type Moving Coil Instruments

1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Type

The basic principle of operation is that when a current carrying conductor is brought in
a magnetic field (they should not be parallel to each other) a torque on the conductor is
produced. The instrument consists of a rectangular coil pivoted so that its sides lie in the
air gap between the two poles of a permanent magnet and a soft-iron cylinder. The air
gap between the magnet poles and iron core is small and the flux density is uniform and
is in a radial direction, so that the flux lines are always at right angle to the current
carrying conductor and hence when current passes through the coil, a deflecting torque
is produced owing to the interaction between the two fluxes, one due to permanent
magnet and the other due to the magnetic field of the coil. This is shown in Fig.4.2.

Construction:

Fig. 4.2 shows the various parts of a permanent-magnet moving coil instrument. It
consists of a light rectangular coil of many turns of fine wire wound on an aluminum
former inside which is an iron core as shown in Fig. 4.2 (a). The coil is delicately pivoted
upon jewel bearings and is mounted between the poles of a permanent horse-shoe
magnet. Attached to these poles are two soft-iron pole pieces which concentrate the
magnetic field. The current is led into and out of the coil by means of two control hair-
springs, one above and the other below the coil, as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). These springs
also provide the controlling torque. The damping torque is provided by eddy currents
induced in the aluminum former as the coil moves from one position to another.
Working:

When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage, the
operating current flows through the coil. Since the coil is carrying current and is placed
in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, a mechanical torque acts on it. As a
result, the pointer attached to the moving system moves in a clockwise direction over
the graduated scale to indicate the value of current or voltage being measured. If the
current in the coil is reversed, the deflecting torque will also be reversed since the
direction of the field of the permanent magnet is the same. Consequently, the pointer
will try to deflect below zero. Deflection in this direction (i.e. reverse direction) is
prevented by a spring "stop". Since the deflecting torque reverses with the reversal of
current in the coil, such instruments can be used to measure direct currents and
voltages only.

Deflecting torque:

The magnetic field in the air gap is radial due to the presence of soft-iron core. This
means that conductors of the coil will always move at right angles to the field. When
current is passed through the coil, forces act on its both sides which produce the
deflecting torque. Referring to Fig.4.3
let,

B = flux density in Wb/m2

l = length or depth of coil in m

b = breadth of coil in m

N = No. of turns in the coil

If a current of I amperes flows in the coil, then force acting on each coil side is given by;

Force on each coil side, F = B I l N newtons

Deflecting torque, Td = Force perpendicular distance = (BIlN) × b

Td = B I N A newton-metre

where A (= b × l) is the area of the coil in m2. Since the values of B, N and A are fixed,

Td α I

The instrument is spring-controlled so that TC α θ.

The pointer will come to rest at a position where

Td = TC

θαI

Thus, the deflection is directly proportional to the operating current. Hence, such
instruments have uniform scale [See. Fig. 4.2 (i)].

Advantages

(i) Uniform scale i.e., evenly divided scale.

(ii) Very effective eddy current damping because the aluminium former moves in an
intense magnetic field of the permanent magnet.

(iii) High efficiency as it requires very little power for its operation.

(iv) No hysteresis loss as the magnetic flux is practically constant.

(v) External stray fields have little effect on the readings as the operating magnetic field
is very strong.

(vi) Very accurate and reliable.

Disadvantages

(i) Such instruments cannot be used for a.c. measurements.

(ii) About 50% more expensive than moving-iron instruments because of their accurate
design.

(iii) Some errors are caused due to variations (with time or temperature) either in the
strength of permanent magnet or in the control springs.

Applications:

Permanent-magnet moving coil instruments are acknowledged to be the best type for all
d.c. measurements. They are very sensitive and maintain a high degree of accuracy over
long periods. The chief applications of such instruments are:

(i) In the measurement of direct currents and voltages.

(ii) In d.c. galvanometers to detect small currents.

(iii) In ballistic galvanometers used mainly for measuring changes of magnetic flux
linkages.

2. Dynamometer Type Moving Coil Instruments

In this instrument the permanent magnet is replaced by one or two fixed coils which
carry current to be measured or a current proportional to the voltage to be measured
and which are connected either in series or parallel with the moving coil. The coils are
usually air cored. The torque of the instrument is dependent upon the magnetic field
strengths of the fixed and moving coil i.e. the torque is proportional to square of the
current in an ammeter and square of the voltage in a voltmeter. Dynamometer
instruments can thus be used in alternating current circuits for which square law is
essential. These can be as well used for de circuits also.
When the meter is used as an ammeter Fig. 4. 4 (a) or as a voltmeter Fig. 4.4 (b), the
torque of the meter is proportional to the product if the flux of the fixed coil (FC) and
the flux of the moving coil. The scale of the instrument is thus a square one as shown in
Fig. 4.4 (e).

Since energy must be used to create two magnetic fields, the electrodynamometer
movement is less sensitive as compared to that in PMMC instruments.

The control torque is provided by spring torque. The damping is provided by either
eddy currents or air piston attached to the pointer.

These instruments are not in common use as

(a) They have low torque/weight ratio

(b) Owing to TD α I2 the scale is non uniform

(c) These are expensive.

MOVING IRON TYPE

This type of instrument is principally used for the measurement of alternating currents
and voltages, though it can also be used for d.c. measurements. There are two types of
moving-iron instruments.
(i) Attraction type in which a single soft-iron vane (or moving iron) is mounted on the
spindle and is attracted towards the coil when operating current flows through it.

(ii) Repulsion type in which two soft-iron vanes are used; one fixed and attached to the
stationary coil while the other is movable (i.e. moving iron) and mounted on the spindle
of the instrument. When operating current flows through the coil, the two vanes are
magnetised, developing similar polarity at the same ends. Consequently, repulsion takes
place between the vanes and the movable vane causes the pointer to move over the scale.

In case the instrument is to be used as an ammeter, the coil has a fewer turns of thick
wire so that the ammeter has low resistance-a desirable requirement. In case it is to be
used as a voltmeter, the coil has a large number of turns of fine wire so that the
voltmeter has high resistance-a desirable requirement.

Attraction Type Moving Iron Type Instruments

Fig. 4.5 shows the constructional details of an attraction type moving-iron instrument. It
consists of a cylindrical coil or solenoid which is kept fixed. An oval-shaped soft-iron is
attached to the spindle in such a way that it can move in and out of the coil. A pointer is
attached to the spindle so that it is deflected with the motion of the soft-iron piece. The
controlling torque is provided by one spiral spring arranged at the top of the moving
element. It should be noted that in this instrument, the springs do not carry the current
as the same is carried by the stationary coil. The damping device is an aluminum vane
attached to the spindle, as shown in Fig4.5, which moves in a closed chamber. In some
instruments, damping is provided by the movement of a piston inside the curved
chamber [See Fig. 4.6]; the piston being attached to the spindle.
Working

When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage, the
operating current flowing through the coil sets up a magnetic field. In other words, the
coil behaves like a magnet and therefore it attracts the soft-iron piece towards it. The
result is that the pointer attached to the moving system moves from zero position. The
pointer will come to rest at a position where deflecting torque is equal to the controlling
torque. If current in the coil is reversed, the direction of magnetic field also reverses and
so does the magnetism produced in the soft-iron piece. Hence, the direction of the
deflecting torque remains unchanged. For this reason, such instruments can be used for
both d.c. and a.c. measurements.

Deflecting torque:

The force F pulling the soft-iron piece towards the coil is directly proportional to:

(i) magnetic field strength H produced by the coil

(ii) pole strength m developed in the iron piece

F α mH

α H2 (m α H)

Instantaneous deflecting torque a H2

If the permeability of iron is assumed constant, then,

H α i, where i is the instantaneous coil current.

Instantaneous deflecting torque a i2

Average deflecting torque, Td α mean of i2 over a cycle

Since the instrument is spring controlled,

ΤC α θ

In the steady position of deflection, Td = Tc

θ α mean of i2 over or a cycle

α I2 ...for d.c.

α I2 r.m.s. ...for a.c.

Since the deflection is proportional to the *square of coil current, the scale of such
instruments is non-uniform; being crowded in the beginning and spread out near the
finish end of the scale.

Repulsion Type Moving Iron Type Instruments

Fig. 4.7 (i) shows the constructional details of a repulsion type moving iron instrument.
It consists of two soft-iron pieces or vanes surrounded by a fixed cylindrical hollow coil
which carries the operating current. One of these vanes is fixed and the other is free to
move as shown in Fig. 4.7 (ii). The movable vane is of cylindrical shape and is mounted
axially on a spindle to which a pointer is attached. The fixed vane, which is wedge-
shaped and has a larger radius, is attached to the stationary coil. The controlling torque
is provided by one spiral spring at the top of the instrument.

It may be noted that in this instrument, springs do not provide the electrical connections.
Damping is provided by air friction due to the motion of a piston in an air chamber.

Working

When current to be measured or current proportional to the voltage to be measured

flows through the coil, a magnetic field is set up by the coil. This magnetic field
magnetizes the two vanes in the same direction i.e., similar polarities are developed at
the same ends of the vanes as shown in Fig. 4.7 (iii). Since the adjacent edges of the
vanes are of the same polarity, the two vanes repel each other. As the fixed vane cannot
move, the movable vane deflects and causes the pointer to move from zero position.

The pointer will come to rest at a position where deflecting torque is equal to the
controlling torque provided by the spring. If the current in the coil is reversed, the
direction of deflecting torque remains unchanged. It is because reversal of the field of
the coil reverses the magnetization of both iron vanes so that they repel each other
regardless of which way the current flows through the coil. For this reason, such
instruments can be used for both d.c. and a.c. applications.

Deflecting torque:

The deflecting torque results due to the repulsion between the similarly charged soft-
iron pieces or vanes. If the two pieces develop pole strengths of m1 and m2 respectively,
then,

Instantaneous deflecting torque a m1 m2 α * H2

If the permeability of iron is assumed constant, then,

H α i where i is coil current.

Instantaneous deflecting torque α i2

Average deflecting torque, Td α mean of i2 over a cycle

Since the instrument is spring-controlled,

ΤC α θ

In the steady position of deflection, Td = Tc

θ α mean of i2 over a cycle

α I2...for d.c.

α I2 r.m.s. ... for a.c.

Thus, the deflection is proportional to the square of coil current as is the case with
attraction type moving-iron instruments. Therefore, the scale of such instruments is also
non-uniform; being crowded in the beginning and spread out near the finish end of the
scale. However, the non-linearity of the scale can be corrected to some extent by the
accurate shaping (e.g., using tongue-shaped vanes) and positioning of iron vanes in
relation to the operating coil.

Comparison of Moving Coil, Dynamometer type and Moving Iron Voltmeters and

Ammeters

Table below shows the comparison between permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC),
dynamometer type and moving iron voltmeters and ammeters.

NSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

For measuring a large current in a d.c. circuit, we use low-range ammeter with a
suitable shunt. The measurement of high d.c. voltage is made using a low-range
voltmeter with a multiplier.

However, this method is not used for the measurement of high alternating currents and
voltages for many good reasons. In order to measure high alternating currents and
voltages, we employ specially designed transformers, called instrument transformers.
These transformers facilitate the a.c. measurements with low-range a.c. instruments.
There are two types of instrument transformers viz. (i) Current transformers (ii)
Potential transformers.

Current Transformer (C.T.)

A current transformer (C.T.) is used to measure high alternating current in a power

system. The primary of this transformer has a few turns of thick wire whereas the
secondary has many turns of very fine wire as shown in Fig. 4.15. It is clear from the
figure that a current transformer is simply a well designed step-up transformer. Since
voltage is stepped up, the current is stepped down which can be measured with a low-
range a.c. ammeter.

The primary of the current transformer is connected in series with the line whose
current is to be measured as shown in Fig. 4.15. The secondary of the transformer is
connected across a low-range (0-5A) a.c. ammeter. The line current (IP) and a.c.
ammeter current (IS) are related as:

NP IP = NS IS

IP / IS = NS / NP

The primary to secondary current ratio (i.e., IP / IS) is called C.T. ratio (current
transformation ratio)
I = C.T. ratio

Or IP = IS × C.T. ratio

i.e., Line current (IP) = A.C. ammeter reading × C.T. ratio

Fig. 4.16. It consists of a ring-shaped laminated core which carries the secondary
winding. The current carrying conductor itself acts as a one-turn primary that simply
passes through the centre of the ring. The position of the primary is unimportant as
long as it is more or less centred. This current transformer has the arrangement to open
and close the ring shaped core so that current can be measured without opening the line.

The clamp-on current transformers are simple and inexpensive and are widely used in
low-voltage (LV) and medium voltage (MV) lines in the power system.

Potential Transformer (P.T.)

A potential transformer (P.T.) is used to measure high alternating potential difference

(voltage) in a power system. The primary of this transformer has many turns while the
secondary has few turns as shown in Fig. 4.17.

It is clear from the figure that a potential transformer is simply a well-designed step-
down transformer. The stepped down voltage is measured with a low-range a.c.
voltmeter. The magnetic core of a potential transformer usually has a shell-type
construction for better accuracy. In order to provide adequate protection to the
operator, one end of the secondary winding is usually grounded.
The primary of the potential transformer is connected across the high-voltage line
whose voltage is to be measured. A low-range (0-110 V) a.c. voltmeter is connected
across the secondary. The line voltage (V) and a.c. voltmeter voltage (V) are related as:

VP / VS = NP / NS

The primary to secondary voltage ratio (i.e., VP / VS) is called P.T. ratio (potential
transformation ratio).

VP / VS = P.T. ratio

or VP = VS P.T. ratio

i.e. Line voltage (VP)=A.C. voltmeter reading × P.T. ratio

Advantages of Instrument Transformers

In order to measure high alternating currents and voltages in a power system, we prefer
instrument transformers to shunts and the following reasons:

(i) The errors due to stray inductance and capacitance in shunts, multipliers and their
leads are eliminated.

(ii) The measuring circuit is isolated from the mains by the transformer.

(iii) We can use low-range and accurate a.c. instruments.

(iv) The length of the connecting leads from the transformer to the instrument is of
lesser importance and leads may be of small cross-sectional area.

(v) By using a clip-on type of transformer core, the current in a heavy-current

conductor can be measured without breaking the circuit.

Difference between C.T. and PT.

Few differences between C.T. and P.T. are listed below.

DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE

An electronic instrument that can display the changes in signal voltages graphically is
known as an Oscilloscope. It is utilized to process, capture, display, analyze, store the
waveform and bandwidth of the signals. The oscilloscopes are of two types based on the
type of signal. These are classified into two types namely analog oscilloscope and digital
oscilloscope.

An Analog oscilloscope uses an electron beam to map and display the continuous
variable input voltages of the signal, and a digital oscilloscope samples a given input
signal by using a converter like ADC and displays the digital output on the CRT screen.
The digital oscilloscopes are further classified into Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO),
Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope (DPO), and Digital Sampling Oscilloscope. Now, this
article gives a brief explanation about the theory, working principle, and function of
Digital Storage Oscilloscope.

Digital storage oscilloscope definition is an electronic device that stores and analyses the
signal in the digital format is known as Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO). When the
input signal is given to the DSO, then it is processed, stored in the memory, and
displayed on the screen. It stores the signal in the form of digital data as either 1 Or 0.

The advanced features of the DSO are triggering, storage and measurement. It can
display the waveform or signal both numerically and visually. It is often referred to as
the Digital Sampling Oscilloscope. Rather than using analog techniques, it used Digital
Processing Techniques to capture, analyze, process, store, and display the signal on the
screen.

Block Diagram

The block diagram of the Digital Storage Oscilloscope is shown Fig.419.

The analog input signal is digitized by the digital storage oscilloscope and is stored in
the digital memory. The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is employed to display the stored
signal or data in the memory. As the stored data in the memory is in digital format, the
signal is reconstructed into analog form and displayed on the CRT.

The analog input signal is amplified by the amplifier and its output is digitized by the
digitizer and stored in the memory. The analyzer circuit analyses the digital output and
it can be reconstructed to visualize the final waveform using the Interpolation technique.
The output is displayed on the CRT screen.

The triggering allows the DSO to stabilize the signal and display the waveform
repeatedly. Before starting the trace of signal, the oscilloscope must be triggered first.

Working Principle

The working principle of a Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) is based on digitizing and
storing the input signals with the help of CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) and digital memory.
The process of digitization is the sampling of input signals at different periodic signals.
Here, the signal's maximum frequency measured by the DSO depends on 2 factors,
which are sampling rate and the converter nature. And also the function of the digital
storage oscilloscope depends on the sampling and the converter.

Sampling Rate

In this factor, the sampling theory is used for the safe analysis of input signals. The
statement of sampling theory is, the sampling rate of the signals should be twice as fast
as per the received input signal's highest frequency. That means, sampling rate refers to
the fast and high conversion rate of an analog to a digital converter.

Converter

It uses high-priced flash, whose resolution decreases with an increase in sampling rate.
So, the limited resolution and bandwidth of the DSO are obtained due to the sampling
rate.

The shift registers are used to overcome the requirement of ADC (Analog to digital
converters). The applied input signal is sampled and stored in the shift register. Then,
the signal in the shift register is read out slowly and stored in the form of digital data.
The use of a shift register reduces the converter cost and can operate up to 100 Mega
samples/ second.

The Function of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

i. The function of a digital storage oscilloscope is to process, capture, analyze and

display the applied analog input signal in digital format and also store the data in the
digital memory. The signals are received, stored, and displayed by the DSO to calculate
the frequency, amplitude, time period of a signal. It operates in 3 modes such as roll
mode, store mode, and save Or hold mode.

ii. In roll mode, the DSO displays the fast fluctuating input signals very clearly on supin
the screen without triggering. It is one of the basic modes in the working of DSO and
similar to the operation of CRO. It monitors the characteristics of the given input signal
to process and displays its trace on the screen.

iii. In-store mode, the signals are stored in the memory.

iv. In hold mode or save mode, the data is saved Or held for a while until it gets stored
in the digital memory.

v. The other modes used in the working of digital storage oscilloscopes are refresh mode,
single-shot mode, and equivalent time mode.

Waveform Reconstruction
According to the sampling theory, the given input signal is sampled to avoid the aliasing
effect. But the aliasing effect can still occur in the signal because the output signal is
obtained in the series of dots in response to the sample value.

A technique called Interpolation is used by the Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) for
final wave visualization. The technique that generates new data points by using a set of
known discrete data points is known as Interpolation. Generally, it is classified into two
types, illustrated in the figure shown below.

Linear Interpolation

In this type, the data points, which are in the form of dots are connected with a straight
line as shown in the figure above. It is used in the generation of pulse waves or square
waves.

Sinusoidal Interpolation

In this type, the dots are connected to generate a sinusoidal waveform as shown in the
figure above. It is used in oscilloscopes.

Advantages

The advantages of Digital Storage Oscilloscope include,

i. Easy to operate, efficient data display, and high quality

ii. It allows the property of flexible display with infinite storage time

iii. Analyzes and stores the data in the digital format (0 or 1) and prevents signal
degradation

iv. It provides triggering, storage, measurement functions to display the signals digitally
or in virtual format.

v. Cost-Effective when compared to analog oscilloscopes.

vi. It can trace and record temperature changes.

vii. It can analyze high-frequency transient responses.

viii. It can collect large samples of input data with the help of storage memory.
ix. It can reconstruct the waveform

Applications

The applications of Digital storage oscilloscope include,

i. It is used in circuit debugging to test the voltage of the signal

ii. Used in testing during manufacturing

iii. Used in Radio Broadcasting to test the signals

iv. Used in Research and medical field

v. Used in video and audio recording equipment

vi. Used to measure time period, frequency, voltages, currents, inductance, capacitance,
and time intervals between the signals in both AC and DC circuits.

vii. Used in the representation of radar's target like airplane, ship, etc visually.

viii. Used to analyze the TV signals

ix. Used to compute the V-I characteristics of transistors and diodes.

DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

The systems, used for data acquisition are known as data acquisition systems. These data
acquisition systems will perform the tasks such as conversion of data, storage of data,
transmission of data and processing of data.

Data acquisition systems consider the following analog signals.

i. Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct measurement of electrical
quantities such as DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents, resistance and etc.

ii. Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers such as LVDT, Thermocouple
& etc.

Types of Data Acquisition Systems

Data acquisition systems can be classified into the following two types.

i. Analog Data Acquisition Systems

ii. Digital Data Acquisition Systems

Now, let us discuss about these two types of data acquisition systems one by one.

1. Analog Data Acquisition Systems

The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with analog signals are known
as analog data acquisition systems. Following are the blocks of analog data acquisition
systems.

i. Transducer - It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.

ii. Signal conditioner - It performs the functions like amplification and selection of
desired portion of the signal.

iii. Display device - It displays the input signals for monitoring purpose.

iv. Graphic recording instruments - These can be used to make the record of input data
permanently.

v. Magnetic tape instrumentation - It is used for acquiring, storing & reproducing of

input data.

2. Digital Data Acquisition Systems

The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with digital signals are known
as digital data acquisition systems. So, they use digital components for storing or
displaying the information.

Mainly, the following operations take place in digital data acquisition.

i. Acquisition of analog signals

ii. Conversion of analog signals into digital signals or digital data

iii. Processing of digital signals or digital data

Following are the blocks of Digital data acquisition systems.

i. Transducer - It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.

ii. Signal conditioner - It performs the functions like amplification and selection ying of
desired portion of the signal.

iii. Multiplexer - connects one of the multiple inputs to output. So, it acts as parallel to
serial converter.

iv. Analog to Digital Converter - It converts the analog input into its equivalent digital
output.

v. Display device - It displays the data in digital format.

vi. Digital Recorder - It is used to record the data in digital format.

Data acquisition systems are being used in various applications such as biomedical and
aerospace. So, we can choose either analog data acquisition systems or digital data
acquisition systems based on the requirement.