Lecture Notes Summary – CE 41: Structural

Theory
CHAPTER 1 – LOADS OF STRUCTURES
What is a Structure?

 A structure is a system of connected parts used to support a load.

 Examples: Buildings, bridges, towers, ships, aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels,
mechanical systems, and electrical supporting structures.

What is a Structural Load?

 Structural loads are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to a structure.

 Effects: Cause stresses, deformations, and displacements.
 Overloading may cause structural failure, which must be considered in design.
 Engineers evaluate loads using regulations, contracts, and specifications based on
technical standards.

History of Structural Systems

 Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C. with the step pyramid for Pharaoh
Djoser, built by Imhotep, the first known engineer.
 Pyramids were common structures due to their inherent stability, which relied on both
shape and stone strength (e.g., limestone blocks with compressive strength of 30-250
MPa).
 Ancient structures were built based on empirical knowledge passed through guilds,
without a formal theory.
 The Industrial Revolution and the re-invention of concrete shaped modern structural
engineering.
 Fazlur Khan (1969) introduced classifications for high-rise buildings, differentiating
between interior and exterior structures.
 Failures, like the Pétion-Ville school collapse (94 deaths due to poor construction by
Rev. Fortin Augustin), led to improved safety practices.
 Advances in applied mechanics, materials science, and applied mathematics have
improved analysis and design.
 Since the 1990s, software tools like AutoCAD, StaadPro, ETABS, and Revit
Structure have enhanced precision and efficiency in structural design.

What is a Structural System?

 A structural system (structural frame) is the load-resisting sub-system of a building
or object.
 Transfers loads through interconnected members.
 Basic structural types can be combined in buildings and bridges to meet functional
requirements.

Types of Structural Systems

1. Tensile Structures
o Subject to pure tension under external loads.
o Material is efficiently utilized since stress is uniformly distributed.
2. Compressive Structures
o Develop compressive stresses under axial loads.
 o Susceptible to buckling – requires bracing to avoid instability.
3. Trusses
o Composed of straight members connected by hinges.
o Lightweight and strong, commonly used in bridges and roofs.
4. Shear Structures
o Develop in-plane shear forces with low bending stresses.
o Example: Reinforced concrete shear walls, used in multi-story buildings for
wind and earthquake resistance.
5. Bending Structures
o Experience bending stresses due to external loads.
o Example: Beams and slabs.

Structural Elements
 Structural elements are individual components that make up a structural system. These
include:

1. Tie Rods – Slender members under tension, e.g., bracing struts.

2. Beams – Horizontal members carrying vertical loads, resisting bending moments.
Common materials: steel, concrete, timber.
3. Columns – Vertical members resisting axial compression, often made of steel (wide-
flange) or reinforced concrete.
4. Beam-Columns – Elements that resist both axial loads and bending moments.
5. Slabs – Flat elements that provide floors and distribute loads to beams or columns.
6. Trusses – Framework composed of triangular units to support roofs and bridges.
7. Bracings – Diagonal members that prevent lateral displacement and increase stability.
8. Walls – Vertical elements that resist shear and compressive forces, transferring loads to
foundations.
9. Foundations – Transfer loads from structures to the ground, ensuring stability.

High-Rise Buildings
 Require both vertical gravity load and lateral load resistance (wind and seismic).
 Fazlur Khan (1969) introduced a classification for high-rise structures:
o Interior Structural Systems:
 Hinged Frame
 Rigid Frame
 Braced Frame & Shear-Walled Frame
 Outrigger Structures (supports overhangs)
o Exterior Structural Systems:
 Buttresses
 Diagrid
 Exoskeleton
 Space Truss
 Super Frame
 Tube Structure

Nature of Loads
Tributary Loadings

 Determines how loads transfer from floors, walls, and roofs to supporting elements.

One-Way System
  Load transfers in one direction.
 One-way slab: L₂/L₁ > 2 (ACI 318 code).

Two-Way System

 Load transfers in two directions.

 Two-way slab: L₂/L₁ ≤ 2 (ACI 318 code).

Types of Structural Loads

Dead Load

 Permanent loads (fixed to the structure).

 Examples: Beams, columns, slabs, walls, roofing, plumbing, electrical fixtures.
 Approximate Dead Load Values:
o Timber Buildings: 40-50 lb/ft² (1.9 - 2.4 kN/m²).
o Steel-Framed Buildings: 60-75 lb/ft² (2.9 - 3.6 kN/m²).
o Reinforced Concrete Buildings: 110-130 lb/ft² (5.3 - 6.2 kN/m²).

Live Load

 Variable and temporary loads (occupants, furniture, vehicles).

 Codes determine minimum live load based on historical data.
 NSCP 2015 (Section 205): Live load must meet or exceed the required minimum.

Wind Load

 Moving air masses create pressure on external and internal surfaces.

 Affects high-rise buildings, causing lateral forces.
 NSCP 2015 (Sections 207A-207F) defines wind load requirements.

Seismic Load

 Protects against major structural failure and loss of life.

 Structures must resist seismic ground motion.

Analytical Models in Structural Analysis

Types of Models

1. Physical Models
o Scaled representations of structures.
o Used for wind tunnel tests and experimental stress analysis.
2. Mathematical Models
o Uses equations and numerical methods.
o Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is commonly used.
3. Computational Models
o Computer simulations predict structural behavior under various loads.
o Software: ETABS, SAP2000, STAAD.Pro.

Conclusion
 Structural engineering ensures that buildings withstand loads safely.
  Fazlur Khan made significant contributions to high-rise building design.
 Modern analysis techniques, including computational modeling, are crucial for
accurate predictions.
 Structural loads (dead, live, wind, seismic) must be properly analyzed according to
NSCP 2015.

Here is a 50-item identification quiz based on the lecture notes.

50-Item Identification Quiz – CE 41: Structural Theory (Chapter 1: Loads of

Structures)

(Write the correct answer for each question.)

1. What is the term for a system of connected parts used to support a load?
2. What type of load includes forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to a structure?
3. Who was the first known engineer, credited with designing the Step Pyramid for Pharaoh
Djoser?
4. What ancient structure is known for its inherent stability, relying on shape and stone
strength?
5. What is the primary cause of structural failure due to excessive loads?
6. Which engineer introduced classifications for high-rise buildings in 1969?
7. What type of structure is subject to pure tension under external loads?
8. What structural system develops compressive stresses under axial loads and is susceptible
to buckling?
9. What structural element consists of straight members connected by hinges, often used in
bridges and roofs?
10. What is the primary structural system used to resist in-plane shear forces with low
bending stress?
11. What is a horizontal structural member that carries vertical loads and resists bending
moments?
12. What is a vertical structural member that resists axial compression?
13. What element resists both axial loads and bending moments in a structure?
14. What flat structural element provides floors and distributes loads to beams or columns?
15. What framework is composed of triangular units to support roofs and bridges?
16. What structural component prevents lateral displacement and increases stability?
17. What type of wall resists shear and compressive forces, transferring loads to the
foundation?
18. What component transfers loads from structures to the ground to ensure stability?
19. What type of structural system uses hinged frames, rigid frames, and shear-walled
frames?
20. What classification of high-rise structural system includes buttresses, diagrids, and
exoskeletons?
21. What term describes the determination of how loads transfer from floors, walls, and roofs
to supporting elements?
22. What type of slab transfers loads in one direction?
23. What type of slab transfers loads in two directions?
24. What type of load includes permanent components such as beams, columns, and slabs?
25. What type of load is variable and includes occupants, furniture, and vehicles?
26. What natural force creates lateral pressure on high-rise buildings?
27. What type of load results from seismic ground motion?
28. What modeling technique uses scaled representations of structures for experimental
testing?
29. What type of mathematical analysis uses equations and numerical methods for structural
evaluation?
30. What computational tool is commonly used to predict structural behavior under loads?
31. What structural engineering software is used for high-rise building design and analysis?
32. What type of foundation transfers loads from a structure to the ground?
33. What type of structural system relies on interconnected members to transfer loads?
34. What material was commonly used in ancient pyramids with compressive strengths
ranging from 30 to 250 MPa?
 35. What failure event in Haiti led to the improvement of safety regulations in construction?
36. What is the primary purpose of structural analysis?
37. What advanced method is used for solving structural problems through computer
modeling?
38. What structural system consists of a network of diagonal members for increased stiffness
and efficiency?
39. What part of a building primarily resists lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes?
40. What structural element is often used in cable-stayed bridges and suspension bridges?
41. What type of frame structure is designed to resist lateral loads using diagonal braces?
42. What type of high-rise building system uses external framing for load resistance?
43. What type of structural component helps distribute loads from the building structure to
the ground?
44. What international building standard specifies structural load requirements for safety?
45. What term refers to the tendency of a column to bend under axial compression?
46. What type of structure supports electrical transmission lines?
47. What structural material is commonly used for skyscrapers due to its high strength and
flexibility?
48. What method is used to analyze load distribution in floor slabs and beams?
49. What type of force acts perpendicular to the surface of a structure, causing bending?
50. What is the primary goal of structural engineering?

Here is the answer key for the 50-item identification quiz based on the lecture notes.

Answer Key – CE 41: Structural Theory (Chapter 1: Loads of Structures)

1. Structure
2. Structural load
3. Imhotep
4. Pyramid
5. Overloading
6. Fazlur Khan
7. Tensile structure
8. Compressive structure
9. Truss
10. Shear structure
11. Beam
12. Column
13. Beam-column
14. Slab
15. Truss
16. Bracing
17. Wall
18. Foundation
19. Interior structural system
20. Exterior structural system
21. Tributary loading
22. One-way slab
23. Two-way slab
24. Dead load
25. Live load
26. Wind load
27. Seismic load
28. Physical model
29. Mathematical model
30. Computational model
31. ETABS, SAP2000, STAAD.Pro
32. Foundation
33. Structural system
34. Limestone
35. Pétion-Ville school collapse
 36. Ensure structures withstand loads safely
37. Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
38. Diagrid
39. Shear wall
40. Tie rod
41. Braced frame
42. Exoskeleton
43. Foundation
44. NSCP 2015 (National Structural Code of the Philippines)
45. Buckling
46. Transmission tower
47. Steel
48. Load path analysis
49. Bending moment
50. Ensure stability and safety of structures

This answer key ensures accuracy based on the lecture materials. Let me know if you need
adjustments! ✅