Unit 1: Foundations of Environmental Systems and Societies

1.1 Environmental Value System

Definition: A worldview or paradigm that shapes the way individuals or societies perceive and
evaluate environmental issues, which in turn influences their environmental actions and policies.
Types:

Ecocentric:
Values nature for its own sake, not just for human use.
Advocates for minimal human impact and preservation of natural systems.
Promotes deep ecology and self-imposed restraint on resource use.

Anthropocentric:
Values nature primarily for its utility to humans.
Emphasizes human welfare, economic growth, and development.
Supports sustainable management to ensure resources for future human use.

Technocentric:
Believes technology and innovation can solve environmental problems.
Emphasizes the role of scientific research and technological advancements.
Often supports large-scale engineering projects and geoengineering.

Influencing Factors: Cultural beliefs, religious doctrines, economic status, political systems,
historical context, and educational background.

1.2 Systems and Models

System: A set of interrelated components working together towards a common purpose. It can
be anything from a cell to the entire Earth.

Open System:
Exchanges both energy and matter with its surroundings (e.g., ecosystems).

Closed System:
Exchanges only energy with its surroundings, not matter (e.g., Earth, with minor exceptions like
meteors).

Isolated System:
Neither energy nor matter is exchanged with the surroundings (theoretical, doesn't truly exist in
nature).

Models: Simplified representations to help understand, predict, and manage systems.

Types of Models:
Physical Models: Tangible and scaled-down versions (e.g., a globe).
Mathematical Models: Use mathematical equations to represent relationships (e.g., climate
models).

Computer Models: Simulations run on computers (e.g., population growth models).

Advantages: Simplification of complex systems, predictive power, easier communication of

concepts.

Disadvantages: Simplification can lead to loss of accuracy, reliance on assumptions, may not
account for all variables.

1.3 Energy and Equilibria

Energy Forms: Different types of energy within ecosystems include light (solar energy),
chemical energy (stored in organic molecules), heat (thermal energy), and kinetic energy
(energy of movement).

Laws of Thermodynamics:
First Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another. In
ecosystems, solar energy is converted into chemical energy by photosynthesis.

Second Law: Energy transformations increase the disorder (entropy) in a system. In

ecosystems, this means energy is lost as heat during metabolic processes, leading to less
available energy at higher trophic levels.

Equilibria:
Static Equilibrium: No change over time, rare in natural systems.
Steady-State Equilibrium: System remains stable despite continuous inputs and outputs of
energy and matter (e.g., a mature forest ecosystem).
Dynamic Equilibrium: Systems experience small, continuous changes but remain balanced
overall (e.g., predator-prey relationships).

1.4 Sustainability
Definition: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs, integrating environmental health, economic viability, and
social equity.

Components:
Environmental Sustainability: Maintaining natural resources and ecosystems services (e.g.,
clean air, water, fertile soil).

Economic Sustainability: Ensuring economic activities do not deplete resources or harm

ecological systems, while providing for economic growth and development.
Social Sustainability: Ensuring social well-being, equity, and access to resources for all
members of society.
Indicators:
Ecological Footprint: Measure of the biologically productive area required to support an
individual's lifestyle.

Carbon Footprint: Measure of the total greenhouse gases emitted by an individual, organization,
or product.

Resource Use: Assessment of how efficiently resources are utilized and the impact of their
extraction and consumption.

Waste Production: Evaluation of the quantity and types of waste generated and their
management.

1.5 Humans and Pollution

Pollution Types:
Air Pollution: Emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere (e.g., carbon monoxide,
sulfur dioxide, particulate matter).

Water Pollution: Contamination of water bodies with harmful substances (e.g., oil spills,
industrial discharge, agricultural runoff).

Soil Pollution: Introduction of chemicals or waste into the soil, reducing its fertility and harming
organisms (e.g., pesticides, heavy metals).

Noise Pollution: Harmful or excessive levels of noise disrupting human or animal life.

Light Pollution: Excessive or misdirected artificial light affecting ecosystems and human health.

Sources:
Industrial Processes: Factories emitting pollutants during manufacturing.
Agricultural Activities: Use of fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste.
Transportation: Emissions from vehicles, planes, and ships.
Waste Disposal: Improper disposal of waste leading to contamination.

Impacts:
Health Problems: Respiratory issues, cardiovascular diseases, and other health concerns.
Ecosystem Damage: Loss of biodiversity, habitat destruction, and water quality degradation.
Economic Costs: Healthcare expenses, loss of productivity, and costs for cleanup and
restoration.

Management Strategies:
Prevention: Reducing the production of pollutants through cleaner technologies and practices.
Control: Treating pollutants before they are released into the environment (e.g., scrubbers on
smokestacks).
Cleanup: Removing pollutants from the environment (e.g., oil spill cleanups).

Unit 2: Ecosystems and Ecology

2.1 Species and Population
Species: A group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring, sharing
common characteristics and genetic makeup.

Population: A group of individuals of the same species living in a specific geographical area,
interacting and interbreeding.

Population Dynamics:
Birth Rates: Number of births per unit time.
Death Rates: Number of deaths per unit time.
Immigration: Movement of individuals into a population.
Emigration: Movement of individuals out of a population.

Population Growth Models:

Exponential Growth: J-shaped curve, unlimited resources, no environmental resistance.
Logistic Growth: S-shaped curve, limited resources, carrying capacity (K).

2.2 Communities and Ecosystems

Community: All the populations of different species living and interacting in a specific area,
forming a network of relationships.

Ecosystem: A community of living organisms (biotic) and their physical environment (abiotic)
interacting as a system.

Biotic Factors: Living components (e.g., plants, animals, microbes).

Abiotic Factors: Non-living components (e.g., temperature, light, water, soil).

Interactions:
Competition: Species competing for limited resources.
Predation: One species (predator) feeding on another (prey).
Mutualism: Both species benefit from the interaction.
Commensalism: One species benefits, the other is neither helped nor harmed.
Parasitism: One species benefits at the expense of the other.

2.3 Flows of Energy and Matter

Energy Flow: The movement of energy through an ecosystem from the sun through producers
(plants) to consumers (animals) and decomposers (fungi and bacteria).

Trophic Levels: Different levels in a food chain:

Producers: Autotrophs, primarily plants and algae that produce energy through photosynthesis.
Primary Consumers: Herbivores that eat producers.
Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that eat primary consumers.
Tertiary Consumers: Top predators that eat secondary consumers.
Decomposers: Organisms that break down dead material, returning nutrients to the soil.

Food Chains and Food Webs:

Food Chain: Linear sequence of who eats whom.
Food Web: Complex network of interconnected food chains showing feeding relationships.
Nutrient Cycling:
Carbon Cycle: Movement of carbon through the atmosphere, living organisms, oceans, and soil.
Nitrogen Cycle: Transformation of nitrogen through fixation, nitrification, assimilation, and
denitrification.
Phosphorus Cycle: Movement of phosphorus through rocks, soil, water, and living organisms.

2.4 Biomes, Zonation, and Succession

Biomes: Large-scale ecological regions defined by climate, vegetation, and animal life.
Types: Tundra, taiga, temperate forests, tropical rainforests, grasslands, deserts.

Zonation: Distribution of species in distinct zones according to environmental gradients (e.g.,

altitude, depth).

Examples:
Different plant communities along a mountain slope.
Marine zonation from the shore to the deep ocean.

Succession: The process of ecological change in a community over time.

Primary Succession: Occurs in lifeless areas (e.g., after a volcanic eruption, glacier retreat).
Starts with pioneer species like lichens and mosses, leading to a climax community.
Secondary Succession: Occurs in areas where a community has been disturbed but soil
remains (e.g., after forest fire, agriculture). Faster than primary succession as soil and seeds are
already present.
Climax Community: A stable, mature community that undergoes little change in species
composition.

2.5 Investigating Ecosystems - Practical Work

Fieldwork Techniques:
Quadrats: Used to estimate the abundance and distribution of organisms in a defined area.
Transects: Line or belt transects to study changes in species composition across a gradient.
Pitfall Traps: Capturing small, ground-dwelling animals.
Sweep Nets: Collecting insects from vegetation.
Light Traps: Attracting and capturing nocturnal insects.

Data Collection and Analysis:

Species Richness: Number of different species in a given area.
Species Evenness: Distribution of individuals among different species.
Diversity Indices: Mathematical formulas to quantify biodiversity (e.g., Simpson’s Index,
Shannon-Wiener Index).
Biomass Estimation: Measuring the dry weight of organisms to estimate energy content.

Unit 3: Biodiversity and Conservation

3.1 An Introduction to Biodiversity

Definition: The variety of life in all its forms, levels, and combinations, including ecosystem
diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity.

Importance of Biodiversity:
- Ecosystem Services: Provisioning (e.g., food, water), regulating (e.g., climate regulation,
flood control), cultural (e.g., recreational, spiritual), and supporting services (e.g., nutrient
cycling, soil formation).
- Biological Resources: Source of food, medicine, and raw materials.
- Social Benefits: Recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual value.

3.2 Origin of Biodiversity

Evolution and Natural Selection:
- Speciation: Formation of new species through geographic isolation (allopatric speciation)
or genetic divergence without physical separation (sympatric speciation).
- Adaptive Radiation: Rapid evolution of diversely adapted species from a common
ancestor.
- Genetic Diversity: Variation in the genetic composition of individuals within and among
species.
- Gene Pool: Total genetic diversity found within a population or a species.
- Mutations: Changes in DNA that can create new genetic variation.
- Recombination: Shuffling of genes during sexual reproduction leading to genetic
diversity.

3.3 Threats to Biodiversity

- Habitat Destruction: Conversion of natural habitats into agricultural or urban areas.
- Climate Change: Alteration of temperature and precipitation patterns affecting species
distributions.
- Pollution: Contamination of air, water, and soil by harmful substances.
- Overexploitation: Unsustainable harvesting of resources (e.g., overfishing, poaching).
- Invasive Species: Non-native species that outcompete or prey on native species.
- Disease: Spread of diseases affecting wildlife populations.

3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity

Conservation Strategies:
 - In Situ Conservation: Protecting species in their natural habitats (e.g., protected areas,
national parks, wildlife reserves).
- Ex Situ Conservation: Protecting species outside their natural habitats (e.g., zoos,
botanical gardens, seed banks).

Conservation Approaches:
- Species-Based Approaches: Focusing on individual species (e.g., endangered species
act, captive breeding programs).
- Habitat-Based Approaches: Focusing on protecting and restoring habitats (e.g.,
reforestation, wetland restoration).
- Ecosystem-Based Approaches: Managing entire ecosystems to maintain biodiversity
and ecosystem services.

International Agreements:
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Global treaty to conserve biodiversity, promote
sustainable use, and share benefits from genetic resources.
- CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species): Regulates
international trade in wildlife and plants to ensure it does not threaten their survival.
- Ramsar Convention: International treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of
wetlands.

Unit 4: Water, Aquatic Food Production Systems, and Societies

4.1 Introduction to Water Systems

Water Cycle: Continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.
Processes: Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and transpiration.

Water Distribution:
- Freshwater: Found in rivers, lakes, groundwater, and glaciers.
- Saltwater: Found in oceans and seas.
- Watersheds: Land area that drains into a particular water body, also known as drainage
basin or catchment area.

4.2 Access to Freshwater

Global Distribution: Uneven distribution of freshwater resources due to climatic and geographic
factors.

Water Scarcity:
- Physical Scarcity: Insufficient water resources to meet demand.
- Economic Scarcity: Lack of infrastructure to access available water.

Water Management:
- Sustainable Practices: Efficient use of water resources, reducing wastage, recycling, and
desalination.
 - Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM): Coordinated development and
management of water, land, and related resources to maximize economic and social
welfare without compromising ecosystem sustainability.

4.3 Aquatic Food Production Systems

Types of Aquatic Food Production:
- Capture Fisheries: Harvesting wild fish and other aquatic organisms from natural water
bodies.
- Aquaculture: Breeding, rearing, and harvesting fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants in
controlled environments.

Sustainability Issues:
1. Overfishing: Depletion of fish stocks due to excessive fishing pressure.
2. Bycatch: Unintended capture of non-target species.
3. Habitat Degradation: Destruction of aquatic habitats due to fishing practices, pollution,
and coastal development.
4. Pollution: Nutrient runoff, chemicals, and waste from aquaculture affecting water quality.

Sustainable Practices:
- Ecosystem-Based Management: Considering entire ecosystems, including human
needs, in the management of fisheries and aquaculture.
- Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Designated areas to protect marine ecosystems and
biodiversity.
- Sustainable Aquaculture: Practices that minimize environmental impacts, such as
integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA).

4.4 Water Pollution

Types of Water Pollution:
- Point Source Pollution: Pollution from a single, identifiable source (e.g., discharge from a
factory).
- Non-Point Source Pollution: Diffuse pollution from multiple sources (e.g., agricultural
runoff).

Pollutants:
- Nutrients: Excessive nitrogen and phosphorus leading to eutrophication.
- Heavy Metals: Toxic metals like mercury, lead, and cadmium.
- Pathogens: Disease-causing microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, viruses).
- Organic Waste: Decomposition of organic matter leading to oxygen depletion.
- Chemical Pollutants: Pesticides, herbicides, and industrial chemicals.

Impacts:
- Eutrophication: Over-enrichment of water bodies with nutrients leading to algal blooms,
oxygen depletion, and fish kills.
- Bioaccumulation: Accumulation of toxic substances in the tissues of organisms.
 - Health Hazards: Contaminated water causing diseases like cholera, dysentery, and
hepatitis.

Management Strategies:
- Prevention: Reducing pollution at the source through regulations and best management
practices.
- Treatment: Treating wastewater and polluted water to remove contaminants before
discharge.
- Cleanup: Remediation of polluted water bodies through physical, chemical, and
biological methods.