MODULE IN

CE 2241
Engineering Utilities 1

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

Course Introduction 3
Module and Unit Topics 3
Course Study Guide 5
Additional Guidelines for Offline Students 7
Study Schedule 7
Evaluation 10
Formative Assessment Activities 11
Summative Assessment Activities 11
Technological Tools 11
Contact Information of the Facilitator 12
MODULE 1: Basic Concepts and Introduction
13
to Electrical Circuits
MODULE 2: Classifications of Electrical Systems 49
and Branch Circuit Components
MODULE 3: Lighting Design and Principles Bahala ka na val
hahahah
MODULE 4: Building Network and Bahala ka na val
Telecommunications System hahahah
MODULE 5: Renewable Power System Bahala ka na val
hahahah

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 Course Learning Outcomes
1. Analyze, understand and remember Building Electrical Systems
2. Understand, apply and remember Artificial Illumination and
Day lighting
3. Understand, apply and remember Building Telecommunication
Systems

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 Course Introduction
The course focuses on the environmental systems in buildings. Lecture discussions
include building electrical systems, natural and artificial lighting, and building
telecommunications.
Reducing operational loads and integrating high performance energy systems into
building offers solutions towards achieving a sustainable and secure energy future.
Engineers must understand the interrelationship between a building and its subsystems and
need sufficient knowledge of building systems and design alternatives to recommend
appropriate solutions that suit the site, climate, building type, and occupants. They must
coordinate the work of the engineering disciplines that carry the sustainability concept
forward through building design, construction, commissioning, operation and, ultimately,
demolition, recycling and reuse.

Module and Unit Topics

To ensure that you will demonstrate the above-cited course learning outcome at the end
of the semester, this course designed to be delivered in 54 contact hours was divided into 3
modules. Each module contains a discussion with its topic learning outcomes and topic
outline. Each module is designed using the 5E constructivist model of learning, developed
by Rodger Bybee, that encourages students to engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and
evaluate their knowledge of topics covered therein. It means that at the end of each unit,
each module, and the course as a whole, you will be assessed on your progress in attaining
the course learning outcomes. Outcomes-based education dictates that only when you
can demonstrate the course learning outcomes by the end of this course, can you be
given a passing mark. The modules that form the building blocks to help you attain the
course learning outcomes are as follows:

MODULE 1: Basic concepts and Introduction to Electrical Circuits

This module allows you to review fundamental concepts in the pre-requisite course,
EnggPhys (Lec & Lab). The discussion will focus on the basic electrical ideas and units,
understand the importance of Ohm’s law, and apply it to a variety of electrical circuit
connections. It will also discuss how to determine the power and energy of the system and
the relationship between voltage, current, resistance, and power. The module will also
discuss how to identify and determine the equivalent resistance of types of circuit
connections: series circuit, parallel circuit, series-parallel circuit, and parallel-series circuit. In
addition, at the end of this module, you will be able to distinguish between types of branch
circuits and compute circuit loads.

MODULE 2: Classifications of Electrical Systems and Branch Circuit

Components
In this module you will be able to distinguish the system voltages utilized in different
buildings and structures. Furthermore, you will be able to identify, describe and distinguish
between types of building distribution equipment and switches and finally, this module will
help you interpret design information of building electrical system components.
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 MODULE 3: Lighting Design and Principles
Artificial and natural lighting sources will be discussed and elaborated in this module. You
will be able to apply and corporate natural lighting, artificial lighting and color rendition.
Also, this module focuses on performing lighting analysis by incorporating calculations for
lighting levels for a specific occupancy.

MODULE 4: Building Network and Telecommunications System

Types of Building networks and telecommunication systems will be discussed in this module.
You will be able to name, distinguish and describe each transmission media specifically
design for each network. Also, this module focuses on the interpretation of design and
details on telecommunication systems.

MODULE 5: Renewable Power systems

In this module, you will be able to identify, describe and distinguish types of renewable
power systems (e.g., PV, wind, hydro power, etc.). Interpret design and detailing
information for renewable power systems.

Course Study Guide

Finishing this course successfully relies heavily on your self-discipline and time management
skills. The course modules were prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and
independently. Keeping yourself motivated to follow the schedules specified in the
learning plan, maintaining excellence in the expected student outputs, and mastering the
different technologies and procedures required in the delivery and feedback for this
course, will instill in you important qualities you will need in the future as an engineer
practicing your profession. The following course guides and house rules are designed for
you to practice decorum consistent with standards expected within a formal academic
environment. These guides shall lay the groundwork for consistency, coherence,
cooperation, and clear communication among learners and instructors throughout the
conduct of this course:

1. MANAGE YOUR MINUTES. Create a study routine and stick to it. Keep
requirement deadlines and study schedules always in mind by providing visual
cues posted in your place of study or listed in your reminders (electronically,
online, or on paper). Remember that there are other daily activities that take
up your time, not to mention other courses you may be concurrently taking.
Choose a time of day when you are most likely to maximize learning.
Communicate your schedule to other members of your household so they
could help you keep it. It would also help to prepare a dedicated space in
your residence conducive for learning.
2. MIND YOUR MANNERS. Treat the distance learning environment as an
academic space not too different from a physical classroom. Do not do in the
distance learning environment, acts you would not normally do in a face-to-
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 face classroom set up. Avoid asking questions that have already been
answered in the lessons or in the instructions previously discussed or provided.
This reflects your poor focus and uninspired preparation for this course.
Practice Electronic Conversation Etiquette in group chats, open forums, and
similar electronic venues.
a. Use appropriate language and tone, correct grammar and spelling,
and complete sentences acceptable in an academic forum. Avoid
text-speak, slang, and all caps in your posts.
b. Express your opinions politely and do not dominate the conversation.
c. Avoid lengthy as well as offensive posts by sticking to the topic of
the discussion.
d. Take time to understand the salient points of the discussion, and
provide a meaningful and well-thought response to the posts of
other participants.
e. For a live meeting or video/voice conferencing set-up, mute your
microphone when you are not speaking to keep the focus on the
main speaker.
3. MASTER THE MEDIUM. The distance learning courses will be delivered making use
of the institutional Google Suite account of Saint Louis University. It would be
worthwhile on your part to devote some time and effort to learn the
applications you will need to access your course materials, interact with me
and your classmates, and submit course requirements. Applications of note
are Google Classroom, Google Drive, and Google Meet. There are also
available alternatives to Microsoft Office tools you might want to explore.
Certain requirements will require you to take a video on your smart phone,
save it, and submit it electronically. Work on this skill as well. If you are offline,
identify the most convenient means for express mail correspondence and
inform me as early as possible so we can make the necessary arrangements
ahead of time.
4. MAKE MASTERPIECES. Go beyond minimum requirements. The course learning
outcomes will serve as a guide to the minimum expected competencies you
are to acquire at the end of this course. It does not limit you from performing
beyond it. Keep in mind that the quality of your work reflects the amount of
thought and care you put into the process of completing it. It provides a very
tangible measure of how much of the competencies you have developed
and fully obtained throughout this course.
5. CONNECT CONSTANTLY. There are more than sufficient online and offline modes
to ensure that you are well informed and provided on time with the needed
learning materials, instructions, requirements, and feedback either from me or
from your classmates. Exhaust all means possible to keep in touch and
updated. My contact details can be found at the latter part of this document
and will be made available and widely disseminated to enrollees of this course.
6. OBSERVE ORIGINALITY. Your course outputs will largely be submitted in
electronic form. It is going to have a highly traceable and comparable digital
footprint that can be easily checked for originality. Cite your sources properly
for referenced statements you decide to use in your own work. Attribute
statements by persons other than you by using terms like according to, he
said/she said, and the like.
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 7. INSTIGATE INDEPENDENCE. You are the focus of this course. Nobody else. All
assessment and evaluation tools in this course are designed to measure your
competence and not anybody else’s. You may use all resources at your
disposal, and ask other people for advice. In the end however, it is going to
be your independent work that will be judged against the standards set for this
course. The only way for you to maximize this course to your advantage is to
learn as much from it as an individual. Make it count.
8. RESPECT THE ROUTINE. There are traditionally respected routines we follow in the
conduct of our everyday lives. Please be mindful of universally accepted
norms of courtesy attached to regular schedules of personal and family time.
Unless of utmost importance, please refrain from any form of communication
between 8:30 PM and 7:30 AM everyday and the whole day on Sundays and
official holidays. You shall expect me to adhere to this guideline myself. This
will allow us all to dedicate personal time and space to other aspects of our
life and maintain a healthy work-life/study-life balance.
9. FINISH THE FIVE. To be able to help you build your own understanding from
experience and new ideas, the modules in this course are designed based on
the 5E Instructional Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate).
The following icons will help you find some of the most critical areas in the units
of the learning modules:

Part of module unit that is designed to pique

your interest in the topics to be discussed by
accessing your prior knowledge and build up
your curiosity to learn more.

Part of the module unit that presents the main

lesson through materials that will give you a
general picture of the topics to be discussed,
introducing you to new concepts and ideas.

Part of the module unit that contains detailed

discussions of topics and provide you the
definition of the smaller pieces of the general
picture you encountered in the previous stage.

Part of the module unit that expounds on the

ideas of the previous stage and allows you to
extrapolate into a broader field or delve deeper
into the finer details of the topics.

Part of the module unit that gives us the

opportunity to gauge your attainment of the
learning outcomes using formative and
evaluative assessment tools.

Additional Guidelines for Offline Students:

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  If you are a student opting for the offline mode of distance learning, you will be
tasked to send back the accomplished requirements at given stages of the
course through express mail correspondence on or before the scheduled date
to me. Make sure you will follow it up with me through text or any other media
available for you.

 While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished requirements, continue

doing the task in the succeeding units of the module. If needed, do not
hesitate to keep in touch with me through any available means. Remember, if
there is a will, there is a way.

Study Schedule
Below is the complete weekly schedule for the attainment of the topic learning
outcomes vis-a-vis the activities. This contains also the schedule of the deadlines of the
submission of the accomplished course requirements or assignments and the
examination.

Dates TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES ACTIVITIES

MODULE 1: Basic Concepts and Introduction to Electrical Circuits
Unit 1: Electrical Theory
Week 1-2 TLO 1: Name and define common Engage and Explore:
electrical terminology (i.e. Read topics on:
voltage, amperage, resistance,  Chapter 1: Basic concepts:
voltage drop, ampacity, etc.) and system of units, basic
relate voltage, amperage, quantities, and circuits
resistance, energy, and power. elements (Page 1- 8)
Calculate energy and cost of  Ohm’s Law
operation of electric al Explain:
equipment. - Examine sample and
solved problems
Elaborate:
 Problem Solving: Exercises
Explain:
- Examine sample and
solved problems
Elaborate:
- Problem Solving: Exercises
Unit 2: Branch Circuits and Overcurrent Devices
Week 3 TLO 2: Name, describe and Engage and Explore:
distinguish between types of Read topics on:
branch circuits and compute  Types of Branch Circuits.
circuit loads. Identify, describe  Types of Overcurrent Devices
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 and distinguish between types of Explain:
branch circuit components. - Examine sample and
Compute the minimum required solved problems
size of branch circuit components. Elaborate:
Problem Solving: Exercises
Module 1: Unit 2 Evaluative Assessment
Graded Quiz 2
Graded Prelim Exam
MODULE 2: Classifications of Electrical Systems and Branch Circuit
Components

Week 4 TLO 3: Name, describe and Engage and Explore:

distinguish between types of Read topics on:
building system voltage (e.g.,  Transformers
120/240V, 277/480V, etc.) and  Building Equipment and
buildings in which they are used. switches
 Electrical System Equipment

Explain:
- Examine sample and
solved problems
Elaborate:
Problem Solving: Exercises
TLO 4: Identify, describe and
distinguish between types of
building distribution equipment
and switches. Interpret design
information of building electrical
system components.

Module 2: Evaluative Assessment

Graded Quiz 1
Graded Midterm Exam
MODULE 3: Lighting Design and Principles
Week 5 TLO 5: Name, describe and Engage and Explore:
distinguish between types of Read topics on:
artificial and natural lighting  Illumination
sources. Identify the influence of  Architectural Lighting
color rendition. Identify  Natural Lighting
 Artificial Lighting
appropriate lighting levels for a
Explain:
specific occupancy. Perform
- Examine sample and
basic lighting analysis (single
point, zonal cavity, and natural solved problems
lighting methods). Interpret design Elaborate:
- Problem Solving: Exercises
and detailing information on
artificial and natural lighting.
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 MODULE 4: Building Network and Telecommunications System
Week 6 TLO 6: Name, describe and Engage and Explore:
distinguish between types of Read topics on:
networks. Identify types of  Types of
transmission media. Name and telecommunication systems
describe standards, devices,  Wireless System
equipment and space Explain:
requirements for a structured - Examine sample and
cabling and wireless systems. solved problems
Interpret design and detailing Elaborate:
information on building - Problem Solving: Exercises
telecommunication systems. Evaluate:
- Module 6 Evaluative
Assessment.
Module 3 and 4 Evaluative Assessment
Graded Quiz
MODULE 5: Renewable Power Systems
Week 7 TLO 7: Identify, describe and Engage and Explore:
distinguish between types of Read topics on AC Networks:
renewable power systems (e.g.,  Power Systems
PV, wind, hydropower, etc.).  Power Plants
Interpret design and detailing
information for renewable power Explain:
systems. - Examine sample and
solved problems
Elaborate:
- Problem Solving: Exercises
Evaluate:
Module 2 Evaluative Assessment.

Module 5 Evaluative Assessment

Graded Quiz
Graded Final Examination

Evaluation
The course modules rely on formative and summative assessments to determine the
progress of your learning in each module. To obtain a passing grade in this course, you
must:

1. Read all course readings and answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions.
2. Submit all graded quizzes
3. Take the Midterm and Final Examinations
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  If you are a student under the offline DL mode, accomplish all print-based and
electronically saved discussion activities and requirements, and submit them on
time via express mail correspondence.

Formative Assessment Activities

Formative assessments for this course are applied to ungraded activities that are used to
monitor your learning experience and provide feedback to improve both your learning
approach as well as my instructional approach.
• You are required to answer the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities,
and reflection questions but your scores in activities will not be included in the
computation of your final grade.
• The reflection questions are designed to help you to critically analyze the course
readings for better understanding while the pre-assessment quizzes and self-
assessment activities are designed as a review management tool to prepare
you for the graded quizzes and examinations.
• Successfully answering formative activity questions and requirements will serve
as prompts to tell you if you need to study further or if you may already move
forward to the next unit of the module.
• The completeness of your answers to the pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions will still be checked and will still be part of
your course completion. Hence, all pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment
activities, and reflection questions must be answered.
• In doing your formative assessment activities, you can always ask the help of
your family and friends.
• The pre-assessment quizzes, self-assessment activities, and reflection questions
are required so you can take it anytime within the scheduled days assigned for
each module.

Summative Assessment Activities

The evaluative assessments are graded activities designed to determine if your acquisition
of learning and performance in tests is at par with standards set at certain milestones in this
course.

A. Quizzes, Examinations, and Assignments

Graded quizzes, examinations, and assignments are essential to determine whether

your performance as a student is at par with standards/goals that need to be
achieved in this course. The scores obtained from each of the graded activities will
contribute to your final grade, the weights of which are presented in the grading
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 system described in the succeeding sections of this text. Direct scoring can be used on
straightforward requirements like short answers and multiple-choice responses, while
scoring rubrics will be provided for answers that are typically lengthy and involve a
more complex level of thinking on your part.

B. Final Course Requirement

To achieve the course learning outcome, students must submit all requirements such as
activities, quizzes and exams. For online mode students, these must be submitted as
scheduled, for offline students, these must all be saved on the flash disk and submitted
with the other requirements as scheduled.
Technological Tools
To be able to accomplish all the tasks in this course, you will need a computer or a laptop
with the following software applications: Word Processing, Presentation, and Publication for
requirements that do not require online access. A smart phone with video recording and
editing features will also be used for activities that will require you to record videos for
saving and submission.

If you are a student online, access to the institutional Google Classroom will be provided
through your institutional account. An invitation to join the Google Classroom will be sent
to you through the SLU Student Portal and your institutional email account, so make sure to
activate your institutional email account. It is equally important that you check your SLU
Student Portal account at least twice a week and turn your Gmail Notifications on in your
mobile phone and computer.

If you are a student offline, the delivery of instructions and requirements will be primarily
through express mail correspondence of printed modules and saved digital content on a
USB flash drive. Feedback and clarifications will be facilitated through text messaging and
voice calls; hence, you need to have regular access to a cell phone. If you need to call, or
you want to talk to me, send me a message first and wait for me to respond. Do not give
my CP number to anybody. I will not entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not
registered in my phone. Hence, use only the CP number you submitted to me.

Contact Information of the Facilitator

Engr. Joshvyne Dale B. Daniel

CE 2241 Course Facilitator

Cellphone No. : +639464341732

SLU local extension number :
Institutional email address : [email protected]

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 COURSE MODULE

MODULE 1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Unit 1: Electrical Ideas and Units

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

Discuss the basic electrical ideas and units.

References:

Admin. (2019, November 07). Electromotive Force - Definition, Formula, Unit, Difference. Retrieved August 01,
2020, from https://byjus.com/physics/electromotive-force/

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 1 of 4. (n.d.). Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
https://docplayer.net/13054405-Doe-fundamentals-handbook-electrical-science-volume-1-of-4.html

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductivity-3_6.html

ENGAGE

What is Electricity?

Electricity is defined as "the flow of electrons through simple materials and devices" or "that
force which moves electrons." Scientists think electricity is produced by very tiny particles
called electrons and protons. These particles are too small to be seen, but exist as
subatomic particles in the atom. To understand how they exist, you must first understand
the structure of the atom.

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 The Atom

The atom is the smallest particle to which

an element can be reduced while still
keeping the properties of that element

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged

electrons, so that the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

The nucleus is composed of two kinds of subatomic particles: protons and neutrons

 The proton carries a single unit positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron
charge.

 The neutron is slightly heavier than the proton and is electrically neutral, as the name
implies.

The Carbon Atom

Example:

The carbon atom contains six protons in its

nucleus; therefore, the atomic number for
carbon is six.

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 Electrostatic Force
The attraction of electrons and neutrons are called electrostatic force. Without this
electrostatic force, the electron, which is traveling at high speed, could not stay in its orbit.
Bodies that attract
each other in this
way are called
charged bodies.

The first law of Electrostatic Force

The negative charge of the electron is equal, but opposite to, the positive charge of the
proton. These charges are referred to as electrostatic charges. In nature, unlike charges
(like electrons and protons) attract each other, and like charges repel each other. These
facts are known as the First Law of Electrostatics and are sometimes referred to as the law
of electrical charges.

Electrostatic Force
A special force is acting between the charged objects. Forces of this type are the result of
an electrostatic field that exists around each charged particle or object. This electrostatic
field, and the force it creates, can be illustrated with lines called "lines of force" as shown
below.

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 Electrostatic field between two charges of
opposite polarity.

Electrostatic field between two charges of like

polarity.

The sum of the potential differences of all charged particles in the electrostatic field is
referred to as electromotive force (EMF).

Potential difference between two charged

objects

Electrons
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  Electrons are subatomic particles of an atom

 The electrons carry a negative electrostatic charge

 Under certain conditions electrons move from atom to atom.

 The direction of movement between atoms is random unless a force causes the
electrons to move in one direction.

EXPLORE

Read Chapter 1: Basic concepts: system of units, basic quantities, and circuits elements
(Page 1-8)

Reference:
Irwin & Nelms (2015). Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis

EXPLAIN

Electrical Circuits

An electrical circuit is a path or line through which an electrical current flows (as
shown below). The path may be closed (joined at both ends), making it a loop. A
closed circuit makes electrical current flow possible. It may also be an
open circuit where the electron flow is cut short because the path is broken. It also
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 includes several sources, resistors and other circuit elements such as capacitor,
transformers and motors interconnected in a network.Source: ESchooltoday. (n.d.). Retrieved July
31, 2020, from https://eschooltoday.com/science/electricity/what-is-an-electrical-circuit.html)

Source: https://www.elprocus.com/basic-electrical-circuits-and-their-working-for-electrical-engineers/

Electrical Properties

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 What are the Electrical Properties of
Materials?

 Electrical properties are the

physical conditions that allow
an electrical charge to move from
atom to atom in a specific
material.

 These properties differ greatly

between the three major types
of materials: solids, liquids and
Electrical conductors are materials that allow gases.
electricity to flow through them easily. Most
metals are good conductors.

Source: Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductivity-3_6.html

Electrical Charge and Electric Current

The magnitude of the charge is commonly given in coulombs, and for each negatively
charge electron it is 1.59�10−19 coulomb.

Electric Charge – a body is said to be charge, if it has either excess or deficit of electrons
from its normal values due to sharing.

� ������� � = �. �������

Electric Current – the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit.

Electromotive Force (EMF)

Electromotive force is defined as the electric potential produced by either

electrochemical cell or by changing the magnetic field. EMF is the commonly used
acronym for electromotive force.

When an emf is applied to the ends of a conductor it is proper to refer to the existence of a
potential difference between such ends; also, since increments of emf are required for
successive increments of conductor, it is customary to regard a potential difference as a
drop in potential along the length of the conductor. Still another term, more commonly
used than those already given, is voltage; it too suggests the existence of force that tends
to create a current.

The unit for electromotive force is Volt.

EMF is numerically expressed as the number of Joules of energy given by the source
divided by each Coulomb to enable a unit electric charge to move across the circuit.
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 ������
����� =
��������

EMF is given as the ratio of work done on a unit charge which is represented as follows:

������
��� =
��������

Potential Difference – The amount of energy per unit charge needed to move a charged
particle from a reference point to a designated point in a static electric field.

����� �� ���� ����

�=
�������

Electrical Resistance and Resistivity

The magnitude of the current passing through a conducting material depends not only
upon the impressed emf but on the properties of the conductor as well. Since electrical
conductivity varies with the different materials it is therefore proper and convenient to
assume that all substances possess a reciprocal property, i.e., a tendency to oppose
current.

The electrical resistance, �, is an electrical quantity that measures how the device or
material reduces the electric current flow through it. The resistance is measured in units
of ohms (Ω).

The unit of resistance is the international ohm and is defined as the resistance at zero
degrees centigrade of a column of mercury of uniform cross section, having a length of
106.3 centimeters and a mass of 14.4521 grams.

The factors that could affect resistance are the following:

1. Length (�)

� ∝�

2. Cross-sectional Area (��)

�
� ∝
�

3. Type of Material

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 *Specific resistance/resistivity (ρ) – an intrinsic property of a material that is
measured as its resistance to current per unit length for a uniform cross section

��
�=
�
�����: � − ������ �
� − ���� 1�� = ������ ���ℎ��
4�106
� − �����������
4�106
1 ������ ���ℎ�� = ��
�

ELEMENTS ALLOYS
Silver 9.9 Brass 42
Copper, annealed 10.37 German Silver 199
Copper, hard-drawn 10.65 Manganin 265
Gold, pure 14 Lucero 280
Aluminum 17 Advance 294
Magnesium 28 Constantan 302
Tungsten 33 Excello 550
Zinc 36 Nichrome 600
Nickel 47 Nichrome II 660
Iron, cast 54 Chromel 625-655
Platinum 60
Iron, commercial 75
Lead 132
Mercury 577

1. Temperature

� ∝� � ∝�

�� �� �+� �
��
= � + �� �� −��
��
= �+�� �� =
�+�
�

where:
�� − ������� ����������
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 �� − ����� ����������
�� − ������� �����������
�� − ����� ����������
� − �������� �����
� − ����. �����������

Electrical Conductivity - is used to specify the electrical character of a material. It is simply

the reciprocal of the resistivity.
�
�=
�

Example 1.

A 50 meters conductor has a cross sectional area of 1.5mm2 and resistance of 15 Ω.

Calculate the conductivity.

Solutions:
� = �� ������
� = �. ����
� = �� Ω
�� ��
� = ; �� = ��; � =
� �
��� � �� �
�. ���� � � � ��Ω
�� ���� �����
�= = = �. ����−� � ∙ Ω
� �� ������
� �
�= = = �. �������� /� ∙ Ω = �. �����/� ∙ Ω
� �. ����−� � ∙ Ω

Example 2.

The substation bus bar is made up of 2 inches round copper bars of 20 ft. long. What is the
resistance of each bar if resistivity is 1.724 x10-6 Ω-cm?

��
�= ; �=?
�
2
�(2���ℎ)2 2.54��
�= � = 20.26829916 ��2
4 1���ℎ

12���ℎ 2.54��.
� = 20��. � � = 609.6 ��
1�� 1���ℎ.

� = 1.724�10−6 Ω − ��

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 �� 1.724�10−6 Ω − �� 609.6 ��
�= = = �. ��������� � ��−� Ω = ��. ���������Ω
� 20.26829916 ��2

Kinds of Current

1. Direct Current (DC)

a. Charge flows in only one direction
b. e.g. batteries

2. Alternating Current (AC)

a. electrons in the circuit are first moved in one direction and then in the opposite
direction, constantly alternating back and forth about relatively fixed position
b. e.g. radio, TV, refrigerator, printer

Direct Current vs. Alternating Current

Symbol for AC
Symbol for
Source
Battery

Symbol for
Resistor

Source: https://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/AC/AC_1.html

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 Ohm’s Law, Power, and Energy
Ohm’s Law

In 1827, George Simon Ohm discovered that there was a definite relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. Ohm’s Law defines this relationship
and can be stated in three ways.

1. Applied voltage equals circuit current times the circuit resistance.

�=���
2. Current is equal to the applied voltage divided by the circuit resistance.
�
�=
�
3. Resistance of a circuit is equal to the applied voltage divided by the circuit
current.
�
�= where:
�
I = current (A)
V = voltage (V)
R = resistance (Ω)

Power

Power is the rate at which work is done, or the rate at which heat is generated. The unit
commonly used to specify electric power is the watt (W). Power is also described as the
current (I) in a circuit times the voltage (V) across the circuit.
�= ���
� = �� � �

Electrical Energy vs. Heat Energy

Heat prematurely degrades wire quality causing energy loses and burnouts.
Resistance in the wire converts a portion of electrical energy into heat.
Heat in the wire decreases the efficiency of the system.
Contraction and expansion of the wire and wire fittings.
Electrical Arcing (sparks).

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 Example 3.

A small light bulb is connected to a 6V battery and draws a 2 A of current. What is the net
resistance of the bulb?

Solution:

� = 6� ; � = 2 �

� ��
�= = = �Ω
� ��

Example 4.

Calculate the resistance of (a) a 100 watts 120 volts incandescent, (b) a 750 watts 115-volt
toaster, (c) a 1300 watts 110-volt portable iron.

Solution:

References:

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 1 of 4. (n.d.). Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
https://docplayer.net/13054405-Doe-fundamentals-handbook-electrical-science-volume-1-of-4.html

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 ENGAGE
Read the following:

Chapter 1.2: Force, Work, and Power

Chapter 1.5: Energy and Electrical Power

Reference: Nahvi & Edminister (2003). Theory and Problems of Electric Circuits. 4th Edition. Schaum’s Outline
Series. McGRAW-HILL

EXPLORE
Read topics on: Chapter 2.1 Ohm’s Law (Page 25)

Reference: Irwin & Nelms (2015). Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis

EXPLAIN
Read the following:

Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law, Power and Energy (Page 42-72)

Reference: Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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26
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Source:
DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 10f 4. (1992). U.S. Department of Energy,
Washington, D.C. 20585
Website: https://www.standards.doe.gov/standards-documents/1000/1011-bhdbk-1992-v1/@@images/file

Each electrical circuit has at least four basic parts: (1) a source of electromotive force, (2)
conductors, (3) load or loads, and (4) some means of control.

FIGURE 1.
Closed Circuit is an uninterrupted, or unbroken,
path for current from the source (EMF), through the load, and back to the source.

FIGURE 2.
Open Circuit or incomplete circuit exists if a break in the circuit occurs;
this prevents a complete path for current flow.

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 .

FIGURE 3.
Short Circuit is a circuit which offers very little resistance to current flow and can cause
dangerously high current flow through a circuit. Short circuits are usually caused by an
inadvertent connection between two points in a circuit which offers little or no resistance to
current flow. Shorting resistor R in Figure will probably cause the fuse to blow.

TWO FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF CIRCUIT

1. SERIES CIRCUITS
A series circuit is a circuit where there is only one path for current flow. In a series
circuit the current will be the same throughout the circuit. This means that the
current flow through R1 is the same as the current flow through R2 and R3.

The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of all the parts of that circuit,
as shown in equation.
�� = �� + �� + �� + . . ���

where:
RT = resistance total
R1, R2, and R3 = resistance in series

Example 5.

A series circuit has a 60Ω, 100Ω and 150Ω resistor in series. What is the total resistance of the
circuit?
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 Solutions:

�� = ��Ω + ���Ω + ���Ω = ���Ω

The total voltage (VT) across a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltages across each
resistor in the circuit as shown in equation:
�� = �� + �� + �� + . . ���

To find the total voltage across a series circuit,

multiply the current by the total resistance as
shown in equation:

�� = ���
Where:
VT = total voltage
I = current
RT = total resistance

Example 6.

Given the figure below, calculate the total voltage.

Solutions:
�� = �� + �� + �� = ��� + ��� + ��� = �� �

Example 7.

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 A series circuit has a 50Ω, 75Ω, and 100Ω resistor in series. Find the voltage necessary to
produce a current of 0.5amps.

Solutions:

�� = �� + �� + �� = ��Ω + ��Ω + ���Ω = ���Ω

�� = �. ��

Using Ohm’s Law:

�� = ��� = �. � ��� = ���. � �

Example 8.

A 120 V battery is connected in series with three resistors: 40 Ω, 60 Ω, and 100Ω. Find the
voltage across/voltage drop each resistor.

Solutions:

�� = �� + �� + �� = ��Ω + ��Ω + ���Ω = ���Ω

� ��� �
�� = �� = ���Ω = �. ��  In a series circuit, the current that flows through each of the
�
components is the same(constant).
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 Using Ohm’s Law:

�� = �� �� = �. � �� = �� �

�� = �� �� = �. � �� = �� �
�� = �� �� = �. � ��� = �� �
Check: Total voltage (VT) across a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltages across
each resistor

�� = �� + �� + �� = ��� + ��� + ��� = ����

2. PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Parallel circuits are those circuits which have two or more components connected
across the same voltage source. Resistors R1, R2, and R3 are in parallel with each
other and the source. Each parallel path is a branch with its own individual current.
When the current leaves the source V, part I1 of IT will flow through R1; part I2 will flow
through R2; and part I3 will flow through R3. Current through each branch can be
different; however, voltage throughout the circuit will be equal.

�� = �� = �� = �� = �� = . . . = ��

�� = �� + �� + �� + . . . + ��

The total resistance in a parallel circuit can also be found by using the equation:

� � � � �
= + + +...+
�� �� �� �� ��
�
�� =
� � � �
�� + �� + �� + … + ��

When any two resistors are unequal in a parallel circuit, it is easier to calculate RT by
multiplying the two resistances and then dividing the product by the sum, as
shown in equation (this is valid when there are only two resistors in parallel).

�� ��
�� =
�� + ��

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 Example 9.

Two resistors, each drawing 3A, and a third resistor, drawing 2A, are connected in parallel
across a 115 V source. What is total current?

Solution:
Since the total current of parallel circuit:

�� = �� + �� + ��
Therefore, �� = �� + �� + �� = ��

Example 10.

Two branches, R1 and R2, are across a 120 V power source. The total current flow is 30 A.
Branch R1 takes 22 amps. What is the current flow in Branch R2?

Solution:
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 The total current of parallel circuit: �� = �� + ��
Since the total current given: �� = ��� ; �� = ���
Therefore,
��� = ��� + �� ��� − ��� = ��
�� = ��

Example 11.

A parallel circuit consists of R1 = 15Ω, R2 = 20Ω and R3 = 10Ω, with an applied voltage of
120V. What current will flow through each branch?

Solution:
The total voltage of parallel circuit: �� = �� = �� = �� = ����
Since the resistance are given: �� = ��Ω ; �� = ��Ω ; �� = ��Ω
Therefore,
�� ����
�� = = = ��
�� ��Ω
�� ����
�� = = = ��
�� ��Ω
�� ����
�� = = = ���
�� ��Ω
Check:
� � ��
�� = = = Ω
� � � � � � ��
+ + + +
�� �� �� ��Ω ��Ω ��Ω

�� = ����
�� ����
�� = = = �� �
�� ��
�� Ω
�� = �� + �� + �� = �� + �� + ��� = ���

Example 12.
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 Find the total resistance of a 4Ω, an 8Ω, and a 16Ω resistor in parallel.

Solution:

� � ��
�� = = = Ω
� � � � � � �
+ + + +
�� �� �� �Ω �Ω ��Ω

Example 13.

What value of resistance must be added, in parallel, with an 8Ω resistor to provide a total
resistance of 6Ω?
Solution:

���
�� =
� + ��
(�Ω)(��)
�Ω =
�٠+ ��
�� = ��Ω

TWO FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF COMBINATION CIRCUIT

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 Complex circuits are frequently found in practice to consists of two or more
interconnected sections, each of which may be a single resistor or two or more resistors in
series or parallel; the interconnection of the several sections may likewise be arranged in
series or parallel.

1. SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
In the series-parallel shown, the major (series) circuit is made up of two section which
combine resistors in parallel.
Note: The term “series-parallel” uses the word series first emphasizes the major circuit,
and the word parallel second to indicate the minor connections.

2. PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT
In the parallel-series circuit shown, the major (parallel) circuit is made up of
two minor circuit which combine resistors in series.

Series-Parallel Circuit

Source: https://www.ceb.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/rg-eme/Edu/series-parallel-circuits

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 Source: https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/finding-current-in-parallel-and-series-circuits.939427/

Note: The term “parallel-series” uses the word parallel first emphasizes the major
circuit, and the word series second to indicate the minor connections.

Example 14.

What is the value of the unknown resistor R as shown in the figure? If the voltage drop
across the 500Ω resistor is 2.5V? All resistance are in ohm.

Source: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

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 Solution:

Example 15.

A 12ohm resistor is connected in parallel with a series combination of resistors of 8 ohms

and 16 ohms. If the drop across the 8ohm resistor is 48 volts, determine the total impressed
emf and the total current.

Solutions:

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37
 Example 16.

Two 30-ohm resistors are connected in series. When a resistor R is connected across one of
them the total circuit resistance is 40 ohms. Calculate the ohmic value of R.
Solution:

Example 17.

Given the figure below, calculate the total resistance, RAB

A B

Solution:

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 Example 18.

Given the circuit below, find the currents: �1 , �2 , �3 and �4

Source: Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Solution:

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39
 Electrical Energy
Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric
circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we need to know how
much power an electric device can handle. Energy is the capacity to do work. In an
electrical sense, electric energy is the product of power and time. We also know that when
we pay our bills to the electric utility companies, we are paying for the electric energy
consumed over a certain period of time. Thus, power and energy calculations are
important in circuit analysis.

The base unit for electric energy is the watt-sec, however, the kilowatt-
hour (kWh) is more commonly used unit for practical reasons.

� = ��
Remember:

1 WH=3600 J

Where:

W = electrical energy (watt-sec or joule)

P = electrical power (watt)
t = time (second
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 Example 19.

How much energy does a 100-W electric bulb consume in two hours?

W= PT= 100W X 2H= 200 W-H

Example 20

A heater draws 2 A at 12 volts dc. I low many joules does it consume in 15 minutes

Example 21

An electric heater draws 800 mA at 24 Vdc. How many joules does this heater consume in
half an hour?

ELABORATE
Formative Assessment
1. A residential house has a lighting load of 1000 W and a small appliance load of 2000 W. If they are
used at the same time, what will be the monthly bill at an energy cost of ₱ 0.40 per kilowatt-hour?
2. Calculate the cost of operating a 3-watt electric clock continuously for a year if electricity costs ₱
6.35 per kWh.
A 10 hp motor runs at rated load for 5 hours. How many kWh is consumed?

EVALUATE
Graded activity/assignment will be given.

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 Unit 2: Branch Circuit components and Overcurrent protective Devices

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

Name, describe and distinguish between types of branch circuits and compute
circuit loads. Identify, describe and distinguish between types of branch circuit
components. Compute the minimum required size of branch circuit components.

References:

Admin. (2019, November 07). Electromotive Force - Definition, Formula, Unit, Difference. Retrieved August 01,
2020, from https://byjus.com/physics/electromotive-force/

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 1 of 4. (n.d.). Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
https://docplayer.net/13054405-Doe-fundamentals-handbook-electrical-science-volume-1-of-4.html

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductivity-3_6.html

ENGAGE
The Branch Circuit

A branch circuit is typically a loop of wire that runs from the service panelboard, out to
receptacles. Generally, a dwelling has no feeder conductor. Branch circuits are classified
as either general purpose, appliance, or individual circuits depending on their function

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 The size of the circuit breaker installed on a branch circuit, not the conductor size,
determines the rating of the circuit.
Types of Branch Circuits
1. Individual branch circuit: A branch circuit that supplies a single load. If this load is
an appliance, it will be called Appliance branch circuit.
Note:
An individual branch circuit installed in permanent locations such as an
electric range, a clothes dryer, or an air conditioner. These circuits usually lead
directly from the distribution panel to the appliance and do not serve any other
electrical devices.

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 2. The small-appliance branch circuits, laundry branch circuits, and bathroom
branch circuits: required in a dwelling unit and shall supply only the receptacle
outlets specified. Also called as convenience outlet branch circuit.

3. General Lighting Branch Circuits: A branch circuit that supplies two or more
receptacles or outlets for lighting and appliances.

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 4. Multiwire branch circuits: A multiwire branch circuit basically consists of two
or more ungrounded conductors that share a neutral. All conductors of a
multiwire branch circuit must originate from the same panelboard.

Branch Circuit Rating and Load Calculation

Overcurrent Protection. Branch-circuit conductors and equipment shall be protected by
overcurrent protective device that have a rating or setting not greater than the ampacity
of the branch circuit conductors.
Continuous and Noncontinuous Loads. Where a branch circuit supplies continuous load or
any combination of continuous and non continuous loads. The rating of the overcurrent
device shall not be less than the non continuous load plus 125 percent of the non
continuous load.

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 The rating of any branch circuit will be the maximum permitted ampere rating or setting of
the overcurrent device protecting this branch circuit. Branch circuits serving only one
device can have any rating. The rating for other than individual branch circuits shall be 15,
20, 30, 40 and 50 amperes.

1. Individual Branch circuit:

An individual branch circuit shall have an ampere rating of not less than that
of the branch circuit. An individual branch circuit supplies only one utilization
equipment.
Example:
Most Common Rating
Range: 8000 W
Water Heater: 5000 W
For Motors
1 Hp at 230 V = 8 A
1 ½ Hp at 230 V = 10 A
2 Hp at 230 V = 12 A
Range @ 8000 W computed @ 80% DF
ACU or motor load computed @ 100% DF

 Motor Circuit Conductors

Conductors that supply a single motor load in a continuous duty
application shall have an ampacity of not less than 125 p ercen t o f th e m o to rs fu ll
lo ad cu rren t ratin g .
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 Example: Air conditioning unit, water pumps, Etc.

2. The small-appliance branch circuits, laundry branch circuits, and bathroom

branch circuits:
 Small- appliance branch circuit:
Also known as Convenience Outlet Branch Circuit. In addition to the
number of branch circuits required, two or more additional 20 -ampere
small appliance branch circuits shall be provided for all receptacle outlets.
Receptacle outlets shall be calculated at not less than 180 volt-
amperes for each single or for each multiple receptacle. For four or more
receptacle shall be calculated not less than 90 volt-ampere per
receptacle.

Note: Branch Circuit Rating: 1500 VA

 Laundry Branch Circuits:

In addition to the number of branch circuits required by other parts of
this section, at least one or 20-ampere branch circuit shall be provided to
supply the laundry receptacle outlet(s). This circuit shall have no other
outlets.

Note: Branch Circuit Rating: 1500 VA

 Bathroom Branch Circuit

In addition to the number of branch circuits required by other parts of
this section, at least one or 20-ampere branch circuit shall be provided to
supply the Bathroom receptacle outlet(s). This circuit shall have no other
outlets.

Note: Branch Circuit Rating: 1500 VA

3. General Lighting Branch Circuits

A 15 or 20 –ampere branch circuits shall be permitted to supply lighting units
or other utilization equipment, or a combination of both.

For dwelling units:

Total Lighting Load = Floor area (in sq.m) x 24 VA/sq.m

The floor area for each floor shall be calculated from the outside dimensions
of the building dwelling unit, or other area involved. For dwelling units, the
calculated floor area shall not include open porches, garages or unused or
unfinished spaces not adaptable for future use

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 Feeder and Service Load Calculations
The calculated load of a feeder or service shall not be less than that the sum of the
loads on the branch circuit supplied, after any applicable demand factors (80%) have
been applied

Example

A Single Family Dwelling Unit The dwelling has a floor area of 145 m2. It has the typical
household appliances including one 8-kW electric range, two 1-Hp room air-conditioning
unit, 1.5-Hp room air conditioning unit, and one 1-Hp water pump.
Total Load

a) General Lighting 145 m2x 24 VA/ m2= 3480 VA

The computed load is 3480 VA/230 V =15 A
 One branch circuit of 20-ampere would be theoretically adequate, however for the
flexibility and to allow future needs provide two 20 ampere branch circuits for
lighting and convenience outlet.

b) Small Appliance Load

One 20-ampere @ 1500 VA = 1500 VA
 Provide one 20-ampere small appliance circuit

c) Laundry Circuit
One 20-ampere @ 1500 VA = 1500 VA
 Provide one 20-ampere laundry circuit
Sub-Total= 6480 VA

Other Loads:

One 8-kW electric range @ 80% = 6400 VA

 Provide one 40-ampere electric range circuit
Two 1-Hp room acu, 8A x 230V x 2 @ 100% DF= 3680 VA
 Provide two 30-ampere room acu circuits
One 1.5-Hp room acu, 10A x 230V @ 100% DF= 2300 VA
 Provide one 30-ampere room acu circuit
One 1-Hp water pump, 8A x 230V@ 100% DF= 1840 VA
 Provide one 30-ampere water pump circuit
Total Net Computed Load = 18438 VA

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 MODULE 2
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND BRANCH CIRCUIT
COMPONENTS
Distribution systems comprise interconnections linking the main electrical network to the
utility end services that require voltage less than transmission and sub-transmission levels.
The generated power, after being boosted by a transformer, is transmitted to substations
before being stepped down to low-voltage levels for distribution at utility level.

Electrical distribution systems further facilitate the economic and safe delivery of
adequate electrical power to all the electrical equipment used in a home, commercial
building, or industrial facility. The transmitted power arrives first at an electric distribution
substation, where it is passed through a series of step-down transformers that again lower
the voltage to more usable levels.

Elements of a Distribution System

1. Distribution substation- located near or inside city/town/village/industrial area. It

receives power from a transmission network. The high voltage from the transmission
line is then stepped down by a step-down transformer to the primary distribution
level voltage. Primary distribution voltage is usually 11 kV, but can range between
2.4 kV to 33 kV depending upon region or consumer.

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 2. Distribution feeders: The stepped-down voltage from the substation is carried to
distribution transformers via feeder conductors.

3. Distribution transformer- also called as service transformer, provides final

transformation in the electric power distribution system. It is basically a step-
down down transformer to lower the voltage to a more suitable voltage system.

o Ideal Transformer Characteristics

The basic transformer consists of two coils electrically insulated from each
other and wound upon a common core. Magnetic coupling is used to
transfer electric energy from one coil to another.

Voltage Ratio

The voltage on the coils of a transformer is directly proportional to the

number of turns on the coils. This relationship is expressed by the formula:

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 The ration Vp/Vs is called the voltage ratio (VR). The ration Np/Ns is called the turns
ratio (TR). By substituting these terms in the above equation, we obtain an equivalent
formula

VR=TR

A voltage ratio of 1:4 (read as 1 to 4) means that for each volt on the transformer
primary, there is 4V on the secondary. When the secondary voltage is greater than the
primary voltage, the transformer is called a step-up transformer. A voltage ratio of 4:1
means that for each 4V on the primary, there is only 1 Von the secondary. When the
secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage, the transformer is called a step down
transformer.

Example

An iron core transformer operating from a 120 V line has 500 turns in the primary and
100 turns in the secondary. Find the secondary voltage.

Ans: 24 V

Current Ratio

The current ratio of a transformer is inversely proportional to the voltage in the

coils. This relationship is expressed by the equation:

Example

When a primary winding of an iron core transformer is operated at 120V, the current
in the winding is 2 A. Find the current in the secondary winding load id the voltage is
stepped up to 600V.

Ans: 0.4 A

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 Power enters through a main device (circuit breaker or fusible switch) located within
an electrical assembly referred to as the service entrance electrical distribution equipment.

Panelboards, switchboards and switchgear can all be used as service entrance

electrical distribution equipment or at a point downstream, in which case it is known simply
as power distribution equipment. Each option offers unique uses and benefits to the multi-
tenant home, commercial facility or industrial site, so it is helpful to consider each in greater
detail.

Types of Building Distribution equipment

1. Panel boards

Panel boards A panel board is a component of an electrical distribution system that

divides an electrical power feed into branch circuits while providing a protective fuse or
circuit breaker for each circuit in a common enclosure. In essence, panel boards are used
to protect against electrical overloads and short circuits while distributing electricity
throughout a building or facility. The main components of a panel board typically include
the enclosure, interior, circuit protection devices, labels, dead front and trim, and filler
plates.

Circuit Breakers

Panel boards are often categorized by their general application, whether they are
used for lighting and appliances or used for power. Lighting and appliance panel boards
contain over current protection and a means to disconnect lighting, appliances,
receptacles and other small load circuits. All other panel boards are used for power and

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 may also feed other panels, motors and transformers in the building’s or site’s overall power
distribution systems.

 Circuit Breakers
Inside the enclosure (panel boards),
overcurrent protection devices,
busbars and other components are
mounted on support rails.
Circuit breakers are commonly used
as circuit protection devices.

2. Switchboards

For larger scale buildings or sites, a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels can
be used for mounting the overcurrent switches and protective devices, buses and other
equipment. These floor-mounted, freestanding solutions are known as switchboards.
Switchboards are most often accessible from the front, mounted on the floor and close to
the wall.

Switchboards function the same as panelboards (and often simply feed other
panelboards), but on a larger scale and at the low voltage of 600 Vac or less. They are
used to divide large blocks of electrical current into smaller blocks used by electrical
devices. This division is helpful for distributing power to loads; disconnecting loads for safer
maintenance; and protecting conductors and equipment against excess current due to
overloads, short circuits and ground faults.

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 The primary components of a switchboard include the frame, bus, overcurrent
protective devices, instrumentation, enclosures and exterior covers. The switchboard frame
is a metal skeleton that houses all the other components. Within this frame, the bus is
mounted. It distributes power from the incoming cables to the branch circuit devices.

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 References:

1. Theraja, B. L., & Theraja, A. K. (2005). Electrical Technology. New Delhi: Rajendra Ravindra
Printers Ltd.

2. Nazir, M., & Hussain I. (2021). Operational and environmental aspects of standalone
microgrids . India

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128230220000088

https://www.eaton.com/content/dam/eaton/products/low-voltage-power-distribution-
controls-systems/switchboards/WP014001EN_WEB_150dpi.pdf

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/59363/1/Block1.pdf

https://www.electricalassociation.com/Images/images/MEA/PDFs/Powerpoints/Overcurre
ntPart1.pdf

http://www.teces.org/docs/519.pdf

https://www.code-electrical.com/Branch%20Circuit%20Sample.pdf
https://www.scribd.com/document/431768613/Branch-CIrcuit#

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55
 MODULE 3
LIGHTING DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES

ILLUMINATION

 Brightness- the effect of sensation by means of which an observer is able to distinguish

differences in luminance.
 Candle or Candela- unit of candle power
 Candlepower- the light radiating capability of a light source. This also refers to the luminous
intensity exposed in candela
 Color- that aspect of things that is caused by differing qualities of the light reflected or
emitted by them, definable in terms of the observer or of the light, as the appearance of
objects or light sources described in terms of the individual’s perception of them, involving
hue, lightness, and saturation for objects and brightness, and saturation for light sources
defined as the quality of visual sensation which is associated with the spectral distribution of
light.
 Glare- to shine intensely and blindingly
 Lamp- device that generates light
 Light- the energy radiated in the form of luminous flux that produces a sensation to the eyes.
Visible light refers to the electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in range from
about 4000 (violet) to 7,700 (red) angstroms and may be perceived by the normal unaided
human eye.
 Illumination- the density of the light flux that falls on a given point or area of interest.
 Luminaire- a housing for one or more lamps, composing of a body and any refractor,
reflector, diffuser, or enclosure associated with lamps.
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 LIGHT

The smallest quantity of energy that can be transported. Visible light is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum and can be seen by the human eye.

SIGNIFICANCE OF LIGHTING IN BUILDING ARCHITECTURAL

Lighting is the foundation of architectural buildings. It can change the perception of space, the
shape, textures of materials and improve their aesthetic features. It also plays an important role in
ensuring the comfort occupants.

when it comes to artificial or man-made lighting in architectural design, they are commonly
planned at the later stages when the design is completed. These are the three aspects to look out
for when used in beginning stages of illumination design:

 Aesthetics aspect- it focuses on the emotional effect it has on occupants or they

want the occupants to feel when they stay in the building. It is also used in retail
stores in highlighting a product.
 Function aspect- for occupants needs such as being able to see clearly. Using
lighting in pathways to guide users in the dark.
 Efficiency aspect- ensuring the necessary lighting is sufficient so that it is energy
efficient. For example: installing more windows instead of light bulbs or installing LED
bulbs instead of fluorescent lights.

NATURAL LIGHTING

otherwise known as “day lighting” is a technique used to bring natural light or daylight into
occupants’ shelter. Natural light is light generated naturally, for example: fireflies, the sun. this
lighting can be done by incorporating external glazing such as windows and skylights. Basically,
replacing transparent materials on walls to allow natural light or daylight to pass through. There are
three types of approach to natural lighting:

 Direct Sunlight- this is incorporated through windows to skylines and is directly from
the sun.
 External Reflection- it means having a light reflecting off the floor or ground surfaces.
Various examples include wide window sills, light shelves, and adjacent buildings.
However, it should be noted that this method if excessive causes glare.
 Internal reflection- light reflecting off the internal walls, floor, ceiling of occupant’s
stay. This can be done by incorporating high reflective surfaces such as glossy or
smooth surfaces. An example included mirrors.

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 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING

Types of lamps:

1. Incandescent Lamps- produces light by the passage of an electric current through a

filament, which heats it to incandescence, -, which produces light by heat. When the
electric current is passed through the thin metal filament, the filament is heated, glows, and
produces light.

2. Electric Discharge lamps- produce light by the passage of an electric current through a
vapor or gas, initiating the discharge to fluorescence.
- Low Intensity discharge lamp- Fluorescent (tubular, circular, and
compact)
 High Intensity discharge lamp
- Mercury Vapor -Mercury vapor lamps offer a number of benefits,
including a relatively long lamp life when compared to traditional
incandescent. They also have the capability of emitting very clear,
intense white light. This has made them valuable for a number of
applications throughout the years, including overhead lighting in big
areas like factories and sports arenas.

- Metal Halide- This type of lamp is also known as an 'MH' lamp. It is an HID lamp
(High Intensity Discharge), which means it provides most of its light from the
electric arc within a small discharge tube. It is becoming increasingly popular
due to its good quality white light and good efficiency. The most prominent use
of the MH lamp is in stadiums and sports fields. It is also used widely for parking
lots and street lighting in urban areas

- Low Pressure Sodium Lamps - It is among the most efficient lamps in the
world because it uses all the current it gets to create light at the most
sensitive color (frequency) to the human eye. It is a Powerful lamp for
use of large areas. Despite a warm up time of 5-10 minutes, it restarts
immediately if there is a brownout Lumen output does not drop with
age (such as in LEDs or incandescent). It has the worst color rendering
of any lamp. Sodium is a hazardous material which can combust when
exposed to air (such as if the bulb is broken in the trash)

- High Pressure Sodium Lamps- High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are

part of the family of high intensity light bulbs that put out large
amounts of light generally needed for street lighting and security
lighting. The combination of metals and gasses within inside the glass
tube produces an orange-white light commonly found in street lights.
HPS bulbs actually produce a dark pink glow when first struck, and an
intense pinkish orange light when warmed. HPS Lamps are favored by
indoor gardeners for general growing because of the wide color-
temperature spectrum produced and the relatively efficient cost of
running the lights. High pressure sodium lamps are quite efficient—
about 100 lumens per watt when measured for photopic lighting
conditions

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 3. Light Emitting Diode- LED light bulbs or lamps utilize light-emitting diodes in order to
produce light. LED is a “solid-state” technology, which means that the materials used to
generate the light are encased within a solid material. Practically, this translates into a lamp
with a rated life much longer than those using non-solid-state technology (such as
incandescent, halogen, and fluorescent). Solid-state lighting is also much less susceptible to
failure due to shock or vibration.

How do LEDs Emit Light?

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are semiconductor light sources that combine a P-type
semiconductor (larger hole concentration) with an N-type semiconductor (larger electron
concentration). Applying a sufficient forward voltage will cause the electrons and holes to
recombine at the P-N junction, releasing energy in the form of light. Compared with conventional
light sources that first convert electrical energy into heat, and then into light, LEDs (Light Emitting
Diodes) convert electrical energy directly into light, delivering efficient light generation with little-
wasted electricity.

COLOR CHARACTERISTICS

White light is luminous energy containing a mixture of wavelengths that are perceived as
color when the eye transforms that energy into a signal for the brain. This mixture determines
whether an environment will appear warm or cool and how well people and furnishing looks.

Color and Efficiency- some lamps are more efficient in converting energy into visible light than
others. The efficacy of lamp refers to the number of lumens leaving the lamp compared to the
number of watts required.

Color Rendering- the general expression for the effect of the light source on the color appearance
of objects in conscious or subconscious comparison with their color appearance under a reference
light source.

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 Color Rendering Index (CRI)- the measure of the degree of color shift, which objects undergo when
illuminated by the light source, as compared with the color of those same objects when illuminated
by a reference source of comparable color temperature. The CRI uses filament light as a base for
100and the warm white fluorescent for 50. Values for common light sources vary from 20 to 99. The
higher the number, the better the color rendering or color appearance (less color shift or distortion
occurs).

Color Changes- during lamp dimming there can be a small shift in lamp color with fluorescent lamps.
This color shift is not usually considered significant, but is noticeable, especially with warm lamps.
Other light sources including incandescent lamps exhibit a more significant color shift. Care must be
exercised when using such lamps. They should not be dimmed to such levels that alter the aesthetic
of the space, cause discomfort to the occupants, or affect tasks in which color is rendition is
essential.

LIGHTING ANALYSIS

Laws of Illumination

 The illumination is directly proportional to the luminous intensity of the light source.
 The illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source of light.
 The illumination varies directly as the cosine of the angle between the normal to the surface
and the direction of the incident light.

SINGLE POINT METHOD (Point-by-Point Method in Two-Dimensional Plane)

Φ I
�= �� = cos (�)
4� �2

ILLUMINATION (E) CANDLE POWER (I) DISTANCE (d)

Foot-candle Candela Foot
Lux Candela Meter
Phot Candela Centimeter

Where:
Ep= intensity of illumination
d- distance of the lamp from the point of interest (point P)
I- candle power of the lamp (candela or candles)
�- angle between the incident ray and the normal line also called angle
of incidence.
Φ- total lumen output of the lamp.

Example 1: A piece of paper lies on a table 2m away from a point directly below a bulb of 100cd
and is 4m above the table. Calculate the illumination on the center of the paper in lux.

SOLUTION:

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 Determining the Average Illuminance- the average illuminance level can be determined given the
number of luminaires that are used in a space is known. Alternatively, the number of luminaires can
be determined given the average illuminance level, this is called the Lumen or Zonal Cavity Method.

Φ � � � �� Φ � � � �� � ��
� ������� = � ���������� =
� �

������������ �ℎ�� ������ℎ��� �� ��� ������ ��������

�� = �� =
������������ ����� ������ ��������� ������ ������� �� ���ℎ� ������

ILLUMINATION (E) AREA (A)

Foot- candle ft 2
Lux m2
Phot cm2

Where:
E initial – illumination when the installation is new
E maintained- average or maintained illumination
N – number of lamps
Cu – coefficient of utilization
Df- depreciation of maintenance factor
Φ- lumen output per lamp
A- surface area luminated

Example 1: The illumination of a room 40ft x 60ft is being designed. The desired light intensity of 80ft-
candle. The maintenance factor and the coefficient of utilization are 60% and 70% respectively.
Each fluorescent lamp to be installed produces 3300 lumens. If there are four (4) rows of luminaires,
how many luminaires are there per row?

Solution:
From formula:
Φ � � � �� � ��
� ���������� =
�
Substituting values:
� � � ���� �. � �. �
�� =
�� � ��

(��)(��)(��)
�=
� � ���� (�. �)(�. �)

� = �� ����������

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 References:

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 MODULE 4
BUILDING NETWORKS AND COMMUNCATION SYSTEM

Introduction to Electronic Ancillary System.

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