Sampling Design: Meaning

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of

observations are taken from larger population.
A “sample” is a miniature representation of and selected from a larger group or
aggregate. In other words, the sample provides a specimen picture of a larger whole.
This larger whole is termed as the “population” or “universe”. In research, this term
is used in a broader sense; it is a well-defined group that may consist of individuals,
objects, characteristics of human beings, or even the behaviour of inanimate objects,

such as, the throw of a dice or the tossing of a coin.

If the sample results are to have any worthwhile meaning, it should possess the
following essentials.

• Representativeness: A sample should be so selected that it truly represents the

universe, otherwise the results obtained may be misleading.

• Adequacy: The size of sample should be adequate otherwise it may not represent
the characteristics of the universe.

• Independence: All the items of the sample should be selected independently of one
another and all the items of the universe should have the same chance of being
selected in the sample.

• Homogeneity: The term homogeneity means that there is no basic difference in the
nature of the universe and that of the sample. It two sample from the same universe
are taken, they should give more or less the same unit.

Implications of sampling design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It
refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items
for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be
included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before
data are collected. There are many sample designs from which a researcher can
choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others.
Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and
appropriate for his research study.
Steps in Sample design
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the
following points:
(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly
define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe
can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of
an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about
the total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory
and the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky,
listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite
universes.
(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district,
village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit
such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have
to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his study.
(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be
drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only).
If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be
comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the
source list to be as representative of the population as possible.

(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of
sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An
optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility. While deciding the size of sample,
researcher must determine the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence
level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be considered as in
case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of population must
be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a
research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs too
dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.

(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider
the question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance,
we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic
in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other
measure concerning the population. There may also be important sub-groups in the
population about whom we would like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact
upon the sample design we would accept.

(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a
major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the
type of sample.

(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he
will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for
the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.
There are several sample designs out of which the researcher must choose one for his
study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a
given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

Types of Sampling
design,
There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the
representation basis and the element selection technique. On the representation basis,
the sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection, whereas non-
probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.
Non-probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure
which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the
population has of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known
by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement
sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by
the researcher; his choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words,
under non-probability sampling the organisers of the inquiry purposively choose the
particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small
mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the
whole. For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state are to be studied,
a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the
principle that they can be representative of the entire state. Thus, the judgement of
the organisers of the study plays an important part in this sampling design.

In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of
the sample. The investigator may select a sample which shall yield results favourable
to his point of view and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated. Thus, there
is always the danger of bias entering into this type of sampling technique. But in the
investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the necessary experience so as
to take sound judgement, the results obtained from an analysis of deliberately
selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a sampling, there is no
assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included.
Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of bias,
great or small, is always there. As such this sampling design in rarely adopted in large
inquires of importance.

Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or

‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an
equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which
individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some
mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or
the other is selected. The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be
assured in terms of probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the
significance of results obtained from a random sample, and this fact brings out the
superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design. Random
sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an average
the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random sampling is considered
as the best technique of selecting a representative sample. Random sampling from a
finite population refers to that method of sample selection which gives each possible
sample combination an equal probability of being picked up and each item in the
entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Types of Sampling
Collection of Data through Questionnaire
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by
private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by governments. In this
method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in
a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to
read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. The method of collecting
data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and
business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have
been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Preparation of questionnaire of different

types
Main aspects of a questionnaire: Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey operation. Hence it
should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail. This fact requires us to
study the main aspects of a questionnaire viz., the general form, question sequence and question formulation and
wording. Researcher should note the following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form: So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured or unstructured
questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and pre-
determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all
respondents. Resort is taken to this sort of standardisation to ensure that all respondents reply to the same set of
questions. The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free
response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning. Structured questionnaires may also
have fixed alternative questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated alternatives. Thus a
highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified and comments in the
respondent’s own words are held to the minimum. When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it
can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire. More specifically, we can say that in an unstructured
questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact
question formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies are to be taken down in the respondent’s own
words to the extent possible; in some situations tape recorders may be used to achieve this goal.

Structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyse. The provision of alternative
replies, at times, helps to understand the meaning of the question clearly. But such questionnaires have limitations too.
For instance, wide range of data and that too in respondent’s own words cannot be obtained with structured
questionnaires. They are usually considered inappropriate in investigations where the aim happens to be to probe for
attitudes and reasons for certain actions or feelings. They are equally not suitable when a problem is being first explored
and working hypotheses sought. In such situations, unstructured questionnaires may be used effectively. Then on the
basis of the results obtained in pretest (testing before final use) operations from the use of unstructured questionnaires,
one can construct a structured questionnaire for use in the main study.

2. Question Sequence: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A proper sequence of
questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood. The question-sequence must
be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent
to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The first few questions are
particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired
cooperation. The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest.

The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:

1. questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;

2. questions of a personal character;

3. questions related to personal wealth, etc.

Following the opening questions, we should have questions that are really vital to the research problem and a
connecting thread should run through successive questions. Ideally, the sequence of the question should conform to the
respondent’s way of thinking. Knowing what information is desired, the researcher can rearrange the order of the
questions (this is possible in case of unstructured questionnaire) to fit the discussion in each particular case.
But in a structured questionnaire the best that can be done is to determine the question-sequence with the help of a
Pilot Survey which is likely to produce good rapport with most respondents. Relatively difficult questions must be
relegated towards the end so that even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, considerable
information would have already been obtained. Thus, question-sequence should usually go from the general to the
more specific and the researcher must always remember that the answer to a given question is a function not only of
the question itself, but of all previous questions as well. For instance, if one question deals with the price usually paid
for coffee and the next with reason for preferring that particular brand, the answer to this latter question may be
couched largely in terms of price differences.

3. Question formulation and wording: With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that each
question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey. Question should also
be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be constructed with a
view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. In general, all questions should meet the
following standards—

(a) should be easily understood;

(b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;

(c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking. (For instance,
instead of asking. “How many razor blades do you use annually?” The more realistic question would be to ask, “How
many razor blades did you use last week?”

Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about two principal forms, viz., multiple choice question and the open-
end question. In the former the respondent selects one of the alternative possible answers put to him, whereas in the
latter he has to supply the answer in his own words.

The question with only two possible answers (usually ‘Yes’ or ‘No’) can be taken as a special case of the multiple choice
question, or can be named as a ‘closed question.’ There are some advantages and disadvantages of each possible form
of question. Multiple choice or closed questions have the advantages of easy handling, simple to answer, quick and
relatively inexpensive to analyse. They are most amenable to statistical analysis. Sometimes, the provision of alternative
replies helps to make clear the meaning of the question. But the main drawback of fixed alternative questions is that of
“putting answers in people’s mouths” i.e., they may force a statement of opinion on an issue about which the
respondent does not in fact have any opinion. They are not appropriate when the issue under consideration happens to
be a complex one and also when the interest of the researcher is in the exploration of a process. In such situations,
open-ended questions which are designed to permit a free response from the respondent rather than one limited to
certain stated alternatives are considered appropriate. Such questions give the respondent considerable latitude in
phrasing a reply. Getting the replies in respondent’s own words is, thus, the major advantage of open-ended questions.
But one should not forget that, from an analytical point of view, open-ended questions are more difficult to handle,
raising problems of interpretation, comparability and interviewer bias.

Essentials of a good questionnaire: To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e., the
size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions.

Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.

Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire.

Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended.

The latter type of questions are often difficult to analyse and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent
possible.

There should be some control questions in the questionnaire which indicate the reliability of the respondent.

Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided.

Avoid leading and loaded questions. A leading question is a question that suggests or implies certain answers. A
question that suggests socially desirable answer or is emotionally charged.

Avoid double barrelled question (A question that may induce bias because it covers two issues at once.

For example: “How much do you enjoy collecting and analysing data?”

Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire to help editing and tabulation.

There should always be provision for indications of uncertainty, e.g., “do not know,” “no preference” and so on.

Brief directions with regard to filling up the questionnaire should invariably be given in the questionnaire itself.

Finally, the physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the researcher receives from the recipients
and as such an attractive looking questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting cooperation.

The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it may attract the attention of recipients.