COMPARATIVE POLITICS

I.​ What is Politics? The word "politics" has three meanings in the study of comparative
politics:
Three important subfields in Political Science: ●​ Political Activity
1.​ Political Theory ●​ Political Process
2.​ International Relations ●​ Political Power
3.​ Comparative Politics
Political Activity – Actions or behaviors aimed at influencing or participating
Politics is the process by which individual interests are reconciled with in the political process, governance, or public policy.
collective action leading to the provision of public goods.
Political Predicament – A complex, difficult, or challenging situation related
Public Goods – Available goods and services which are non-excludable to politics or governance.
and non-rivalrous.
Political Process – The collection of steps taken by private associations in
Examples of Public Goods: a state to try to influence the government, take part in how the government
●​ Waste Management makes policy, or even take over as the government.
●​ Providing Protection and Safety
●​ Public Education Political Power – The capacity of an individual or a group of individuals to
modify the conduct of others in the manner desired.
Politics is the human activity of making public and authoritative decisions to
achieve the common good. The Foundation of Comparative Politics
Politics is the activity of acquiring the power of making such decisions and Plato – Author of The Republic
exercising power. Aristotle – Author of Politics
Machiavelli – Author of The Prince
Key Political Questions: Thomas Hobbes – Author of Leviathan
●​ Who makes the decisions? Who influences the decisions? John Locke – Author of Two Treatises of Government
●​ Which decisions are made? Jean Jacques Rousseau – Author of On The Social Contract
●​ How are decisions made? Baron de Montesquieu – Author of The Spirit of Laws
●​ What is Comparative Politics? Eurocentrism – A worldview that holds European culture, values, and
history as the standard norms against all other cultures and societies.
“Comparative politics is a comparative analysis of the various forms of
government and diverse political institutions.” – Freeman During the Cold War Era, nation-states were classified into three
typologies:
“Comparative politics is the study of patterns of national governments in the ●​ First World
contemporary world.” – John Blondel ●​ Second World
●​ Third World
“Comparative politics is the study of the form of political organization, their
properties, correlations, variations, and mode of change.” – G.A. Smith Why Are Some States Stronger/Weaker Than Others?
A controversial issue in comparative politics.
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1. Geography – The relationship between people and their physical Power Culture:
environment as a catalyst for economic development. Japanese Shintoism – Reverence for nature.
The Protestant Ethic – Key role in shaping modern capitalism:
●​ Climate: Tropical vs. Temperate Climate ●​ Hard work
●​ Poor Countries: Equatorial Tropics ●​ Respect for time
●​ Dr. Jose Rizal: "Hot weather has a natural tendency to make ●​ Frugality
people lazy." ●​ Discipline
●​ Coastal vs. Landlocked States Sino-Entrepreneurialism – Business is always equated with wealth.
●​ Natural Resources – Materials that occur naturally in the Confucianism – Orderliness, obedience, hierarchy, and collective welfare.
environment and can be used to meet human needs. USA:
●​ Individualism
Resource Boon or Resource Curse? ●​ The American Dream
PetroDollar Economies – Oil-rich kingdoms in the Middle East.
Top Diamond Producers – 8 of the top 10 diamond-producing countries are Backward Culture:
in Africa (e.g., Congo, Angola, Zimbabwe, Sierra Leone). Cultural Nativism – The belief in preserving original culture over external
Rent Seeking – The practice of individuals or businesses influencing influences.
political and economic systems for personal gain. Tribalism – Loyalty to one tribe or community.

Case Studies: 3. Institution

Singapore – Little or no natural resources but among the richest countries in An institution is a structured system or organization established to achieve
the world. specific goals or social functions.
North Korea vs. South Korea – North Korea has more natural resources.
Japan – Like Singapore, has little natural resources. According to the book Why Nations Fail, two types of institutions are
critical to economic development:
2. Culture
Culture is a shared set of values, beliefs, norms, customs, traditions, and 1. Extractive Institutions – Systems designed to extract resources from a
behaviors that characterize a group or society. large portion of the population and concentrate them in the hands of a small
elite.
Damaged Culture – Cultural traits posing challenges to Philippine economic
development (popularized by James Fallows). Concentration of Power and Wealth
●​ Politics – Political Dynasty
Examples of Damaged Culture: ●​ Business – Oligarchy or Crony Capitalism

1.​ Colonial Mentality 2. Inclusive Institutions – Systems that provide equal access to
2.​ Regionalism opportunities, resources, and power for all members of society, fostering
3.​ Economic Inequality broad participation in economic, political, and social activities.
4.​ Patronage Politics
5.​ Brain Drain ●​ Equal Access to Resources and Opportunities (e.g., free education,
universal healthcare, decent jobs, political power, gender equality).
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Doing Comparative Politics Nation – A large body of people united by common origin, history, culture,
A. Theory – A set of ideas used to explain, analyze, and predict political ethnicity, or language.
behavior, institutions, and events.
According to Garner, State is a community of people, living in a definite form
B. Comparing – Cross-national analysis, regional studies, and thematic of territory, free from external control, and possessing an organized
comparisons. government to which people show habitual agreement.
Example: Voter Turnout
Nation-State – Made up of a community of people living in a country that is
What to Compare? politically independent under a single system of government.
Non-National Political Systems
Types of Political Systems Elements of State
Single Element in a Political System
Physical Bases
C. Case Study Method – In-depth examination of a single country or 1.​ Defined Territory – Clearly demarcated area of land over which a
political event. state exercises sovereignty and control.

D. Inductive vs. Deductive Approaches 2.​ Permanent Inhabitants – The people who make the state.
Inductive – Starts with specific observations and moves toward broader
generalizations or theories. Political Bases
3.​ Government – The political organization of the state.
Deductive – Begins with a theory, develops hypotheses, then collects and
analyzes data to test the hypotheses. Types of Government
a. Monarchy – Ruled by a hereditary ruler such as a king.
E. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approaches b. Democracy – A system of government in which state power is vested in
Quantitative – Process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. the people.
Examples: Demographic Data, Surveys, Exit Polls, Consumer Data c. Oligarchy – A system of government ruled by a smaller group such as
wealthy people.
Qualitative – Collecting and analyzing non-numerical data to understand d. Theocracy – The religious institution holds supreme power.
concepts, opinions, or experiences. e. Dictatorship – A type of political system where the ruling person has full
Examples: Diary Accounts, Photographs, Documents, Video/Audio control of the state.
Recordings
Sovereignty – Means supreme and final legal authority above and beyond
which no legal power exists.
II. Nation State
Typologies of Sovereignty
The Curious Case of Taiwan: Free China or De Facto Independence?

What is Nation? State? Nation-State?

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●​ Domestic – Refers to the right of states to control and police their 5.​ Provide Public Services
borders and limit the movement of people, goods, capital, 6.​ Protect the Environment
information, and other resources. 7.​ Ensure Justice
8.​ Combat International Crime
●​ International Legal – Involves the notion that any and all states 9.​ Offer Diplomatic Protection
are free and able to enter into international agreements with other 10.​ Promote Economic and Social Development
states on military, trade, and other matters.
Rights of the State
●​ Westphalian – Refers to the absence of any external sources of 1.​ Right to Sovereignty
authority over a sovereign state. 2.​ Right to Territorial Integrity
3.​ Right to Self-Defense
●​ Interdependence – Refers to the right of states to control and 4.​ Right to Diplomatic Relations
police their borders and limit the movement of people, goods, 5.​ Right to Self-Determination
capital, information, and other resources. 6.​ Right to Equality
7.​ Right to Economic Development
Theories of State 8.​ Right to Membership in International Organizations

Divine Right Theory – A monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving Failed State – The government has lost control and can no longer provide
his right to rule directly from the will of God. basic functions.

Social Contract Theory – People surrender their freedoms to a governing III. Political Regimes and Political Institutions
authority in exchange for security and order. After waves of democratization in the late part of the 20th century,
democracy is now rolling back.
Marxist Theory – The state is a tool of domination for the ruling class
(Bourgeoisie), but eventually, the Proletariat (Working Class) will establish The AXIS of Autocratic Regimes – Russia, China, Iran, and North Korea
a classless society through a revolution.
Regime Change - refers to the process of replacing one government with
Feminist Theory – The state is seen as a patriarchal institution that another.
perpetuates gender inequalities.
Examples:
Elite Theory – The state is controlled by a small group of elites who hold Apartheid Regime – South Africa
power regardless of democratic processes. Marcos Regime – Philippines

The Fall of USSR

Obligations of the State Democratic Transition – Shift from dictatorship to a democratic one.
1.​ Respect Sovereignty
2.​ Uphold Human Rights Democratic Consolidation – The process by which democracy matures
3.​ Maintain Peace and Security and becomes stable enough that it is unlikely to revert to authoritarianism.
4.​ Fulfill International Agreements Example: The case of South Korea
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Follows rules that emphasize a large role for the public in governance.
Regime Stability – The ability of the government to maintain control and Protects basic rights and freedoms.
power over time. Ensures transparency and accountability in government actions.
Examples: China and North Korea
Models of Legislative-Executive Relations within Democratic Regimes
What is a Political Regime? ●​ Presidential
A political regime is the formal and informal structure of state and ●​ Parliamentary
governmental roles and processes. ●​ Semi-Presidential

It includes: Presidential System – The executive is elected at large by the people and
is relatively independent of the legislature and judiciary.
●​ The method of selection of government and representative Example: The Presidential Bandwagon framework (Philippine context).
assemblies
●​ Formal and informal mechanisms of representation Parliamentary System – Governed by a cabinet government that is
●​ Patterns of repression subservient to the legislature.
●​ Political Institution The president or head of state is merely titular.

A political institution is a formal organization within a society that governs, Examples of Parliamentary Systems:
regulates, and structures political behavior, decision-making, and the Japan – National Diet
distribution of power. India – Sansad Bhavan
United Kingdom – Parliament (Bicameral)
Head of State vs. Head of Government House of Commons – Primary legislative body responsible for making
Head of State – Symbolizes and represents the people, both nationally and laws, scrutinizing government actions, and debating national issues.
internationally, embodying and articulating the goals of the regime. House of Lords – Plays a key role in the legislative process, including
Head of Government – Deals with the everyday tasks of running the state, reviewing and amending legislation proposed by the House of Commons.
such as formulating and executing policy. Under a parliamentary system, the prime minister is usually the leader of the
largest political party in the legislature.
Executive vs. Legislative vs. Judiciary
●​ Executive – The branch of government that carries out the laws The prime minister can lose the support of the legislature through a
and policies of a given state. vote of no confidence.
●​ Legislative – The branch of government responsible for making Political Coalition – An alliance or partnership formed by multiple political
laws. parties to achieve a common goal and gain political power.
●​ Judiciary – The branch of government responsible for interpreting
and applying the law, ensuring justice, and resolving legal disputes. Semi-Presidential System – A system where the prime minister (approved
by the legislature) and a directly elected president share executive power.
Two Types of Political Regimes
●​ Democratic Non-Democratic Regime
●​ Non-Democratic Limits the role of the public in decision-making, often denies citizens basic
●​ Democratic Regime rights, and restricts their freedoms.
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Post-Colonial Theory – Focuses on cultural domination and the legacy of

Types of Non-Democratic Regimes colonialism.
Neoliberalism – Argues that state intervention and protectionism cause
●​ Personalist Regime – Based on the power of a single strong poverty. Emphasizes Free Market, Privatization, Deregulation, and Austerity
leader who relies on charismatic or traditional authority to maintain Measures.
power. Alternative Development – Focuses on Sustainability, Grassroots
●​ Military Regime – The institution of the military dominates. Participation, and Human Rights.
●​ One-Party Regime – A system dominated by a strong political
party that relies on a broad membership as a source of political What are the socio-political attributes of Developing Countries?
legitimacy. ●​ Colonial Legacies – The lasting economic, political, social, and
●​ Theocracy – A leader claims to rule on behalf of God. cultural effects of colonial rule on former colonies.
●​ Illiberal Regime – Retains the basic structures of a democracy but ●​ Low Income – Low income has substantial effects on human
does not protect civil liberties and political freedoms. development indicators.
●​ Totalitarianism – Features a strong official ideology that seeks to ●​ Weak Institutions – The formal political institutions lack
transform fundamental aspects of the state, society, and economy. transparency, efficiency, and accountability.
●​ Uses a wide array of organizations and enforcement mechanisms ●​ Political Instability – Occurs when a government is unable to
to maintain power. function due to frequent leadership changes, social unrest, or
●​ Cult of Personality – State-sponsored exaltation of a leader, often violent conflicts.
employed in totalitarian regimes. ●​ Banana Republic – Economically weak (dependent on the export
of a single agricultural product) and politically unstable. It usually
refers to Latin American or Caribbean economies.
IV. Politics of the Developing World ●​ Dependence on External Assistance – Includes technical,
Third World/Developing Countries – It is a phrase that can be used to financial, or humanitarian aid.
describe a class of economically inferior nations. ●​ Foreign Debt – Refers to money borrowed by a country’s
Global South – Refers to the region that is generally considered less government from foreign lenders.
economically developed. ●​ Foreign Investment – Plays a crucial role in the economic
Developing Nations – Typically characterized by economic status and key development of the Global South.
economic metrics (GDP, Unemployment Rate, PPP). ●​ Overseas Remittance – Money sent by migrant workers to their
Underdevelopment – Low income, weak infrastructure, limited home countries.
industrialization, and poor social indicators.
V. Political Culture and Political Participation
What are the Theories of Underdevelopment?
Dependency Theory – Focuses on the exploitation of developing countries What is Political Culture?
by developed countries. Political Culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms
Modernization Theory – Failure to adopt Western values and that shape how people understand and engage with politics.
industrialization.
World System Theory – Immanuel Wallerstein's model of Core, ●​ Attributes of Political Culture
Semi-Periphery, and Periphery nations. ●​ Beliefs and Values
●​ Political Socialization
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●​ Civic Engagement
●​ Trust in Government
●​ Attitude toward Authority and Rule of Law
●​ Public Opinion and Political Ideology
●​ Historical Influences
Types of Political Culture
Parochial – Isolated rural communities with little interaction with the state.
Subject – Aware of politics but tend to be passive and accept government
decisions without much participation.
Participant – People actively engage in politics, express opinions, and
participate in decision-making.

What is Political Participation?

Political Participation refers to the activities that individuals engage in to
influence political decisions and policies.

Types of Political Participation

Conventional – Legal and widely accepted activities.
Unconventional – More radical or non-traditional actions.
Passive – Engaging indirectly in politics.
Digital Participation – Engaging in politics through platforms like social
media.