Structural Dynamics

Single Degree of Freedom

Forced Vibration

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Forced Vibration
We now consider an external force 𝑓 𝑡 acting on the system. For
example, 𝑓 𝑡 could represent a driving force causing an oscillatory
vertical motion of the support.
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑡
In real structures, these external force 𝑓 𝑡 can be any of the following:
1. Harmonic excitation (e.g. rotating machinery placed on top of
buildings)

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2. Periodic excitation (e.g. wave loading on an offshore platform, wind
forces induced by vortex shedding on tall buildings, automobile
traveling on an elevated freeway)

3. Arbitrary, step and pulse functions – a very large force that acts for a
very short time (e.g. blast loading, sudden explosions)

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4. Earthquake

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Forced Vibration – Harmonic Undamped System
Consider an external harmonic force 𝑓(𝑡) acting on the system. We now
formulate Newton’s second law to include the harmonic forcing function
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡 ,

𝑝𝑜 = amplitude or maximum value of the force

𝜙 = the forcing frequency

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Using Newton’s Second Law,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑢ሷ = −𝑘𝑢 + 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡
Simplifying and dividing by 𝑚,
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑘 𝑝𝑜
𝑢ሷ + 𝑢 = sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
We now have the differential equation for forced vibration,
2
𝑝𝑜
𝑢ሷ + 𝜔 𝑢 = sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑚
𝑘 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 =
𝑚

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This is a non-homogeneous second-order differential equation. The
general solution will be,
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑐 + 𝑢𝑝
The complementary solution is the solution to the free vibration case.
𝑢𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑡

We can use either the method of Undetermined Coefficients or Variation

of Parameters to solve for the particular solutions. We assume the
solution of the form,
𝑢𝑝 𝑡 = 𝐶3 sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑢ሷ 𝑝 𝑡 = −𝜙 2 𝐶3 sin 𝜙𝑡
We then substitute in the equation of motion,
𝑝𝑜
−𝜙 2 𝐶3 sin 𝜙𝑡 + 𝜔2 𝐶3 sin 𝜙𝑡 = sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑚

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We determine the constant of integration as,
𝑝𝑜 1
𝐶3 =
𝑘 𝜙2
1− 2
𝜔
And the particular solution of the differential equation is,

𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑢𝑝 𝑡 =
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2
Where 𝛽 is the frequency ratio, the ratio of the applied forced frequency
to the natural frequency of vibration of the system,
𝜙
𝛽=
𝜔

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The complete solution to the differential equation is,
𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2
Determine the arbitrary constants by imposing the initial conditions on
the general solution,
𝑢 0 = 𝑢0
𝑢′ 0 = 𝑉0

We get the following values for the arbitrary constants,

𝐶1 = 𝑢0
𝑉0 𝑝𝑜 𝛽
𝐶2 = −
𝜔 𝑘 1 − 𝛽2

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Substitute the values of the arbitrary constants,
𝑉0 𝑝𝑜 𝛽 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑡 − (Transient solution)
𝜔 𝑘 1−𝛽 2
𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡
+ (Steady-state solution)
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2

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The transient solution is the free vibration or temporary vibration which
depends on the initial displacement and velocity. It exists even if the initial
displacement and velocity are zero.
The steady-state is the forced vibration. It is present because of the
applied force no matter what the initial conditions.

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If the system is initially at rest,
𝑢 0 = 𝑢′ 0 = 0
The general solution becomes,
𝑝𝑜 1
𝑢 𝑡 = 2 sin 𝜙𝑡 − 𝛽 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑘 1−𝛽

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Looking at the steady-state response,
𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑢𝑝 𝑡 =
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2
• Case 1 - 𝛽 < 1, In Phase
When the forcing frequency is less than the
natural frequency, the steady state
displacement is in the same direction as the
applied force.
• Case 2 - 𝛽 > 1, Out of Phase
When the forcing frequency is greater than the
natural frequency, the steady state
displacement is in the opposite direction as the
applied force.

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• Case 3 - 𝛽 = 1, Resonance
The condition where the natural frequency, 𝜔, equals the forcing
frequency, 𝜙, is known as Resonance.
In Structural Engineering, this is a very dangerous condition because it
indicates that as the time 𝑡 increases, the displacement increases
exponentially.

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• Case 3 - 𝛽 = 1, Resonance
𝜔=𝜙
The previous particular solution will no longer work. Instead,
𝑝𝑜
𝑢𝑝 𝑡 = − 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
2𝑘
And the new total solution is,
𝑝𝑜
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
2𝑘
and the following values are the arbitrary constants,
𝐶1 = 𝑢0
𝑉0 𝑝𝑜
𝐶2 = +
𝜔 2𝑘

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• In 1940, the first Tacoma
Narrows suspension bridge
opened to traffic.
• Dubbed “Galloping Gertie” it
collapsed a short four months
later.
• Gertie also became a great
teaching tool for bridge
engineers to improve the
design of suspension bridges.

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Forced Vibration – Harmonic Damped System
Consider an external force 𝑓(𝑡) acting on the system. We now formulate
Newton’s second law to include the forcing function 𝑓(𝑡)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑢ሷ = −𝑘𝑢 − 𝑐𝑢ሶ + 𝑓(𝑡)
Simplifying and dividing by 𝑚,
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑐 𝑘 𝑝𝑜
𝑢ሷ + 𝑢ሶ + 𝑢 = sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
We now have the differential equation for forced vibration,
2
𝑝𝑜
𝑢ሷ + 2𝜔𝜉 𝑢ሶ + 𝜔 𝑢 = sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑚
𝑐 2
𝑘
2𝜔𝜉 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 =
𝑚 𝑚

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This is a non-homogeneous second-order differential equation. The
general solution will be,
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑐 + 𝑢𝑝
The complementary solution is the solution to the free vibration case.
𝑢𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡𝜉 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝐷 𝑡
𝜔𝐷 = 𝜔 1 − 𝜉 2
We can use either the method of Undetermined Coefficients or Variation
of Parameters to solve for the particular solutions.
𝑢𝑝 𝑡 = 𝐶3 sin 𝜙𝑡 + 𝐶4 cos 𝜙𝑡
𝑝𝑜 1 − 𝛽2
𝐶3 =
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2
𝑝𝑜 2𝜉𝛽
𝐶4 = −
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2

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The total solution is,
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡𝜉 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 (Transient solution)

𝑝𝑜 1 − 𝛽2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑡 𝑝𝑜 2𝜉𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙𝑡

+ (Steady-state solution)
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2 − 𝑘 1 − 𝛽 2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2

Determine the arbitrary constants by imposing the initial conditions on

the general solution,
𝑢 0 = 𝑢0
𝑢′ 0 = 𝑉0
We get the following values for the arbitrary constants,
𝑝𝑜 2𝜉𝛽
𝐶1 = 𝑢0 +
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2

𝑉0 + 𝜔𝜉 𝑢𝑜 𝑝𝑜 1 − 𝛽2 𝜙 − 2𝜉𝛽 𝜔𝜉 1
𝐶2 = −
𝜔𝐷 𝑘 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2 𝜔𝐷
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As shown previously in the free damped vibration case, the
complementary solution will approach zero as 𝑡 increases. For this reason
the complementary solution is often called the transient response.
Because of this also, the total displacement will start to look more and
more like the particular solution as 𝑡 increases, so the particular solution
is often called the steady state response.

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Damping Response to Resonance
For the case of Resonance, where 𝛽 = 1, the steady-state response is,
𝑢𝑝 𝑡 = 𝐶3 sin 𝜙𝑡 + 𝐶4 cos 𝜙𝑡
𝐶3 = 0
𝑝𝑜 1
𝐶4 = −
𝑘 2𝜉
For Resonance and zero initial conditions, the total response is,
−𝜔𝑡𝜉
𝑝𝑜 1
𝑢 𝑡 =𝑒 𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 − cos 𝜙𝑡
𝑘 2𝜉
𝑝𝑜 1
𝐶1 =
𝑘 2𝜉
𝑝𝑜 1
𝐶2 =
𝑘 2 1 − 𝜉2

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The total response simplifies to,
𝑝𝑜 1 −𝜔𝑡𝜉 𝜉
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 − cos 𝜙𝑡
𝑘 2𝜉 1 − 𝜉2
𝑝𝑜 1
𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 =
𝑘 2𝜉

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Maximum Deformation and Phase Lag
Consider again the steady-state response,
𝑢𝑝 𝑡 = 𝐶3 sin 𝜙𝑡 + 𝐶4 cos 𝜙𝑡
𝑝𝑜 1 − 𝛽2
𝐶3 =
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2
𝑝𝑜 2𝜉𝛽
𝐶4 = −
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2
This can also be written as,
𝑢𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑑 sin 𝜙𝑡 − 𝜓
where the amplitude of steady-state deformation, 𝑢𝑑 , is,
𝑢𝑑 = 𝐶3 2 + 𝐶4 2

𝑝𝑜 1
𝑢𝑑 =
𝑘 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2

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and the phase lag, 𝜓, by which the response lags behind the applied
loading is,
𝐶4
tan 𝜓 = −
𝐶3
2𝜉𝛽
tan 𝜓 =
1 − 𝛽2

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Dynamic Magnification Factor
Ignoring the dynamic effects in the dynamic equilibrium equation,
𝑚𝑢ሷ + 𝑐 𝑢ሶ + 𝑘𝑢 = 𝑝𝑜 sin 𝜙𝑡
The static response to the forcing function is,
𝑝𝑜
𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 (𝑡) = sin 𝜙𝑡
𝑘
The maximum static deformation,
𝑝𝑜
𝑢𝑠𝑡 =
𝑘
The ratio of the amplitude of steady-state response, 𝑢𝑑 , to the maximum
static deformation, 𝑢𝑠𝑡 , is called the Dynamic Magnification Factor,

𝑢𝑑 1
𝑅𝑑 = =
𝑢𝑠𝑡 1 − 𝛽2 2 + 2𝜉𝛽 2

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Damping reduces the Dynamic Magnification factor, depending on the
frequency ratio,
• If the frequency ratio << 1, 𝑅𝐷 is only slightly larger than 1 and is
essentially independent of damping
• If the frequency ratio >>1, 𝑅𝐷 approaches zero as the frequency ratio
increases & essentially unaffected by damping.
• If the frequency ≅ 1, 𝑅𝐷 is very sensitive to damping and for small
values of damping can be several times greater than 1.
The phase angle defines the time by which the response lags behind:
• For 𝛽 ≪ 1, phase lag 𝜓 is close to zero and displacement is in phase
• For 𝛽 ≫ 1, phase lag 𝜓 is close to 180° and displacement is out of
phase
• For 𝛽 = 1, phase lag 𝜓 = 90° and the displacement attains its peaks
when the force passes through zero.

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