Module-1

Concrete Ingredients
Module- 2

FRESH CONCRETE

2.1 There are two sets of criteria that we must consider when making concrete;
1) Long-term requirements of hardened concrete, such as, strength, durability, and volume
stability,
2) Short-term requirements, like workability. However, these two requirements are not necessarily
complementary.
2.2 For fresh concrete to be acceptable, it should:
1. Be easily mixed and transported.
2. Be uniform throughout a given batch and between batches.

3. Be of a consistency so that it can fill completely the forms for which it was designed.
4. Have the ability to be compacted without excessive loss of energy.
5. Not segregate during placing and consolidation.
6. Have good finishing characteristics.

2.3 Workability

All the characteristics above describe many different aspects of concrete behavior. The term
workability is used to represent all the qualities mentioned. Workability is often defined in terms of the
amount of mechanical energy, or work, required to fully compact concrete without segregation. This is
important since the final strength is a function of compaction.
The concept of viscosity is a measure of how a material behaves under stress. For a Newtonian fluid,
the relationship may be written as:

Where t is the shear stress, n is the viscosity, and D is the rate of shear or velocity gradient.
For a very dilute suspension of solids in liquids, this relationship holds true. However, for large
volumes of suspended solids, like concrete, the Newtonian model does not work. Concrete has an
initial shear strength that must be exceeded before it will flow. This type of behaviour is described by
the Bingham model:

Where t0 is the yield shear stress, n is the plastic viscosity.

A third type of viscous behaviour is called thixotropic, where the apparent viscosity decreases with
shear stress. Concrete will exhibit thixotropic characteristics.

2.4 Factors Affecting Workability

 Water Content of the Mix -- This is the single most important fact or governing workability
of concrete. A group of particles requires a certain amount of water. Water is absorbed on the
particle surface, in the volumes between particles, and provides "lubrication" to help the
particles move past one another more easily. Therefore, finer particles, necessary for plastic
behaviour, require more water. Some side-effects of increased water are loss of strength and
possible segregation.

 Influence of Aggregate Mix Proportions -- Increasing the proportion of aggregates relative to

the cement will decrease the workability of the concrete. Also, any additional fines will require
more cement in the mix. An "over sanded" mix will be permeable and less economical. A
concrete deficient of fines will be difficult to finish and prone to segregation.

 Aggregate Properties -- The ratio of coarse/fine aggregate is not the only factor affecting
workability. The gradation and particle size of sands are important. Shape and texture of
aggregate will also affect workability. Spherical shaped particles will not have the interaction
problems associated with more angular particles. Also, spherical shapes have a low
surface/volume ratio, therefore, less cement will be required to coat each particle and more will
be available to contribute to the workability of the concrete. Aggregate which is porous will
absorb more water leaving less to provide workability. It is important to distinguish between
total water content, which includes absorbed water, and free water which is available for
improving workability.

 Time and Temperature -- In general, increasing temperature will cause an increase in the rate
of hydration and evaporation. Both of these effects lead to a loss of workability.

 Loss of Workability -- Workability will decrease with time due to several factors; continued
slow hydration of C3S and C3A during dormant period, loss of water through evaporation and
absorption, increased particle interaction due to the formation of hydration products on the
particle surface. Loss of workability is measured as "slump loss" with time.

 Cement Characteristics -- Cement characteristics are less important than aggregate properties
in determining workability. However, the increased fineness of rapid-hardening cements will
result in rapid hydration and increased water requirements, both of which reduce workability.

 Admixtures -- In general, air-entraining, water-reducing, and set-retarding admixtures will all

improve workability. However, some chemical admixtures will react differently with cements
and aggregates and may result in reduced workability.

2.5 Segregation and Bleeding

2.5.1 Segregation refers to a separation of the components of fresh concrete, resulting in a non-
uniform mix. This can be seen as a separation of coarse aggregate from the mortar, caused from
either the settling of heavy aggregate to the bottom or the separation of the aggregate from the mix
due to improper placement.

Some factors that increase segregation are:

1. Larger maximum particle size (25mm) and proportion of the larger particles.
 2. High specific gravity of coarse aggregate.
3. Decrease in the amount of fine particles.
4. Particle shape and texture.
5. Water/cement ratio.

Good handling and placement techniques are most important in prevention of segregation.
2.5.2 Bleeding is defined as the appearance of water on the surface of concrete after it has
consolidated but before it is set. Since mixing water is the lightest component of the concrete, this is a
special form of segregation. Bleeding is generally the result of aggregates settling into the mix and
releasing their mixing water. Some bleeding is normal for good concrete.
However, if bleeding becomes too localized, channels will form resulting in "craters". The upper layers
will become too rich in cement with a high w/c ratio causing a weak, porous structure. Salt may
crystalize on the surface which will affect bonding with additional lifts of concrete. This formation
should always be removed by brushing and washing the surface. Also, water pockets may form under
large aggregates and reinforcing bars reducing the bond.

Bleeding may be reduced by:

1. Increasing cement fineness.
2. Increasing the rate of hydration.
3. Using air-entraining admixtures.
4. Reducing the water content.

2.6 Measurement of Workability

Workability, a term applied to many concrete properties, can be adequately measured by three
characteristics:

1. Compatibility, the ease with which the concrete can be compacted and air void removed.
2. Mobility, ease with which concrete can flow into forms and around reinforcement.
3. Stability, ability for concrete to remain stable and homogeneous during handling and vibration
without excessive segregation.

Different empirical measurements of workability have been developed over the years. None of these
tests measure workability in terms of the fundamental properties of concrete. However, the following
tests have been developed:

 Subjective Assessment -- The oldest way of measuring workability based on the judgement
and experience of the engineer. Unfortunately, different people see things, in this case concrete,
differently.

 Slump Test -- The oldest, most widely used test for determining workability. The device is a
hollow cone-shaped mould. The mould is filled in three layers of each volume. Each layer is
rodded with a 16mm steel rod 25 times. The mould is then lifted away and the change in the
height of the concrete is measured against the mould. The slump test is a measure of the
resistance of concrete to flow under its own weight.

There are three classifications of slump; "true" slump, shear slump, and collapse slump. True
 slump is a general reduction in height of the mass without any breaking up. Shear slump
indicates a lack of cohesion, tends to occur in harsh mixes. This type of result implies the
concrete is not suitable for placement. Collapse slump generally indicates a very wet mix. With
different aggregates or mix properties, the same slump can be measured for very different
concretes.

 Compaction Test -- Concrete strength is proportional to its relative density. A test to

determine the compaction factor was developed in 1947. It involves dropping a volume of
concrete from one hopper to another and measuring the volume of concrete in the final hopper
to that of a fully compacted volume. This test is difficult to run in the field and is not practical
for large aggregates (over 1 in.).

 Flow Test -- Measures a concretes ability to flow under vibration and provides information on
its tendency to segregate. There are a number of tests available but none are recognized by
ASTM. However, the flow table test described for mortar flows is occasionally used.

 Remoulding Test -- Developed to measure the work required to cause concrete not only to
flow but also to conform to a new shape.
o Vebe Test - A standard slump cone is cast, the mould removed, and a transparent disk
placed on top of the cone. The sample is then vibrated till the disk is completely covered
with mortar. The time required for this is called the Vebe time.

o Thaulow Drop Table - Similar to the Vebe test except a cylinder of concrete is remoulded
on a drop table. The number of drops to achieve this remoulding is counted.
o Penetration Test -- A measure of the penetration of some indenter into concrete. Only the
Kelly ball penetration test is included in the ASTM Standards. The Kelly ball penetration
test measures the penetration of a 30 lb. hemisphere into fresh concrete. This test can be
performed on concrete in a buggy, open truck, or in form if they are not too narrow. It can
be compared to the slump test for a measure of concrete consistency.

2.7 Setting of Concrete

Setting is defined as the onset of rigidity in fresh concrete. Hardening is the development of useable
and measurable strength; setting precedes hardening. Both are gradual changes controlled by
hydration. Fresh concrete will lose measurable slump before initial set and measurable strength will be
achieved after final set.
Setting is controlled by the hydration of C3S. The period of good workability is during the dormant
period, (stage 2). Initial set corresponds to the beginning of stage 3, a period of rapid hydration. Final
set is the midpoint of this acceleration phase. A rapid increase in temperature is associated with stage 3
hydration, with a maximum rate at final set.
If large amounts of ettringite rapidly form from C3 A hydration, the setting times will be reduced.
Cements with high percentages of C3A, such as expansive or set-regulated cements, are entirely
controlled by ettringite formation.

2.8 Abnormal Setting Behavior

 False Set -- Early stiffening of concrete, fluidity may be restored by remixing. Basically, it is a
result of hydration of dehydrated gypsum, which forms rigid crystals. Because there are few of
these crystals and they are weak, the matrix can be destroyed by remixing. Accelerated
hydration of C3A will cause rapid development of ettringite and false set.
  Flash Set -- Stiffening of concrete due to the rapid development of large quantities of C3A
hydration products which cannot be returned to a fluid state with mixing. This is generally no
longer a problem since the introduction of gypsum to control C3A hydration. However, some
admixtures will increase C3A hydration and flash set may be a problem.

2. 9 Tests of Fresh Concrete

1. They permit some estimation of the subsequent behaviour of the hardened concrete.
2. Changes in the properties of fresh concrete imply that the concrete mix is changing, so that
some action can be taken if necessary.
Concrete is a composite material made from cement, aggregate, water, and admixtures. The variation
of these components both in quality and quantity directly affects the resulting mix. When sampling
fresh concrete for testing, it is important to take samples from various locations or several points
during the discharge of the concrete. Samples should not have contacted forms or subgrade, and
collection should be done in such a way that no segregation occurs.
 Time of Setting -- A penetration test, used to help regulate the times of mixing and transit,
gauges the effectiveness of various set-controlling admixtures, and help plan finishing
operations. The test is performed on the mortar faction, the amount of concrete passing a No. 4
sieve, of the concrete rodded into a container.

 Air Content -- These tests measure the total air content, entrained air plus entrapped air
expressed in terms of the volume of concrete.

o Gravimetric Method -- Compares the weight of a concrete containing air to that of a

computed air-free concrete.

o Volumetric Method -- Compares the volume of fresh concrete containing air with a
volume of the same concrete after the air has be expelled by agitating the concrete
under water. Difficult to measure in the field and required a large amount of physical
effort.
o Pressure Method -- The most common field measurement for air content. Compares
the change in volume of a concrete under a given pressure. This change in volume is
caused entirely by the compression of air in the concrete, both in the cement and the
aggregate.

*** All these tests give no information about the spacing of the voids. They only measure the total air
content of the concrete.

2.10 Unit Weight and Yield

The unit weight of fresh concrete can be determined by weighing a known volume. This is usually
performed just before air content is determined since there is known volume concrete. The volume of a
batch of concrete can be determined from the following relationship:

Where, w is the weight of the concrete components, including water.

The yield of a concrete mix can be determined from:

Where, wcement is the weight of the cement for a given mix.

2.11 Rapid Analysis of Fresh Concrete

There are a number of tests which separate the components of fresh concrete and test for a variety of
mix properties; however, none are as yet accepted by ASTM. There are some tests that do not require
separation of the components of the concrete:
 Thermal Conductivity -- Increase in water slows temperature rise.
 Capacitance Test -- Higher water content, increases dielectric constant.
 Electrical Resistance -- Electrical resistance of fresh concrete is inversely proportional to the
water content.
 Nuclear Methods -- X-rays, gamma-rays, and neutron activation analysis can be used to
measure the cement and water contents.
Module- 3

Hardened Concrete
Module- 4

Concrete Mix Proportioning

 Module - 5
Special Concrete

Types of Special Concrete:

Special Concrete means the concrete used or made for special cases, such as:

Frequently, concrete may be used for some special purpose for which special properties are
more important than those commonly considered. Sometimes, it may be of great importance to
enhance one of the ordinary properties. These special applications often become apparent as
new development using new materials or as improvements using the basic materials. Some
utilize special aggregates (lightweight aggregate, steel fiber, plastic fiber, glass fiber, and
special heavy aggregate).

Some special properties — increased compressive and tensile strength, water proofing, and
improved chemical resistance are achieved with polymers, either as admixtures or surface
treatment of hardened concrete. Admixtures for coloring concrete are available in all colors.
The oldest and cheapest is perhaps carbon black. Admixtures causing expansion for use in
sealing cracks or under machine bases, etc., include powdered aluminum and finely ground
iron. Special admixtures are available for use where the natural aggregate is alkali reactive, to
neutralize this reaction. Proprietary admixtures are available that increase the tensile strength
or bond strength of concrete. They are useful for making repairs to concrete surfaces.

Why special concrete is needed?

Uses and Applications of Special Concrete

1. Special concrete is used in extreme weather.

2. HPC has been used in large structures such as the Petronas Towers and the Troll Platform.
Petronas Towers was the tallest concrete building in the world built in Malaysia in the
mid-1990s. In 1998, the deepest offshore platform, the Troll platform, was built in
Norway — a structure taller than the Eiffel Tower.
3. Good cohesiveness or sticky in mixes with very high binder content
4. Some delay in setting times depending on the compatibility of cement, fly ash and
chemical admixture
5. Slightly lower but sufficient early strength for most applications
6. Comparable flexural strength and elastic modulus
7. Better drying shrinkage and significantly lower creep
8. Good protection to steel reinforcement in high chloride environment
9. Excellent durability in aggressive sulphate environments
10. Lower heat characteristics
11. Low resistance to de-icing salt scaling
12. PC pipes with good resistance to chemical attack from both acidic and caustic effluents
inside the pipe, and from chemical attack on the outside of the pipe.

1. Economy of High Performance Lightweight Concrete

Purpose of high performance lightweight concrete utilization is to reduce cost or enhance

functionality of the structure or the combination thereof. The economy of high performance
lightweight concrete is discussed.

One might argue that, the production of high performance lightweight concrete is greater than
that of normal weight concrete. However, it should be known that the increased cost would not
surpass 1%. This increased cost would be easily offset by other economical superiority that
high performance lightweight concrete offers.
 Fig.1: High Performance Lightweight Concrete

2. Economy of High Performance Light Weight Concrete

The economy of high performance lightweight concrete is explained through the following
points:

1. It reduces dead load of superstructure and hence the foundation would receive smaller loads.
As a result, the size of foundation would be smaller, lesser number of piles are required, smaller
pile cap will be needed, and lastly, fewer reinforcement ratio will be used.

2. Because of dead load reduction, smaller sizes of superstructure members such as beams,
columns, deck, girder, and piers will be needed. This will lead to decline the cost considerably.

3. Dead load reduction lead to smaller inertia forces during earthquakes. This will reduce the
extent of deterioration that the structure might suffer and hence cost of rehabilitation will be
smaller.
4. Comparatively, long spans can be achieved when high performance lightweight concrete is
used to construct precast-prestressed members without increasing total mass. As a result, not
only fewer columns or piers will be required in the structural system but also lesser joints will
be needed which simplify and ease erection process.

It is reported that, the cost of precast-prestressed high performance lightweight concrete

delivery is also declined which easily offset the increased cost of using high performance
lightweight concrete.

5. High performance lightweight concrete allows easy movements of marine platforms when
they moved out of dry docks and move through shallow water channels. This is because high
performance lightweight concrete lead to increase top side loads and decline draft of the
structure.

6. High performance lightweight concrete increases fire resistance of concrete members. That
is why the thickness of slabs can be declined and hence considerable volume of concrete can
be reduced as well.

7. In the case of bridge structure repairing, the deck of the bridge can be widened using high
performance lightweight concrete instead of existed conventional concrete without increasing
total loads and other elements of the structure.

This is considerably significant since the capacity of the bridge is increased which is crucial
aspect of this type of concrete from economical perspective.

8. Due to that fact that high performance lightweight concrete reduces dead load of the element,
then it is possible to increase concrete cover over reinforcement bars which increase the
durability of the structure.

Subsequently, the structure would require less frequent maintenance which is another
economical advantage of high performance lightweight concrete.
9. Thermal insulation is another important property of high performance lightweight concrete
which is considerably significant especially for thermal sensitive structures such as hot water
storage, petroleum storage or building insulation.

This property might make the structure adequately thermal resistant or if higher degree of

insulation is needed, then the cost of insulation application would not be that much if

conventional concrete were used for the construction of the building.

Lightweight concrete

Lightweight concretes can either be lightweight aggregate concrete, foamed concrete or

autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC). Lightweight concrete blocks are often used in house

construction.

Lightweight aggregate concrete

Lightweight aggregate concrete can be produced using a variety of lightweight aggregates.

Lightweight aggregates originate from either:

• Natural materials, like volcanic pumice.

• The thermal treatment of natural raw materials like clay, slate or shale i.e. Leca.

• Manufacture from industrial by-products such as fly ash, i.e. Lytag.

• Processing of industrial by-products such as pelletised expanded slab, i.e. Pellite.

The required properties of the lightweight concrete will have a bearing on the best type of

lightweight aggregate to use. If little structural requirement, but high thermal insulation

properties, are needed then a light, weak aggregate can be used. This will result in relatively

low strength concrete.

Foamed concrete

Foamed concrete is a highly workable, low-density material which can incorporate up to 50

per cent entrained air. It is generally self-levelling, self-compacting and may be pumped.

Foamed concrete is ideal for filling redundant voids such as disused fuel tanks, sewer systems,

pipelines, and culverts - particularly where access is difficult. It is a recognised medium for the

reinstatement of temporary road trenches. Good thermal insulation properties make foamed

concrete also suitable for sub-screeds and filling under-floor voids.

Lightweight structural concrete

Lightweight aggregate concretes can be used for structural applications, with strengths

equivalent to normal weight concrete.

The benefits of using lightweight aggregate concrete include:

• Reduction in dead loads making savings in foundations and reinforcement.

• Improved thermal properties.

• Improved fire resistance.

• Savings in transporting and handling precast units on site.

• Reduction in formwork and propping.

The elastic modulus of lightweight concretes is lower than the equivalent strength normal

weight concrete, but when considering the deflection of a slab or beam, this is counteracted by

the reduced self-weight.

The basic design for lightweight concrete is covered in Eurocode 2 Part 1-1, with section 11

having particular rules required for lightweight aggregate concretes. Concrete is considered to

be lightweight is the density is not more than 2200kg/m3 (the density of normal weight concrete

is assumed to be between 2300kg/m3 and 2400kg/m3) and a proportion of the aggregate should

have a density of less than 2000kg/m3. Lightweight concrete can be specified using the notation

LC for the strength class, e.g LC30/33, which denotes a lightweight concrete with a cylinder

strength of 30MPa and a cube strength of 33MPa.

The lighter the concrete, the greater are the differences to be accounted for in the properties of

the concrete. The tensile strength, ultimate strains and shear strengths are all lower than a

normal weight concrete with the same cylinder strength. Lightweight concretes are also less

stiff than the equivalent normal strength concrete. However, this is mitigated by the reduction

in self-weight to be carried, so the overall effect tends to be a slight reduction in the depth of a

beam or slab.

Creep and shrinkage for lightweight concretes are higher than that for the equivalent normal

weight concrete, and this should be taken into account when designing the structure.

Batching of lightweight concretes is normally done from ready-mixed concrete producers. At

low workabilities, the concrete can easily be placed by skip or chute. Pumping lightweight

concrete can be achieved, but care needs to be taken so that the concrete mix doesn’t separate.

For pumpable mixes it is usual to use a natural sand, i.e. not to have a lightweight aggregate

for the fine portion of the mix and to have a high workability so that increased pump friction

and blockage is avoided. This is achieved with the use of admixtures. Over vibration of a

lightweight concrete tends to cause segregation so a flowing concrete is best used when it is to
be pumped as it requires only minimum vibration. More information can be found in Concrete

Quarterly Winter 2015.

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC)

AAC was first commercially produced in 1923 in Sweden. Since then, AAC construction

systems such as masonry units, reinforced floor/roof and wall panels and lintels have been used

on all continents and every climatic condition. AAC can also be sawn by hand, sculpted and

penetrated by nails, screws and fixings.

Self-compacting concrete (SCC)

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a flowing concrete that does not require vibration and,

indeed, should not be vibrated. It uses superplasticisers and stabilisers to significantly increase

the ease and rate of flow. It achieves compaction into every part of the mould or formwork

simply by means of its own weight without any segregation of the coarse aggregate.

The consistence of the concrete is specified and measured as a flow rate rather than the normal

slump.test.

SCC offers:

• Health and safety benefits (as no vibration is required).

• Faster construction times.

• Increased workability and ease of flow around heavy reinforcement.

• Excellent durability.
Having no need for vibrating equipment spares workers from exposure to vibration. No

vibration equipment also means quieter construction sites.