Basic Civil Engineering

Chapter No:1

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. SCOPE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:

The main scope of civil engineering is planning, designing, estimating, supervising, managing
and maintenance of structures like buildings, roads, bridges, dams etc. It deals with the design,
construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public
works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural
components of buildings, and railways.

Sectors of Civil Engineers:

Government Sector
Armed Forces, Oil and Natural Gas Company (ONGC), Public Works Department (PWD),
Electricity boards, National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), Indian Oil Corporation
(IOC), Town Planning, Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL), Indian Railways.

Private Sector:

The following projects are government projects which were tendered and executed by private
companies.

I. Larsen & Toubro Limited (L&T):

• The Riyadh metro project – Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

• Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport – Mumbai
• Statue of Unity, the world’s highest statue – Gujarat
• World’s Largest Cricket Stadium – Motera, Ahmedabad
• The Baha’i Temple (Lotus Temple) – New Delhi
II. Tata Projects

• New Parliament Building- New Delhi

• Noida International Airport- Noida

1
Basic Civil Engineering

• Noida Smart City Project- Noida

• IIT Jodhpur Building – Jodhpur
• Integral Rail Coach Manufacturing Factory- Chennai
III. Shapoorji Pallonji Group

• Mahatma Gandhi Setu- Bihar, India

• The Imperial – Mumbai
• Chenab Railway Bridge- Jammu and Kashmir, India
• Reserve Bank of India building – Mumbai

2. DISCIPLINES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING:

a) Structural engineering:

Structural engineers are primarily concerned with designing and constructing buildings and
structures that are safe and serviceable and can withstand the stresses and pressures imposed
by use and the environment. They use computer-aided design software, analyze loads and
pressures, collaborate with contractors, and monitor on-site construction. This discipline
deals with the analysis and design of concrete and steel structures, such as multistory
buildings, bridges, towers etc.

b) Geotechnical engineering:

Geotechnical engineering is the study of the behaviour of soils under the influence of
loading forces and soil-water interactions. This knowledge is applied to the design of
foundations, retaining walls, and earth dams. This field is concerned with the study of the
soil properties of the construction site and its bearing capacity.

c) Fluid mechanics:
Civil engineers use fluid mechanics to design flow through pipes, water treatment plants,
flood control systems, irrigation channels, and dams. Hydraulic engineering consists of the
application of fluid mechanics to water flowing in an isolated environment (pipe, pump) or
an open channel (river, lake, ocean).

d) Foundation Engineering:
All engineering structures are provided with foundations at the base to fulfil the following
objectives and purposes.

2
Basic Civil Engineering

• To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area to bring the intensity of
loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
• To prevent unequal settlement.
• To secure a level and firm bed for the building.
• To increase the stability of the structure as a whole
e) Transportation Engineering:
Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves the planning,
design, operation, and maintenance of transportation systems to help build smart, safe, and
liveable communities. Any system that moves people and goods from one place to another
falls under the scope of transportation engineering, which includes: Highways and
roadways, Railways, Oil pipelines, Public transport systems, Traffic control systems,
Automated transport systems, and Space transport systems. f) Environmental
Engineering:

The role of environmental engineers is to design, test and apply technologies that reduce
and eliminate pollution, treat water and wastewater as a key resource and develop effective
disposal methods without disturbing the ecosystem. This includes the design and
construction of water distribution networks, wastewater and stormwater collection systems,
water treatment plants and wastewater treatment for reuse in industrial and agricultural
fields. Environmental engineering involves also the study of the different techniques for
controlling air, water, and soil pollution as well as the proper disposal or recycling of solid
and hazardous wastes.

g) Irrigation Engineering:

Irrigation Engineering involves the management of water applied to agricultural and other
developed lands for the growth of crops and other vegetation. It includes precision irrigation
management, remote sensing, crop water use, irrigation system performance, and water use
optimization.

h) Surveying:
It involves measuring and recording the characteristics of land to help plan construction
projects. It is the process of determining the relative positions of points on, above, or below
the earth's surface and representing the results on a map or plan.

3
Basic Civil Engineering

Surveying is used for a variety of purposes, including:

• Establishing boundaries- Surveying can be used to define property lines and resolve
land ownership disputes.
• Mapping- Surveying can be used to determine the relative horizontal and vertical
position of objects.
• Construction planning- Surveying can help plan construction projects by providing
details about the land.

i) Remote sensing:

Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of
an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically from
satellite or aircraft). Remote sensing is used extensively in site investigations for dams,
bridges, and pipelines. It can be used to locate construction materials like sand and gravel
for new projects.

j) Town Planning:

Town planning is the planning and design of all the new buildings, roads, and parks in a
place to make them attractive and convenient for the people who live there. Urban planning,
also known as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or rural planning in specific
contexts, is the art of shaping and guiding the physical growth of the town creating
buildings and environments to meet the various needs such as social, cultural, economic,
and recreational etc. it creates and promotes healthy conditions and environments for all
the people, to make right use of the land for the right purpose by zoning, to ensure orderly
development and to avoid encroachment of one zone over the other.

k) Construction Management:

Construction management is a professional service that provides an effective management

of the project's schedule, cost, quality, safety, scope, and function. It focuses on the
knowledge and skills required for the planning, coordination, and successful
implementation of large Projects such as the design and construction of structures and
buildings, ship structures, aircraft, dams, roads, bridges etc.

l) Building Materials Technology:

4
Basic Civil Engineering

A builder, perhaps an architect or engineer, or a contractor needs to become familiar totally

with these building materials. These are some of the most used building materials – stones,
bricks, cement, sand, mortar, concrete, timber, metals, glass, ceramics, and miscellaneous
building materials.

3. ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN INFRASTRUCTURE

DEVELOPMENT:
• Developing infrastructure that satisfies both current and future demands is the
responsibility of civil engineers.

• They conduct feasibility studies, data analysis, and environmental impact assessments
to create sustainable solutions that maximize cost-effectiveness, functionality, and
safety.
• To carry out planning of the building as per its functional needs, as suggested by clients
or users, the building may be a residential building, public building, or industrial
building. He must plan the building as per the bylaws.
• To carry out the design of structures as per the principles of structural analysis and
design. He should also ensure that the design is safe, durable, and economical.
• Good surface communication links such as tar or concrete rods.
• Provision of water supply distribution system i.e., construction of water storage
reservation or sumps, laying of underground pipes etc.
• Provision of a drainage system which may include construction of surface drains as
subsurface drains for the disposal of wastewater.
• Supply of electrical power for which construction of transmission line towers,
construction of electrical substations.
• Providing inland communications lines, i.e., telephone lines etc.
• Construction of recreational places e.g., gardens, parks etc.

4. BUILDING SYSTEMS:
4.1 Need for Buildings:
Buildings are essential for many reasons, including:
• Shelter

5
Basic Civil Engineering

Buildings provide a physical separation between humans and the outside world.
For example: Houses, Bungalows, Row Bungalows, and Flats.
• Societal needs
Buildings provide spaces for work, education, entertainment, healthcare, and general
well-being. For example:
Office banks post offices law courts police station
Industrial buildings: factories workshops, commercial buildings, shop markets, malls.
Educational buildings: schools, colleges, universities, libraries.
Religious buildings: temples, mosques, churches, gurudwaras, Health
centres: hospitals, clinics, dispensaries.
Recreational centre: cinema halls, theatres, auditoriums.
Refreshment centres: restaurants, hotels, cafes.
Sports centres: stadiums and gyms.
4.2 Sustainability for Building Systems
a) Structural efficiency:

It is the concept of sustainable building and has largest impact on cost and performance.
It aims to minimize the environment impact associated with all life-cycles.

It deals with, Orientation-

It is the positioning of building according to suns path and prevailing wind patterns.

Building Design and Daylight-

The radiations of direct sunlight and diffused skylight in building play vital role in
reducing electricity. For example Open to sky and courtyard.

Wind Effect-

Natural ventilation and air change effectiveness is an important aspect. The building
surrounded by trees and vegetations provides cooled filtered air which is also known as
cross ventilation. Eg: larger size windows

Stack Systems-

6
Basic Civil Engineering

This system includes a heat sink which circulates the air. They derive cooling from
evaporation, convection, and radiation without using any electrical devices.

b) Renewable energy generation

Renewable energy generation systems use natural, self-replenishing sources to produce

energy. These sources are often called "green" or "clean" energy because they produce
little to no carbon dioxide emissions. It deals with Solar Energy Systems

c) Water efficiency
To minimize water consumption, one should aim to use the water which has been
collected, used, purified and reused. It deals with, using water-saving devices, the
Rainwater Harvesting method, the use of Water Meters and Maintenance of pipes and
traps.
d) Sustainable material

Materials should be used that can be recycled and can generate surplus amount of
energy. An example of this is solar power panels, not only do they provide lightning but
they are also a useful energy source. For example: Sustainable concrete (i.e. demolished
concrete which is grinded into aggregates and further used for compound wall
construction) and solar tiles.

e) Effective waste management

It is probable to reuse resources. For example, a.

Inventory management

It deals with maintaining the updates regarding the purchase, allocation and reusing
materials efficiently.
b. Disposal methods
Biodegradable waste can be decomposed and further can be used as fertilizers for
plants. For eg: Composting
c. Biogas plant
A biogas plant for home use is a system that produces biogas from organic waste
through anaerobic digestion. Organic matter, like food waste, animal manure, or
dairy, is mixed with water and placed in an airtight tank called a digester. Bacteria

7
Basic Civil Engineering

in the digester break down the organic matter without oxygen, producing biogas
and a solid residue called digestate.
4.3 Green Building

Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) expands and
complements the building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. It
uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves natural resources, generates less
waste and provides healthier space for occupants as compared to conventional buildings.
They are designed to reduce the overall impact on human health and the natural
environment by the following ways: Using energy, water and other resources efficiently.
By reducing waste, pollution, and environmental degradation.

Objectives of green building:

Green building design aims to minimize resources, maximize the reuse, recycling and
utilization of renewable resources. It maximizes the reuse, recycling, and utilization of
renewable resources. It maximizes the use of efficient building material and construction
practices, optimizes the use of onsite resources and use of renewable sources of energy, use
efficient waste management practices and provide comfortable and hygienic indoor
working conditions.

Indian Green Building Council

The Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) was formed in the year 2001 by Confederation
of Indian Industry (CII). The aim of the council is to bring green building movement in
India and facilitate India to become one of the global leaders in green buildings by 2015.

5. STRUCTURAL SYSYTEMS:
5.1 Loads on Buildings
a) Dead Load - IS 875:1987 (part 1)

The first type of vertical load on a structure is the dead load. These loads are
permanent/stationary loads/static load. These loads are on the structures for their entire
life span. The dead load that it takes is due to its own weight, the walls, fixed equipment
and the other types of weight.

8
Basic Civil Engineering

Dead load covers almost fifty to 60 percent of the total loan that is only structural design
is mostly affected by its own self weight dead load considerations are specified in is
875 part-1 1987 some of the dead loads are specified below

bricks -15.7 - 18 .85 kN/m3 cement -14.10 kN/m3

Asbestos cement sheets -0.12- 0.13 kN/m2

brick masonry -18.83 kN/m3 stone

masonary -26.40 kN/m3 mangalore tile -

0.64 kN/m2 country tiles -0.69 kN/m2

b) Live Load - IS 875:1987 (part 2)

Live load refers to the transient or moving loads that structures experience due to human
occupancy, furniture, vehicles, and other temporary factors. Live loads vary in
magnitude and location over time. Types of live load, live load on floor and live load
on roof.

Live load on floors it is the movable loads on the intermediate floors including people
utilizing the floors below table illustrates live load considered on some common units.
Sr. Type of floor Live load (kN/m2)
No
1 Flowers in dwelling houses, hospitals, wards, 2.5 4
bedrooms and hotel rooms

2 Office floors and floors of light workrooms bank 3

halls reading rooms

3 Shops floors, workrooms, classrooms, restaurants 4

power stations

Live load from roof

Sr. Types of roof Live load (kN/m2)
No

9
Basic Civil Engineering

1 Proof sloping up to 10 degrees

Access provided 1.5
Access not provided 0.75
2 Roof sloping more than 10 degree 0.4

c) Wind Load - IS 875:1987 (part 3)

Wind load refers to the pressure caused by the wind that is delivered to a structure.
Larger structures are more affected by the wind than small ones because the intensity
of this load increases as building altitude increases. Wind Load depends upon: Height
of Structure, Zone in which structure is located, Positions of opening in structure, Shape
of structure. For ascertaining the wind load and design coefficients india is divided in
three main zones zone A: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir,
Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

Zone B: portion of country other than A and C

Zone C: entire East Coast border

d) Snow Load - IS 875:1987 (part 4)
Snow load is the weight of snow and ice that accumulates on the exterior of a structure.
It is nearly 4 kN/m3.

e) Earthquake Loading - IS 1893:2016

The earthquake load is a 'dynamic load', which means it generates the vibrations in
structures. They are caused by the inertia of the structure and the ground's acceleration
during an earthquake. The response of a structure to ground vibrations depends upon
Type of foundation, Material used for construction, Type of structural systems, Size and
shape of structure, Duration, and intensity of earthquake.

For design purpose India has four seismic zones according to is 1893 2016

Zone 2 - low damage zone

Zone 3 moderate damage zone mega cities like Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai,
Bhubaneswar lie in this zone as well as Kolhapur and Sangli are also in zone 3

10
Basic Civil Engineering

Zone 4 high damage risk zone this zone includes J and K, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim and in Maharashtra such as Raigad, Ratnagiri, and some part of
Satara district

Zone 5 very high damage risk zone some parts of J and K, some parts of Western and
central Himalayas, some parts of North Middle Bihar, Run of Kutch, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and entire NE Region

5.2 Types of Structural Systems

a) Load Bearing Structure

In a load bearing masonry structure, the walls of the building carries load from the roof
and transfers it to the foundation. For ordinary residential buildings up to two floors we
usually adopt this method. Load bearing structure has limitations to resist earthquake.
Walls are thicker. Room dimensions cannot be changed and has less carpet area.
Limitation of span i.e. room sizes. simultaneously this type of construction is time
consuming. The load mechanism in a load-bearing structure involves the transfer of
loads from the roof and upper floors to the walls and finally transferred to foundation.

b) Framed Structure

In a framed structure, a framework or 'skeleton' of beams or columns is used to carry

the structural loads down the building to the foundations. The framework is usually of
steel or reinforced concrete, but in small structures may be of timber or aluminum. They
are more resistant to earthquake. Walls are thinner and carpet area available may be
more. Room dimension can be altered. Here the walls are for privacy and security. No
limitation exists for positioning of walls over walls and rooms over rooms. The load
transfer mechanism in a framed structure involves the proper distribution and transfer

11
Basic Civil Engineering

of loads throughout the structure, from slabs to the beams then from beams to the
columns, and finally to the foundation

c) Composite Structure

When the super structure consists of partly load bearing and partly framed structure it
is called as composite structure. Eg: Workshops, ware houses, multi storied building
where large spans are required, extension of load bearing structure above ground floor
or the extension in horizontal direction.

Sr Point of comparison Load bearing structure Framed structure

No
1 Subsoil condition Adopted only if hard Can be constructed in any
strata is available at type of soil even in soft soil
shallow depth

2 Height G + 2 max No restriction theoretically

3 Carpet area less carpet area due to More carpet area due to
thicker walls thinner walls

12
Basic Civil Engineering

4 Time for construction Requires more time Requires less time relatively
relatively

5 Economy Cheaper up to G+2 Economical in multi storage

storied building building

6 Flexibility in planning Position of walls cannot position of walls can be

be changed changed

7 Resistance to Vulnerable to vibrations It can resist force due to

vibration due to earthquake earthquake to a greater extent

8 Life span Relatively lesser lifespan Relatively more lifespan

9 Structural analysis and Design and analysis of Design and analysis of slab,
design slab is needed beam, column and footing is
needed

d) Prefabricated Structure

The concept of precast structures also known as prefabricated/ modular structures.

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or
other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies to the construction site
where the structure is to be erected. The components are manufactured by industrial
methods based on mass production to build many buildings in a short time at low cost.

And it is uneconomical for small projects.

Advantages of prefabricated structure

• Compared to site-cast concrete, precast concrete erection is faster and less affected
by adverse weather conditions.

• Plant casting allows increased efficiency, high quality control and greater control
on finishes. Better overall construction quality

• Possibility of conversion, disassembling and moving to another site.

• Possibility of erection in areas where a traditional construction practice is not

possible or difficult. Easier management of construction sites

• It saves manpower.

• Ideal fit for mass complex structures

13
Basic Civil Engineering

Disadvantages of prefabricated structure

• It has limited customization.
• It charges more transportation costs.
• There can be site preparation challenges.
• The process is dependent on manufacturing facilities.
• There is a resistance to change in the construction industry.
e) Pre-engineered Structure
A pre-engineered structure, or pre-engineered building (PEB), is a building made of
components that are manufactured in a factory and assembled on-site. Components are
such as steel beams, columns, roofs, and wall panels. The design of PEBs can be
customized to meet the user's needs, such as area, capacity, and geographical
conditions. The construction of PEBs are assembled on-site, usually with bolted
connections. It is commonly used for industrial and small manufacturing buildings,
small retail and commercial office buildings, warehouses, and storage units.
Advantages of pre-engineered structure
• It is cost-effective
• It is durability
• It has low maintenance
• It requires very less construction time.
• It has design flexibility as per initial requirements.
Disadvantages of pre-Engineered structure:

• If not properly maintained it can be susceptible to corrosion.

• Modifying the structure can be expensive.

• Upward or adjacent expansions may be more difficult.

• It reduces the thermal comfort of the building.

• PEBs are more susceptible to fire and damage due to their conductivity.

• PEBs have poor high-temperature resistance.

5.3 Components in Buildings and their functions The

following are the basic elements of a building:

14
Basic Civil Engineering

a) Foundation
Foundation is the most important part of the building. It is the lower most part of the
building. It transfers the load of the building to the ground. Its main functions and
requirements are: to distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely. To
prevents the building from overturning. And to give level surface for the construction of
super structure.
b) Plinth
The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called plinth.

The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground level, free of dampness.
c) Damp proof course

It is the layer provided in between the plinth filling and flooring. It prevents the entry of
moisture into the foundation below and super-structure above and vice-versa. Plain cement
concrete are used for damp proof courses.

d) Columns

These are the structural vertical members of a building. Columns are constructed to provide
support to the beams, slabs and transfer loads to the foundation. These are constructed in
bricks, stones, steel and reinforced cement concrete. These are constructed in various sizes
and shapes such as square, rectangular, circular, etc.

15
Basic Civil Engineering

e) Walls
i. Load Bearing wall

These are built in brick and stone masonry which carry the structural or super imposed

loads and transfer them from floor to foundation and maintain the stresses within safe

limit at any level. These were used for single or double storeyed buildings in olden days.

ii. Non-load Bearing wall

These are the thin curtain and partition walls built in various materials like, wood, plywood,
glass, metals, bricks, hollow concrete blocks etc. These walls do not carry any structural
load.

f) Sills, lintels and chejjas

A window sill is the horizontal structure and is provided at the bottom of a window. Window
sills serve to structurally support and hold the window in place. Lintels are the R.C.C.
provided over the door and window openings. Chejja is the projection given outside the
wall to protect doors and windows from the rain.

g) Doors and windows

The function of a door is to give access to different rooms in the building. The size of the
door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object.
Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building.

h) Floors

They give working/useful area for the occupants. The ground floor is prepared over the
damp proof course.

i) Roofs
Roof is the top most portion of the building which provide top cover to the building. It
should be leak proof. Terrace adds to the comfort of occupants. Water tanks can be easily
placed over the flat roofs.

16
Basic Civil Engineering

j) Steps, stairs and lifts

Steps give convenient access to different floors. Number of steps required depends upon
the difference in the levels of the ground and the floor. Stairs give access from floor to floor.
They should consists of steps of uniform sizes

k) Finishing work
Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth finishing with plaster.
Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints or tiles. l)
i) Parapet wall and coping
A parapet wall is a short, thin wall that extends upward from the edge of a structure, such
as a roof, balcony, or walkway, which means "to cover or defend". m) Building services.

Water supply, sanitation and drainage works, electric supply work and construction of
cupboards and show cases constitute major building services. Plumbing work is made to
get water in kitchen, bathrooms, water closets, sinks and garden taps and for draining rain
water from roofs. The sanitary fittings are to be connected to stone ware pipes with suitable
traps and chambers. Stone ware pipes are then connected to underground drainage of
municipal lines or to the septic tank. Many carpentry works are required for building
service. They are in the form of showcases, cupboards, racks etc. Electric supply to the
building should be provided with sufficient points for supply of lights, fans and other
electric gadgets.

6. BUILDING BYELAWS:
A bye-law is the local law framed by a competent authority. Every locality has its own
peculiarities with respect to the climatic conditions, geological conditions, i.e. availability
of materials for construction, labour etc. If a building is built in a definite planned way, the
construction becomes economically sound and safe. As such there must be a law or
regulations on the part of the owner while building his own house. The landlord will take
only profit into account and spend minimum amount to get the maximum benefit. The
builder takes everything for granted and hopes to get away with everything. Hence, there
must be restriction to limit the power of the builder or owner to deal with the property. This
is done under Building Regulations which are a compressive code of Building Bye-laws.
Object of Bye-Laws
a) To give guide lines to the designer, architect, or engineer.

17
Basic Civil Engineering

b) To prevent haphazard development.

c) To control land development and to check un-authorised construction. i.e.
encroachment on public and private land.
d) To limit or define the way the new structures are to be built.
e) To specify the type of materials to be used.
f) To provide open spaces, air, breeze, etc.
g) To afford safety against fire, noise and smoke etc.

6.1 Building and Control Lines

Building line refers to the front line upto which a building can lawfully extend. It is also called
as 'set-back' or front building line. A minimum distance of this 'building line' from the centre
line of the accompanying road is laid down as the limit beyond which no construction is
allowed towards the road. In case of public buildings such cinema halls factories, the buildings
attract more number of people and vehicles as such more space is required. Hence, the buildings
should be set back a further distance away from the building line. The line, which accounts for
this extra margin is called as 'control line'.

Advantages:

i. The set back effected by the building line has the following advantages. ii. If necessary,
part of the set-back may be acquired for the purpose of widening the roads. iii. It keeps noise
and dust away from the building. iv. The set-back at street corners improves visibility and
provides safety to traffic. 4. It reduces danger of fire.
v. The space of set-backs can be used as parking place or for developing a garden.
vi. At helps better conditions of air, light and ventilation of the buildings.
Limits of building line and control line

18
Basic Civil Engineering

Types of adjoining road Building line Control line

offset (m) offset (m)

National highway and state

30 45
highway
Major district road 15 24
Other district road 9 15
Village rd 9 15

6.2 Open Space Requirement:

Certain open space should be left around the building particularly residential type. It depends
on air required for the building. Open areas also provide facilities for parking, future expansion
of road-way, good approach or access to other amenities such as water supply line or drainage
line etc.

Width of road in metre Roadside margin

9 or less 3 metre

9 to 12 4.5 metre

12 to 18 6 metre

18 to 30 7.5 metre

30 to 60 9 metre

More than 60 12 metre

6.3 Built-up area:

19
Basic Civil Engineering

The built-up area is the constructed area of the building which includes wall thickness.
Therefore, built-up area is the area remaining after deducting open space area from plot area
i.e. the total area purchased for the proposed building plan. Carpet area is the built-up area less
the area occupied by walls i.e. it is the area without considering the thickness of the wall .
When open space area is restricted then the built-up area of any building is automatically
restricted.

6.3 Floor Space Index (F.S.L.) or Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R.)

The ratio of total built-up area of all floors to the plot area of the building is called Floor Space
Index, abbreviated to F.S.I. It is a pure number. The F.S.I. is fixed by the local authority and is
different for different areas and different buildings in the city. It checks the height of the
building and as a consequence, it controls the density of population. It is generally one to 1.5-
2 for residential building and permissible FSI can be increased up to 3 to 5 in overcrowded
cities.

𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑝 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹𝑆𝐼 =
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

6.4 Height of Building

Tall buildings impair the value of small neighbouring houses by cutting off sun-shine, air,
breeze etc. and thus, make the small houses un-suitable for inhabitation. They make the street
narrow and increase the congestion of traffic and affect the air and light etc. Hence, the height
of the buildings especially high-rise buildings or sky-scrapers must be controlled. It is done by
means of height zoning. There are various methods of zoning which are used to control the
height of high-rise buildings.

20
Basic Civil Engineering

To control the height of the building generally 45 degree to 63.5 degree aeroplane rules are
adopted. The rule states that no part of building should cut the plane drawn from the age of the
road to the other side at an angle of 45 degree and 63.5 degree to the horizontal. The ratio of
height to width of the road will be 1:1 for 45 degree and 2:1 for 63.5 degree.

7. BUILDING PLANNING:

7.1 Aspect:

It is the proper placement of different rooms of the building so that the occupants can enjoy the
gifts of nature such as sun-shine, breeze, view of the landscape at different hours of the day.
Aspect not only provides comfort but it is important from hygienic point of view. By careful
disposition of doors and windows in external walls, it is possible to admit sun's rays and air
into any desired room. Aspect depends upon the direction of the sup light, air, rain,. The kitchen
should have eastern aspect so that morning sun refreshes and purifies the air and kitchen would
remain cool and clean in later part of the day. From point of view of sun-light, living-room
used for group discussion should have southern or south-east aspect. Similarly, bed room
should have west or south-west aspect since cool breeze is available in summer where as wind
from north in winter cannot enter the rooms. North aspect is very good for study-room, reading
room, workshops, class-rooms, stores and stairs because there will not be direct sun-light from
north but only diffused and evenly distributed light will be available.

21
Basic Civil Engineering

7.2 Prospect

Prospect refers to the view as seen of the outside from the windows in general and doors/ in
external walls. It is determined by the view as desired from certain rooms of the building such
as view of the garden, beautiful scene, a nearby hill etc. Prospect includes taking full advantage
of the beauties of nature in the landscape by revealing to the occupant certain pleasant features
and at the same time concealing some undesirable views in a given outlook. Prospect/ depends
upon the surroundings of the building. Aspect and prospect are both primary considerations of
building planning and both demand disposition of doors and windows.

7.3 Privacy

Privacy is the one of the most important considerations in the planning of buildings of all types
in general and residential buildings in particular. Privacy is of two types: (i) Privacy of all parts
of a building with reference to the surrounding buildings, streets and by-ways. This can be
achieved by growing plants, trees and also by keeping windows high enough with respect to
roads or ground nearby. Privacy of one room from another i.e. bed-room, kitchen, bath-room

22
Basic Civil Engineering

etc. This can be attained by carefully positioning of doors and openings of shutters. The shutters
should open in such a way that a person entering the room should get the minimum view See
For maximum privacy such as in bed-room single shutters are better than double shutters.
Privacy can be achieved by means of small corridor or lobby. Partitions, screens or curtains
also help to provide the requisite privacy. Use of frosted glass for windows provide more
privacy than plain glass. Louvers for shutters provide not only privacy but also ventilation.
Library, study rooms and prayer halls may be located in a undisturbed part.

7.4 Roominess

It refers to the effect achieved by making the best of small portions of room by deriving
maximum benefit from minimum dimensions. It appears to be simple at first but really difficult
to achieve. The feeling of space that is whether it is less, more, or adequate, depends upon the
shape or proportions of length, width and height. A rectangular room is relatively felt bigger
than a square room of the same area. It is also found more convenient from utility point of
view. For a rectangular room the length to width ratio should be between 1.2:1 and 1.5:1 A
ratio 2:1 or more will cause "tunnel" effect and create bad feeling which should be avoided.

23
Basic Civil Engineering

7.5 Grouping

Grouping means arrangement of various rooms in the layout in such a fashion that all the rooms
are placed with reference to their functions and in due proximity with each other. Each room
or unit has to perform certain function or functions and there is also some sort of sequence in
between them. Grouping should have smooth change over, rather than abrupt one. Bad
grouping lacks in privacy also. Generally people like to sit in the verandah as such living room
should naturally be next to it. Dining room must be close to the kitchen. At the same time, the
kitchen should be away from the drawing or living room, otherwise the bad smell and smoke
will cause nuisance for the occupants. Sanitary arrangements should be adjacent to the
bedrooms but away from the kitchen, dining room. There should be an independent access to
sanitary units. Screens, curtains, sliding and folding partitions can be used as dividers in large
rooms instead of thick walls, such as a divider in kitchen and dining room. Stair-case should
have easy access from maximum number of rooms.

7.6 Circulation

Circulation is the access or the internal movement or passage provided. Circulation is of two
types, one is the horizontal circulation and the other is vertical circulation. If the movement is
for the same floor and may be from one room to another or within the room itself, then it is
called horizontal circulation. The horizontal circulation can be achieved by providing passages,
corridors, lobbies, verandahs, and halls. Desirable horizontal circulation has short, straight and
independent passages. It helps to provide privacy of the room. Vertical circulation is the
movement from one floor to another floor. It can be achieved by means of stairs, lifts and
escalators. These should be easily accessible from entrance, various rooms without intruding
privacy. They should also be properly lighted and ventilated. Stairs should be sufficiently wide
with strong balusters or parapets and handrails on both the sides.

24
Basic Civil Engineering

7.7 Furniture requirements

The requirement of furniture depends on the type of buildings, the number of persons using the
room and functions of the room. Therefore, the requirement of furniture, their sizes etc. is an
important consideration because the furniture will decide the size of the room. The room does
not look pleasing, attractive if it is overloaded inspite of good selected furniture. So at the time
of planning, the proper position of furniture such as sofas, chairs, tables, television, wall units
in living room, beds, easy chairs, cupboards, almirah, dressing table in bedroom; dining table
with chairs in dining room, racks, fridge in kitchen etc. is to be decided.

7.8 Flexibility

Flexibility means planning a room in such a way that eventhough a room originally planned to
satisfy a particular purpose, it should also serve other desired purposes when required in future.
The requirements go on changing as the family expands in future. Hence, planning is to be
done in a manner that the rooms like living room can be easily converted into a guest room.
Dining can be provided in the kitchen, in that case it may be useful as kitchen-cum-dining
room. If there is a separate dining room, it may be used as a study room. With this arrangement
many compactible living functions can be combined advantageously in a moderately big room.
Three or four roomed flats can be planned with special regard to this flexibility. Here care
should be taken to provide independent access to sanitary units from all rooms. Now-a-days
furniture like sofacum-beds etc. also help in achieving this flexibility. In case of planning of
public buildings such as schools, hostels, hospitals, etc. full attention should be paid to provide
flexibility taking into account the expansion in the future.

7.9 Sanitation

Sanitation includes provision of sufficient light, ventilation, cleanliness and sanitary

conveniences, in the following way.

• Lighting: The object of lighting is to promote the work or any activity to be carried in the
building under safety conditions, and pleasant environment which are helpful to create
interest, efficiency, and a sense of well being. Lighting is of two types. One is natural and
other is artificiale are some important purpose.
i. Natural Lighting: The sun is the main source of natural light. Sunlight illuminates and
also destroys bacteria and disease germs, since it contains ultra-violet rays. The blue

25
Basic Civil Engineering

sky over our head is also the source of day-light and brightness. The intensity of light
is affected by clouds, dust, smoke and gases. Hence, planning is to be made to get the
required natural light. Vertical windows are more effective than horizontal windows of
equivalent area. Walls of light colours increase light hy reflection whereas those of dark
colours reduce light by absorption. So white colour for ceiling and light colours for
walls in passages and rooms can be used so as to improve the lighting and give a
pleasant look.
ii. Artificial Lighting: Artificial lighting is mainly required at night and replace or
supplement the natural illumination. Ingenious and imaginative lighting technique, can
bring life, cheerfulness, comfort and a style in a moderately decorated room. Proper
illumination increases cheerfulness, and efficiency of the workers in a factory or office
by reducing fatigue. Glare should be avoided as far as possible because it not only
distracts but also disables the vision.
• Ventilation: It may be defined as a system of supplying of fresh air from outside by natural
or mechanical devices and removing of air vitiated by respiration, bacteria, and un- pleasant
odours from the rooms in order to maintain comfortable conditions. Lack of movement of
air produces a feeling of discomfort, increases temperature, humidity and leads to
perspiration. The want of fresh air always produces nausea, headache, sleepiness, inability
to fix attention. Good ventilation is therefore, an important factor to provide comfort in the
buildings. Ventilation may be natural or artificial.
i. Natural Ventilation: Natural Ventilation is due to movement of air induced by wind or
temperature difference. Good ventilation is generally achieved by placing the windows,
doors and ventilators opposite to each other so that they can catch as much breeze as
possible. It is called "Cross- Ventilation”.
ii. Artificial Ventilation: Generally doors and windows provided in a building are found
to be sufficient for its ventilation. But in public or industrial buildings where a large
number of people come together, natural ventilation is found to be insufficient, so air
conditioning is the best method to avoid foul air

7.10 Elegance

Elegance means beauty and grace. This effect is produced by greater purity and delicacy of
ornamental enrichment of construction. Elegance is related to the appearance of the building.

26
Basic Civil Engineering

i.e. elevation, which can be made attractive, impressive and pleasing. This elegance in a
building can be achieved in three ways. Firstly, it can be achieved by the treatment of walls,
the proportions of openings in the form of doors and windows, relation of one storey to another
etc. Secondly, it can be achieved by the treatment of exterior of a building which is aesthetically
significant.

7.11 Economy

Economy is not the principle of planning but rather a factor on which the planning can be based.
Economy can be achieved by keeping the optimum dimensions of the rooms, doors, windows,
simple design for windows, plain tiles as well as fixtures and fastening. Porches, lobbies can
be avoided. If the land cost is high, multistoreyed buildings can be constructed to save the cost
for foundation and roof. A building designed for a good strength, utility and safety will certainly
prove to be costly in the beginning but may prove to be cheaper in the long run as it saves the
cost of maintenance in future. It should be remembered that a building or house is immovable
property and built with one's life's saving to last for many years to come One should not
therefore, adopt false economy by erecting a weak buildings.

27