Contents

Topics...........................................................................................................................................................3

Topic 1 ......................................................................................................................................................3

Topic 2 & 3................................................................................................................................................3

Topic 4 & 5................................................................................................................................................4

Topic 6 ......................................................................................................................................................4

Topic 7, 8, 9 ..............................................................................................................................................4

Topic 1 Research .........................................................................................................................................5

Database definition ...................................................................................................................................5

Data and Information.................................................................................................................................5

Data - ....................................................................................................................................................5

Information - ..........................................................................................................................................5

Differences - ..........................................................................................................................................5

Metadata ...................................................................................................................................................5

Advantages and Disadvantages of Relational Database ...........................................................................5

Advantages of Relational Databases .....................................................................................................5

Disadvantages of relational databases ..................................................................................................6

5 different data models..............................................................................................................................6

Relational Data Model: ..........................................................................................................................6

Hierarchical Data Model: .......................................................................................................................6

Network Data Model: .............................................................................................................................6

Object-Oriented Data model: .................................................................................................................6

Post-relational data model: ....................................................................................................................6

5 functions of relational DBMS ..................................................................................................................7

CRUD Functions:...................................................................................................................................7

Data Communication Functions: ............................................................................................................7

Authorization Function: ..........................................................................................................................7

Data Dictionary: .....................................................................................................................................7

Data Integrity: ........................................................................................................................................7

Disadvantages of flat file ...........................................................................................................................7

ERD - 10

Normalization - 10

SQL - 10 / 10

DB advs & disadvs

Transactions - CRUD Martix (4 or 5)

___________________________________________________________________________

Topics
Topic 1
• Database definition (3 ms)
• Data and information (definition or differences)
• Metadata (4 ms) (data dictionary htae mr shi tae data tway)
• Disadvantages of flat file (4 ms)
• 5 advantages/ disadvantages of (10 ms)
relational databases
• 5 different data models (10 ms)
• 5 functions of relational DBMS (10 ms) (CRUD function) (explain each function)

Topic 2 & 3
• Goal of entity relationship modeling (3 ms)
• Multiplicity (3/4 ms) (1 to many - 1 to 1)
• Types of attributes with example (there r 5 types of attributes)
• Primary key with example (4 ms) (what’s that/ Why use?)
• Foreign key with example (4 ms)
• What is data integrity (data tway ka ti kya mhan kan tae data)
Topic 4 & 5
• What is relational database model
• Data independence
• Advs of Normalization
• Normalization steps (defs of UNF/1NF/2NF/3NF) (all remove nae sa)
• What is Normalization (defs)

Topic 6
• SQL objectives
• Create, insert, alter, select, update, delete (bl lo yay lae)
• Rollback and Commit
• Aggregate functions (5 types/ count,…..etc)(1 khu si ka br a twat tone)

Topic 7, 8, 9
• SQL Query
• What is Transaction
• Identify each property in ACID
• Grant and Revoke
Topic 1 Research
Database definition
Database is a collection of organized structured information or data that is mostly kept in a computer system
for simple access, administration, and retrieval by database management System (DBMS).

Data and Information

Data - Refers to raw, unprocessed information that lacks context and meaning. Examples include numbers,
words, symbols, or images that do not provide a specific purpose on their own.

Information - Represents processed and arranged data with context and meaning. It aids decision-making
and gives data-driven insights.

Differences - The nature and utility of data and information are different. Data is a collection of raw,
unprocessed facts and figures that lack context, such as numbers or text. It provides the basic input but is
insufficient for decision-making. On the other hand, information is data that has been processed and
structured to have meaning and may be used to make informed decisions.

Metadata
Metadata in DBMS is characterized as data about data. It describes the context and information about data,
the way that data is stored and the various relations among data. Metadata in a relational DBMS stores data
about Constraints, Table Relationships, Data Types, Columns, Tables, and so on.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Relational Database

Advantages of Relational Databases
Data Redundancy Control: As DBMS centralizes data and reduces duplication, multiple applications can
use the same data source without redundancy, minimizing inconsistency and saving storage space.

Data Consistency: DBMS prevents duplication and conflict of information by imposing integrity constraints
and rules that ensure all data remain accurate and consistent throughout the system.

Improved Data Integrity: DBMS ensures that correct data is input into the database through validation
methods such as check constraints and triggers, improving data integrity and making the database more
reliable.

Greatly Improved Security: DBMS provides a great range of strong security features such as encryption,
access controls, and user authentication, ensuring sensitive information does not fall into the hands of
unauthorized users.

Data Sharing: A DBMS enables data transfer among multiple users or applications while ensuring data
integrity and security, which can support highly collaborative situations.

Improved Backup and Recovery Services: DBMS now comprises backup and recovery options that can
fully automate the backup procedure and the recovery of the data in the event of a failure and disaster to
guard against loss of data.
Disadvantages of relational databases
Complexity: DBMS is a highly complex software for which specialized knowledge is required for installing,
managing, and maintaining it. This increases the requirement of extensive training on the part of users and
administrators, which becomes a barrier for organizations with little or no technical expertise.

Performance Degradation: As the volume of data increases, performance overhead also increases due to
the extra features that DBMS can provide such as security and integrity checks. Response times can be very
slow in large systems with high traffic.

Size: DBMS usually needs a great amount of memory and storage space in which to operate. Managing the
size with the growth of data becomes more and more tricky, and may slow down the retrieval of data.

Additional Hardware Costs: The installation of a DBMS often involves either upgrading some hardware or
procuring new hardware that is capable of running the DBMS, which involves a huge cost for the
organizations.

Higher Impact of Failure: Centralization means that in the event of a failure of the database server, all users
and applications that depend on it will be affected. This increases the risk of significant business interruptions
and losses of data from improper management.

5 different data models

Relational Data Model: This model arranges data into tables (relations) made up of rows and columns. Each
table represents an entity, and foreign keys define relationships between tables. SQL's extensive querying
capabilities and ease of use make it popular.

Hierarchical Data Model: This model organizes data into a tree-like structure, with each record having a
single parent and potentially many children. This model is excellent for describing data that follows a clear
hierarchical structure, such as organizational structures or file systems.

Network Data Model: The network model, like the hierarchical model, provides for more complicated
relationships by allowing numerous parent–child relationships. Data is represented as a graph, with entities
(nodes) having numerous connections (edges), making it ideal for applications that require many-to-many
relationships.

Object-Oriented Data model: The model applies object-oriented programming concepts to database
architecture. Data is represented as objects that contain both properties and behaviors, allowing for more
complicated data kinds and structures that closely resemble real-world entities.

Post-relational data model: Post-relational data model means database systems extending or drifting from
traditional relational models to accommodate other data structures and logical models. These databases
have features that deal with complex data types and are meant to be flexible and scalable in managing
unstructured or semi-structured data. Examples include object-relational databases, graph databases, and
NoSQL systems.
5 functions of relational DBMS
CRUD Functions: The system is designed to facilitate data management through Create, Read, Update,
and Delete operations.

Data Communication Functions: Data communication functions allow the exchange of data between
applications and the database while providing interaction via standard query languages such as SQL.

Authorization Function: RDBMS is equipped with security attributes to control user access and permissions
so that only approved users have the rights to perform certain actions on data.

Data Dictionary: The RDBMS has its dictionary, which holds metadata on the database structure, including
the tables, fields, data types, and relationships.

Data Integrity: RDBMS provides data integrity by enforcing constraints that include primary keys, foreign
keys, and various integrity rules to ensure that the data stored within the database is accurate and consistent.

Disadvantages of flat file

Data Redundancy: Since flat files have no means to ensure uniqueness, most of the time they have duplicate
data. Hence, these redundancies increase the size of the files and other costs associated with storing the
data.

Complications in Maintaining Data Consistency: In this case, updates may require a number of records
to be changed, increasing the chances of inconsistencies. For example, the changes occurred in a person's
details; he has to manually update all instances of that change, which is error-prone.

Limited Scalability: Generally, flat files are considered to be suitable for small-size collections of data. But
when the increasing amount of data creates performance issues, this system usually produces a very
inefficient way of managing and retrieving data.

Security Vulnerabilities: Flat files generally do not possess very beneficial security features which restricts
access to sensitive information. It becomes very clear that any individual with access to the flat file can have
the access to such records, adding a risk not only to themselves but also to the confidentiality of certain data.

Inflexibility in Data Structure: Any changes in data format, for example, adding new fields, may require
major changes in most or all of the records, which becomes very cumbersome and time-consuming in flat file
systems.
Topic 2, 3
• Goal of entity relationship modeling (3 ms)
• Multiplicity (3/4 ms) (1 to many - 1 to 1)
• Types of attributes with example (there r 5 types of attributes)
• Primary key with example (4 ms) (what’s that/ Why use?)
• Foreign key with example (4 ms)
• What is data integrity (data tway ka ti kya mhan kan tae data)

Goal of entity relationship modeling

The goal of Entity Relationship Modelling (ERM) is to analyze and document the informational requirements
of a system by identifying entities, relationships, and attributes. It provides a conceptual framework for
understanding how data is structured and linked together which serves as the foundation for developing
relational databases and structuring business processes within an organization.

Multiplicity
Number or range of possible occurrences of an entity type in relation to another entity type.

Types of attributes
There are 5 types of attributes in data modeling:

• Simple Attributes
Definition: These are atomic values that cannot be divided further.

Example: A student's mobile number or birth date.

• Composite Attributes
Definition: These consist of more than one simple attribute and can be divided into subparts.

Example: A student's full name, which can be divided into first name and last name.

• Single-Valued Attributes
Definition: These contain a single value for each entity instance.

Example: A student's roll number or Aadhar card number.

• Multi-Valued Attributes
Definition: These can contain more than one value for an entity instance.

Example: A person's phone numbers or email addresses.

• Derived Attributes
Definition: These are computed or derived based on other attributes.

Example: Age, which can be calculated from the date of birth attribute.
Primary Key
A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in a database table, ensuring that every row is distinct
and easy to retrieve. It ensures entity integrity by reducing duplicate records and null values.

Example: In an employee database, the EmployeeID serves as the primary key, uniquely identifying each
employee record.

Foreign Key
A foreign key is a column or set of columns in a database table that references the primary key of another
table. This linkage supports data consistency and referential integrity through preventing orphan records.

Example: In an e-commerce database, the CustomerID in the Orders table is a foreign key referencing the
CustomerID primary key in the Customers table. This ensures that every order is associated with a valid
customer.

What is data integrity

Data Integrity refers to the accuracy, completeness, and consistency of data throughout its lifecycle. It
guarantees that data remains unchanged and dependable, preventing illegal alterations or corruption, and is
critical for ensuring the integrity and usability of data in various systems.
Topic 4 & 5
• What is relational database model
• Data independence
• Advs of Normalization
• Normalization steps (defs of UNF/1NF/2NF/3NF) (all remove nae sa)
• What is Normalization (defs)

What is relational database model

A relational database model is a method of organizing data into tables with rows and columns, where each
row represents a record and each column represents an attribute of that record. It stores data in a structured
format, allowing relationships between different data points to be easily established and queried, typically
using SQL.

Data independence
Data Independence is a database management system (DBMS) property that allows changes to the data
structure or storage without affecting the applications that use the data. It ensures that modifications at one
level of the database schema do not require changes at higher levels, maintaining flexibility and reducing
system complexity.

What is Normalization?
Normalization is the process of transforming non-relational data into a structured relational form, and then
optimizing it into a set of ideal relations. This involves organizing data into tables to eliminate redundancy,
ensure data integrity, and improve database efficiency by following a series of normal forms.

Normalization Steps
• UNF Un normalized Form
• 1 NF First Normal Form
• 2 NF Second Normal Form
• 3 NF Third Normal Form

Advs of Normalization
Reduces Redundancy: Normalization eliminates duplicate data, reducing storage needs and improving data
management efficiency.

Improves Data Integrity: By organizing data into specific tables, normalization ensures data consistency
and accuracy, preventing update anomalies.

Enhances Data Consistency: Normalization ensures that data is consistent across the database, reducing
errors and inconsistencies.
Topic 6
• SQL objectives
• Create, insert, alter, select, update, delete (bl lo yay lae)
• Rollback and Commit
• Aggregate functions (5 types/ count,…..etc)(1 khu si ka br a twat tone)

SQL objectives