Data rate limits

As early as 1924, an AT&T engineer, Henry Nyquist, realized that

even a perfect channel has a finite transmission capacity. He
derived an equation expressing the maximum data rate for a finite-
bandwidth noiseless channel. In 1948, Claude Shannon carried
Nyquist’s work further and extended to it the case of a channel
subject to random(that is, thermodynamic) noise (Shannon, 1948).
This paper is the most important paper in all of the information
theory.
Data rate governs the speed of data transmission. A very important
consideration in data communication is how fast we can send data,
in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends upon 3
factors:
The bandwidth available
1. The bandwidth available
2. Number of levels in digital signal
3. The quality of the channel – level of noise
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate:
one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon for a
noisy channel.

1. Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate:

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate
Nyquist proved that if an arbitrary signal has been run through a
low-pass filter of bandwidth, the filtered signal can be completely
reconstructed by making only 2*Bandwidth (exact) samples per
second. Sampling the line faster than 2*Bandwidth times per
second is pointless because the higher-frequency components that
such sampling could recover have already been filtered out. If the
signal consists of L discrete levels, Nyquist’s theorem states:

BitRate = 2 * Bandwidth * log 2(L) bits/sec

In the above equation, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,

L is the number of signal levels used to represent data, and BitRate
is the bit rate in bits per second.
Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed. Hence, the
data rate is directly proportional to the number of signal levels.
According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific
bandwidth, we can have any bit rate we want by increasing the
number of signal levels. Although the idea is theoretically correct,
practically there is a limit. When we increase the number of signal
levels, we impose a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels
in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0
and a 1. If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very
sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different levels. In other
words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the
system.
Note: Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of
the system.
Examples:

Input1: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz

transmitting a signal with two signal levels. What can be the maximum bit
rate?
Output1 : BitRate = 2 * 3000 * log 2(2) = 6000bps

Input2: We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a

bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Output2 : 265000 = 2 * 20000 * log 2(L)
log2(L) = 6.625
L = 26.625 = 98.7 levels
The amount of thermal noise present is measured by the ratio of
the signal power to the noise power, called the SNR (Signal-to-
Noise Ratio).
2. Noisy Channel Shannon Capacity:
In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is
always noisy. Shannon capacity is used, to determine the
theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:

Capacity = bandwidth * log 2(1 + SNR) bits/sec

In the above equation, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,

SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the
channel in bits per second. Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it
cannot be changed. Hence, the channel capacity is directly
proportional to the power of the signal, as SNR = (Power of signal) /
(power of noise).
Note that in the Shannon formula there is no indication of the
signal level, which means that no matter how many levels we have,
we cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity of the
channel. In other words, the formula defines a characteristic of the
channel, not the method of transmission.
The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is usually expressed in decibels (dB)
given by the formula:
10 * log10(S/N)
So for example a signal-to-noise ratio of 1000 is commonly
expressed as:
10 * log10(1000) = 30 dB.

This tells us the best capacities that real channels can have. For
example, ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line), which
provides Internet access over normal telephonic lines, uses a
bandwidth of around 1 MHz. the SNR depends strongly on the
distance of the home from the telephone exchange, and an SNR of
around 40 dB for short lines of 1 to 2km is very good. with these
characteristics, the channel can never transmit much more than
13Mbps, no matter how many or how few signals level are used
and no matter how often or how infrequently samples are taken.

Examples:

Input1 : A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz

(300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data communication. The SNR is
usually 3162. What will be the capacity for this channel?

Output1 : C = 3000 * log2(1 + SNR) = 3000 * 11.62 = 34860 bps

Input2 : The SNR is often given in decibels. Assume that SNR(dB)

is 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. Calculate the theoretical
channel capacity.

Output2 : SNR(dB) = 10 * log10(SNR)

SNR = 10(SNR(dB)/10)
SNR = 103.6 = 3981
Hence, C = 2 * 10 6 * log2(3982) = 24 MHz

The maximum data rate, also known as the channel capacity, is the
theoretical limit of the amount of information that can be
transmitted over a communication channel. The maximum data
rate for noiseless and noisy channels can be calculated using
Shannon’s theorem.
Noiseless Channel:
Advantages:
1. Maximum data rate is high

2. Error-free transmission
3. Low latency: Since there is no noise in the channel, the
transmission delay is very low. This means that data can be
transmitted quickly and in real-time.
4. High signal quality: A noiseless channel provides high signal
quality, which means that the data is transmitted with high
accuracy and without any distortion.
5. Suitable for critical applications: A noiseless channel is well-
suited for applications that require high reliability and precision,
such as in medical equipment, military communication, and
aerospace systems.
6. Easy to design and implement: Since a noiseless channel is a
theoretical concept, it is easy to design and simulate in a
controlled environment. This allows researchers to study the
theoretical limits of communication systems without having to
worry about practical limitations.
7. Useful for benchmarking: A noiseless channel is a useful
benchmark for evaluating the performance of communication
systems. By comparing the performance of real-world systems to
the theoretical limits of a noiseless channel, researchers can
identify areas where improvements can be made.

Disadvantages:
1. Not realistic as most channels have some degree of noise
2. Cost: Implementing a noiseless channel requires expensive
equipment and resources, making it impractical for many
applications.
3. Limited range: A noiseless channel has a limited range,
meaning that it cannot be used for long-distance
communication.
4. Vulnerability to interference: Although a noiseless channel is
free from external noise, it is still vulnerable to interference from
other sources such as electromagnetic radiation, which can
cause errors in transmission.
5. Lack of error correction: Since a noiseless channel is error-
free, it does not provide any error correction mechanism. This
means that any errors that do occur in transmission cannot be
detected or corrected, making the communication less reliable.
6. Incompatibility with existing systems: Most existing
communication systems are designed to operate in noisy
channels. A noiseless channel may not be compatible with these
systems, which would require significant changes to be made to
the infrastructure.
Noisy Channel:

Advantages:
1. More realistic as most channels have some degree of noise

2. Techniques like error correction can be used to improve

transmission reliability
3. Longer range: Unlike a noiseless channel, a noisy channel can
be used for long-distance communication as it can propagate
signals over large distances.
4. Greater flexibility: A noisy channel can be used for a wide
range of applications, from simple voice communication to high-
speed data transfer.
5. Lower cost: Since most communication channels are noisy,
using a noisy channel is generally more cost-effective than
implementing a noiseless channel.
6. Better security: Noise in a channel can help to obscure the
transmitted signal, making it more difficult for unauthorized
users to intercept and decode the signal.
7. Higher capacity: A noisy channel can support higher data rates
than a noiseless channel by using advanced modulation schemes
and error correction techniques. This makes it possible to
transmit more data over the same channel bandwidth.
8. Adaptable: Communication systems using a noisy channel can
be designed to adapt to changing conditions, such as variations
 in signal strength or interference levels. This makes them more
reliable and adaptable in dynamic environments.

Disadvantages:
1. Maximum data rate is lower than in noiseless channels

2. Higher probability of errors in transmission

3. In a noisy channel, the maximum data rate is lower than in a

noiseless channel due to the presence of noise. The presence of
noise limits the maximum amount of information that can be
transmitted over the channel.
4. Increased complexity: In a noisy channel, additional
techniques such as error correction and signal processing are
required to ensure reliable transmission. This adds complexity to
the system design and can increase the cost of implementation.
5. Limited range: The presence of noise in a channel can limit the
range of the communication, particularly in wireless systems,
where interference from other sources can also affect the quality
of the signal.
6. Interference: Noise can come from many sources, including
other electronic devices and environmental factors such as
weather conditions, which can interfere with the transmission
and degrade the quality of the signal.
7. egraded signal quality: The presence of noise in a channel
can cause distortion in the signal, resulting in a loss of signal
quality and clarity. This can make it difficult to distinguish
between different data values, leading to errors in transmission.
8. Security issues: The presence of noise can make it easier for
unauthorized users to intercept and decode the signal, leading to
potential security issues such as data theft or unauthorized
access to sensitive information.
Advances in digital signal processing and error correction
techniques have allowed for the development of more
sophisticated modulation and encoding schemes that can increase
the maximum data rate of noisy channels. However, these
techniques can also increase the complexity and cost of the
communication system.
Noiseless channels have a higher maximum data rate and provide
error-free transmission. However, they are not realistic as most
channels have some degree of noise. Noisy channels have a lower
maximum data rate but are more realistic, and techniques like
error correction can be used to improve transmission reliability.
The choice of channel type depends on the specific needs of the
communication system.

Data Transmission:

Data transmission is sending and receiving digital or analog data

between devices. This can be achieved through different mediums,
such as cables, optical fibers, or wireless signals. In our daily lives,
data transmission is essential, whether sending and receiving
emails, answering phone calls, or watching our favorite TV shows.
While in business, video conferencing, sending inquiries to e-
commerce sites, and streaming services enable global engagement
from one device to another.

Data transmission is how computers and other devices send

information to each other. There are two main ways to do this
Serial and Parallel Transmission. In Serial Transmission, data is
sent one bit at a time like sending a single line of people through a
door. In Parallel Transmission data is sent in groups of 8 bits
called a byte at once like sending 8 people through a door side by
side. Both methods help devices talk to each other but they work
differently. Parallel is faster but more complex while Serial is
simpler but can be slower.

Data transmission involves at least two or more digital devices

communicating over a network, and requires a few key
components:

Sender. The device that starts the transmission of data.

Receiver. The device that receives the data sent by the sender.

Message or data. This is the information transmitted from one

device to another, including text, images, audio, video, or any
other form of content.
Medium. The physical path or channel through which data is
transmitted, such as an optical cable or wireless transmission.

Protocol. A set of rules governing the format, timing, and

sequencing of data transmission.

Different factors in data transmission based upon

The direction of information. This indicates how the flow of

information is transmitted. There are three main categories—
simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex—which we’ll explore further in
the next section.

The level of synchronization. This refers to the degree of

syncing between the sender and the receiver. Data transmission
modes can be categorized as either synchronous or asynchronous.

The number of bits sent. This number pertains to the bits

transmitted concurrently throughout the network. This
categorization includes two main types—serial and parallel.

Data Transmission

Parallel Serial

Asynchro Synchron Isochrono

nous ous us

Parallel Transmission
Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups
of n bits each. Computers produce and consume data in groups of
bits much as we conceive of and use spoken language in the form
of words rather than letters. By grouping, we can send data n bits
at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel transmission. The
mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one:
Use n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit has its
own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each
clock tick from one device to another. Figure 4.32 shows how
parallel transmission works for n = 8. Typically, the eight wires are
bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.

The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being

equal, parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a
factor of n over serial transmission. But there is a significant
disadvantage: cost. Parallel transmission requires n communication
lines (wires in the example) just to transmit the data stream.
Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to
short distances

Serial Transmission

In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one

communication channel rather than n to transmit data between two
communicating devices (see Figure 4.33).
The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only
one communication channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of
transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n. Since
communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are
required at the interface between the sender and the line (parallel-
to-serial) and between the line and the receiver (serial-to-parallel).
Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous,
synchronous, and isochronous.

What is Synchronous Transmission?

In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in the form of blocks or

frames. This transmission is the full-duplex type. Between sender
and receiver, synchronization is compulsory. In Synchronous
transmission, There is no time gap present between data. It is more
efficient and more reliable than asynchronous transmission to
transfer a large amount of data.

Both the sender and receiver are synchronized with a common

clock signal. This means they operate at the same speed and know
exactly when to send and receive data. Data is sent in a continuous
stream, with each byte or chunk of data following the previous one
without any gaps. It’s efficient for sending large amounts of data
quickly because there’s less overhead (extra bits) needed to start
and stop the transmission.

Example:Chat Rooms ,Telephonic Conversations ,Video

Conferencing

What is Asynchronous Transmission?

In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or
character. This transmission is the half-duplex type transmission. In
this transmission start bits and stop bits are added with data. It
does not require synchronization. Asynchronous transmission is like
sending individual text messages without knowing exactly when
the other person will read them.

The sender and receiver do not share a common clock signal.

Instead, data is sent one byte or character at a time, with start and
stop bits indicating the beginning and end of each byte. Each piece
of data is sent independently, with gaps in between, allowing the
receiver to process each byte as it arrives. It’s flexible and simpler
to implement, especially useful for communications where data is
sent intermittently.

Example: Email ,Forums ,Letters.

(Another Definition of Synchronous Transmission and

Asynchronous Transmission )

Asynchronous Transmission

Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a

signal is unimportant. Instead, information is received and
translated by agreed upon patterns. As long as those patterns are
followed, the receiving device can retrieve the information without
regard to the rhythm in which it is sent. Patterns are based on
grouping the bit stream into bytes. Each group, usually 8 bits, is
sent along the link as a unit. The sending system handles each
group independently, relaying it to the link whenever ready,
without regard to a timer. Without synchronization, the receiver
cannot use timing to predict when the next group will arrive. To
alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra
bit is added to the beginning of each byte. This bit, usually a 0, is
called the start bit. To let the receiver know that the byte is
finished, 1 or more additional bits are appended to the end of the
byte. These bits, usually 1s, are called stop bits. By this method,
each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of which 8 bits is
information and 2 bits or more are signals to the receiver. In
addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a
gap of varying duration. This gap can be represented either by an
idle channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.

In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s)
at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between bytes

The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the
beginning and end of each byte and allow it to synchronize with the
data stream. This mechanism is called asynchronous because, at
the byte level, the sender and receiver do not have to be
synchronized. But within each byte, the receiver must still be
synchronized with the incoming bit stream. That is, some
synchronization is required, but only for the duration of a single
byte. The receiving device resynchronizes at the onset of each new
byte. When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a timer and
begins counting bits as they come in. After n bits, the receiver
looks for a stop bit. As soon as it detects the stop bit, it waits until
it detects the next start bit.
Asynchronous here means “asynchronous at the byte level,” but the bits are still synchronized;
their durations are the same

Figure 4.34 is a schematic illustration of asynchronous

transmission. In this example, the start bits are 0s, the stop bits are
1s, and the gap is represented by an idle line rather than by
additional stop bits. The addition of stop and start bits and the
insertion of gaps into the bit stream make asynchronous
transmission slower than forms of transmission that can operate
without the addition of control information. But it is cheap and
effective, two advantages that make it an attractive choice for
situations such as low-speed communication. For example, the
connection of a keyboard to a computer is a natural application for
asynchronous transmission. A user types only one character at a
time, types extremely slowly in data processing terms, and leaves
unpredictable gaps of time between characters.
Synchronous Transmission

In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into

longer “frames,” which may contain multiple bytes. Each byte,
however, is introduced onto the transmission link without a gap
between it and the next one. It is left to the receiver to separate
the bit stream into bytes for decoding purposes. In other words,
data are transmitted as an unbroken string of 1s and 0s, and the
receiver separates that string into the bytes, or characters, it needs
to reconstruct the information.

In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps. It is
the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.

Figure 4.35 gives a schematic illustration of synchronous

transmission. We have drawn in the divisions between bytes. In
reality, those divisions do not exist; the sender puts its data onto
the line as one long string. If the sender wishes to send data in
separate bursts, the gaps between bursts must be filled with a
special sequence of 0s and 1s that means idle. The receiver counts
the bits as they arrive and groups them in 8-bit units. Without gaps
and start and stop bits, there is no built-in mechanism to help the
receiving device adjust its bit synchronization midstream. Timing
becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the
received information is completely dependent on the ability of the
receiving device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they come
in.
Isochronous

In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between

frames are not acceptable, synchronous transmission fails. For
example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per
second; they must be viewed at the same rate. If each image is
sent by using one or more frames, there should be no delays
between frames. For this type of application, synchronization
between characters is not enough; the entire stream of bits must
be synchronized. The isochronous transmission guarantees that the
data arrive at a fixed rate

Difference Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission

Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

In Synchronous transmission, data is sent in In Asynchronous transmission, data is sent in form

form of blocks or frames. of bytes or characters.

Synchronous transmission is fast. Asynchronous transmission is slow.

Synchronous transmission is costly. Asynchronous transmission is economical.

In Synchronous transmission, the time interval In Asynchronous transmission, the time interval of
of transmission is constant. transmission is not constant, it is random.
Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

In this transmission, users have to wait till the Here, users do not have to wait for the completion
transmission is complete before getting a of transmission in order to get a response from the
response back from the server. server.

In Synchronous transmission, there is no gap In Asynchronous transmission, there is a gap

present between data. present between data.

While in Asynchronous transmission, the

Efficient use of transmission lines is done in
transmission line remains empty during a gap in
synchronous transmission.
character transmission.

The start and stop bits are not used in The start and stop bits are used in transmitting
transmitting data. data that imposes extra overhead.

Synchronous transmission needs precisely Asynchronous transmission does not need

synchronized clocks for the information of synchronized clocks as parity bit is used in this
new bytes. transmission for information of new bytes.

Errors are detected and corrected when the data is

Errors are detected and corrected in real time.
received.

High latency due to processing time and waiting

Low latency due to real-time communication.
for data to become available.

Examples: Telephonic conversations, Video

Examples: Email, File transfer,Online forms.
conferencing, Online gaming.