METEOROLOGY

(Temperature lapse rate & stability, wind velocity & turbulence, plume behaviour, measurement of
Module 2
meteorological variables, wind rose diagrams, plume rise, estimation of effective stack height and mixing
depths. Development of air quality models – Gaussian dispersion model)

2.1 Structure of the atmosphere

The gaseous layer surrounding the earth up to a height of about 700km is called atmosphere. As we go
higher and higher, the characteristics and composition of the atmosphere changes. On the basis of altitude,
the atmosphere is divided into 4 important spheres and 3 pauses. They are 1. Troposphere with tropopause
2. Stratosphere with stratopause 3. Mesosphere with mesopause and Ionosphere or thermosphere. The
different zones of the atmosphere with variations in temperature and pressure are shown in figures below.

Troposphere: this is the lowest gaseous layer of the atmosphere and extends to a height about 10 to 20km
from the earth’s surface. It contains nearly 2/3rd mass of the atmosphere and this is the zone of rapid
weather changes and clouds. In this region, temperature decreases with increase in altitude. The higher we
go, cooler it is.
Tropopause joins the troposphere with the upper stratosphere.
Stratosphere: it is a 30km thick layer that lies above the tropopause. This layer is free from violent weather
changes. In the stratosphere, temperature rises as the altitude increases. This is due to the presence of ozone
layer at a height of 25-30km above the earth’s surface. Ozone absorbs the UV radiation from the sun and
converts it into heat and chemical energy. Due to this temperature rises significantly.
Stratopause joins the stratosphere with the upper mesopause.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 1
Mesosphere: it is a relatively quite region where few energy releasing reactions occur. Here again the
temperature decreases with the altitude. This layer and zones above have no significance in the air pollution
studies.
Ionosphere: it is also known as thermosphere because of the very high temperatures – as much as 870 ºC
to 1430 ºC. almost all the atoms in this region are ionised. Large number of free electrons flash about in this
area. It is the highest and vastest zone of the atmosphere starting from 115km above the earth up to 700km.
The region above 700km is termed as exosphere and as yet very little known about it. It is believed to be a
low-density, high temperature region.

2.2 Meteorology and Air Pollution

Air pollutants emitted from a source must first be transported and diluted in the atmosphere before these
undergo various physical, photochemical transformations and at last reach their receptors. Otherwise, the
pollutant concentrations reach dangerous levels near the source of emission. Hence, it is important that to
understand the natural processes that are responsible for their dispersion. Effective dispersion of pollutants
in the atmosphere depends primarily on the degree of stability of the atmosphere and on its turbulent
structure. In the broadest sense, dispersion is controlled by meteorological conditions prevailing in the
atmosphere. Thus, even if the emissions are same in different places, it is the weather that can lead it to an
air pollution episode in a place.
The important meteorological parameters that influence air pollution can be classified into primary and
secondary parameters.
Primary parameters are,
1. Wind direction, speed and turbulence
2. Temperature
3. Atmospheric stability
4. Mixing height

Secondary parameters are,

1. Precipitation
2. Humidity
3. Solar radiation
4. Visibility

2.2.1 Wind Direction, Speed and Turbulence

The moving air is known as wind. Such a movement in the air is caused by the unequal distribution of
atmospheric temperature and pressure over the earth’s surface and is largely influenced by the rotation of
the earth. The direction of winds is always from higher pressure areas to low pressure areas. Regional and
local, geographical and topographical features may also affect the direction and speed of the winds.
The direction and speed of the surface winds govern the drift and diffusion of air pollutants discharged
near the ground level. The higher the wind speed at or near the point of discharge of pollution, the more
rapidly are the pollutants carried far away from the source. The pollutants so dispersed will not exist at the
same concentration but will rapidly be diluted with greater and greater volumes of air. On the other hand,
when wind speeds are low, pollutants tend to be concentrated near the area of discharge and longer the
periods of such light winds, greater will be the concentration of pollutants.
Differential solar heating of the earth’s surface produces pressure and temperature gradients. As a result, the
atmosphere is practically in continuous motion with air movement, being always turbulent. The motion of
the air near the earth’s surface is retarded by friction which varies with surface roughness. Again this adds
up some amount of the turbulence in it. This friction can affect the wind up to 1 km above the surface (in
planetary boundary layer).

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 2
It is also influenced by time of the day. During the day time, solar heating causes thermal turbulence, it
sets up convective currents because of which turbulent mixing is increased. This results in a steeper
velocity profile in the day than that at night. The typical velocity profiles are shown in the figure. Thermal
turbulence also depends upon the thermal stability of the atmosphere. It is maximum on a clear sunny day
in the afternoon and minimum at night or in the early morning.

The second type of turbulence is the mechanical turbulence which is produced by shearing stress
generated by air movement over the earth’s surface – the greater the surface roughness, the greater will be
the turbulence. The effect of terrain on the wind velocity profiles is shown in the figure. For smooth
surfaces, the air velocity profile becomes very steep near the ground. For rougher surfaces such as those in
urban areas, more mechanical turbulence is generated and the velocity profile becomes less steep and
reaches deeper into the atmosphere.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 3
2.2.2 Temperature Lapse Rate and Atmospheric Stability
In the troposphere, the temperature of the ambient (surrounding) air normally decreases with an increase in
the altitude (height). This rate of change of temperature with altitude is called Lapse rate. This rate will
differ from place to place, and from time to time even at the same place.
“The normal rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and
location is called as Environmental Lapse rate (ELR) (Normal or natural)”. That is the natural change in
temperature of the local environment at different heights. In the troposphere, the value of normal or
environmental Lapse rate is averaged to about 6.5 ºC/km.
Under normal environmental conditions, when a parcel of air which is hotter and lighter than the
surrounding air is released, then naturally it tends to rise up, until of course, it reaches to a level at which its
own temperature and density becomes equal to that of surrounding air. Hence, when a pocket of artificially
heated air (eg. from an industrial stack) is emitted in the environment, it rises up and expands in the broad
atmosphere and gets cooled without exchange of heat. The rate at which temperature of this parcel of air
decreases is somewhat different from natural lapse rate. This internal decrease of temperature with height
which occurs in the rising parcel of air, can be theoretically calculated, by assuming the cooling process to be
adiabatic. In other words, as the air parcel moves up its temperature decreases as its own heat energy is
expanded due to increase in the volume of air parcel as shown in figure. This rate of decrease of
temperature with height is called adiabatic lapse rate (ALR). “Adiabatic lapse rate is the rate of change of
temperature of an air parcel as it moves upwards through the atmosphere rapidly”.
−dT
Mathematically, γ =
dz

If the dry air is expanding and cooling adiabatically (normally cools @ 9.8 ºC/km), it is called as the Dry
adiabatic lapse rate (DALR). In saturated (wet) air, this rate is calculated to be 6 ºC/km, and is known as
Wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR).
On a comparison, depending upon the relative positions of the ELR and DALR lines on the graph sheet,
the stability of the environment is determined.
a) When ELR is greater than the DALR (For example, from the below figure, the ELR is 15 ºC/km and
DALR is 8 ºC/km), the lapse rate of the local atmosphere is said to be Super adiabatic lapse rate
(SALR). On a clear sunny day, rapid heating of the earth by the sun warms the air near the surface, to
the point where lapse rate is super adiabatic. Under this condition the atmosphere is said to be in
unstable equilibrium, and vertical mixing of the air results. This is a condition in which pollutants are
dispersed rapidly.
b) In reverse case, when ELR is less than the ALR, as shown in below figure, the environment is said to be
stable, and this lapse rate of the local atmosphere is called as Sub-adiabatic lapse rate.
c) The third case would be the one, when ELR equals the ALR, and both the lines coincide. The
environment in such a case is said Neutral (may be 1 ºC/km).

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 4
 Lapse- Gradual change
Adiabatic – A process occurring without the addition of outside heat or loss of its own internal
heat. (Not by exchanging)
Rapid condition means that the air parcel moves fast enough that there is no considerable
exchange of heat with the surrounding air.
The change in temperature is due to the fact that as you move upwards through the atmosphere,
the atmospheric pressure decreases, causing the air parcel to expand. Since this expansion is
adiabatic, the wok required for expansion is taken from the internal energy of the air parcel,
causing it to cool down.

Negative lapse rate or Inversion

In an unusual case, when the temperature of the environment (i.e., ambient air) increases with altitude, then
the lapse rate becomes inverted or negative from its normal state. Negative lapse rate curve would be of the
type as shown in the below figure.
When the reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, a cold layer of the air at ground level gets covered by a
warmer air layer at higher levels.
“A phenomenon in the atmosphere, when the reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, in which a dense cold
stratum of the air at ground level gets covered by a lighter warmer air at higher level is known as inversion.”
During inversion, vertical air movement is stopped and the pollutants will be concentrated beneath the
inversion layer (i.e. the dispersion of pollutants is retarded). This condition of the atmosphere is said to be
stable as very little turbulence or mixing takes place. Inversion is a frequent occurrence in the autumn and
winter months.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 5
 During the inversion, the accumulation of smoke and other contaminants further increases the pollution
level by preventing the sun’s rays from warming the ground and the adjacent air. Fog is commonly
associated with inversions. At the time of inversions, visibility is greatly reduced and contaminants are at
a maximum.

Inversions may be of the following types,

1) Radiation inversion
2) Subsidence inversion
3) Double inversion

Radiation inversion
This type of inversion usually occurs in the night as the earth loses its heat and cools the air layer which is in
contact with it. After sunset, the ground is cooled by losing its heat by radiation, thus the air in contact
with it cools down. Then the cool air stratum is covered by the warmer air layer restricting the vertical
movement of the air. This formation will continue until the sun warms the lower air, next morning. If the air
is moist and its temperature is below the dew point, fog will be formed.

Radiation inversion is more common in the winter season than in summer, because of longer nights. In the
valley area, this type of inversion occurs more frequently because of restriction in the horizontal air
movement by high level ground in the surrounding. In India, because of intense solar heating of the ground,
inversions are broken within few hours after sunrise. However, simultaneous occurrence of fog or mist
increases the duration of inversion by blocking the sunlight reaching the ground.

Subsidence inversion
It is one of the most common types which occurs at modest altitudes and often remains for several days. It
is caused by sinking or subsiding of air in anticyclones (high pressure areas surrounded by low pressure
areas). The air circulating around the area descends slowly at the rate of about 1000m per day. As the air
sinks, it is compressed and gets heated to form a warm layer hotter than the air present at ground level. This
acts as a lid which stops the upward movement of contaminants. The inversion height may vary from
ground surface to 1600m. When this drops to less than 200m, extreme pollution occurs.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 6
Double inversion
Radiation and subsidence inversions both may occur simultaneously, some times. Such a phenomenon is
known as double inversion.

2.2.3 Mixing Height or Maximum Mixing Depth (MMD)

The fourth primary meteorological parameter is the mixing height.
It is defined as, that height above the earth’s surface to which pollutants will rise in the atmosphere,
primarily by the action of atmospheric turbulence. It is importantly dependent upon the three factors: wind

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 7
direction, wind speed and wind turbulence. The vertical extent to which the mixing takes place varies
diurnally (from day to day), seasonally (from season to season), and it is also affected by topographical
features. The greater the vertical extent, larger will be the volume of atmosphere available to dilute the
pollutants.
In practice, MMD is determined with the help of temperature profile of the actual atmosphere for several
kilometres above the earth’s surface. Mean MMD value for a location is found for period of 1 month. The
values of the MMD are usually lower at night and higher during the day time. If inversion occurs at ground
level then MMD value will be zero. And in the day time, the MMD values may vary from 2000m to 5000m.
On a seasonal basis, the average MMD will be minimum in winter season and maximum in the summer
season.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 8
2.2.4 Precipitation
Rainfall or precipitation has a two-fold cleansing action on the pollutants discharged into the atmosphere. It
accelerates removal of the particulate matter from the atmosphere and hence its deposition on the ground.
It also helps to remove the concentration of the gaseous pollutants which are soluble in water. The washout
of air-borne radioactive wastes by precipitation is a matter of particular concern.

2.2.5 Humidity
Humidity is a measure of water vapour in the atmosphere. The moisture content of the atmosphere
influences the corrosive action of the air pollutants. If the air is moist and its temperature is below the dew
point, fog will be formed and visibility is reduced. Moisture indicates the potentiality for fog formation. The
relative humidity is most frequently used in air pollution studies.

2.2.6 Solar radiation

The solar radiation has a pronounced effect on the type and rate of chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Earth’s surface is the prime absorber of solar heat energy. Thus the air stratum near to the earth gets
warmed by the transfer of heat energy. And it leads to temperature variations with the altitude which has a
great influence on the dilution and dispersion of the pollutants once they are released.

2.2.7 Visibility
Just as the weather affects the severity of air pollution, air pollution may in turn affect the weather
conditions. Air pollution may influence the weather in several ways. Once the fog is formed, the incoming
solar radiation may be decreased and the pollutants will be concentrated. The visibility is greatly reduced.
Therefore duration of the fog and its frequency will be increased.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 9
Plume behaviour
Plume is defined as the path taken by continuous discharge of gaseous pollutants emitted from a stack or
chimney. The behavior of the plume emitted from any stack depends on local air stability. The different
forms are generally seen at lower atmosphere (<300m above ground). The shape of the path or
concentration distribution of the plumes depends upon diurnal (day-to-day) and seasonal (season to season)
variations in the atmospheric stability.

The behavior or travel of air pollutants in the atmosphere once they are released is very important
aspect to understand the atmospheric stability and to design the industrial stack heights. Diffusion of
pollutants into the atmosphere is governed by ELR as well as ALR. By comparing these two lapse
rates, it is possible to predict as to what will happen to gases emitted from a stack. Once they are
emitted, how do they travel in the atmosphere, in what direction, what will be the shape of their path
of travel, this all depends upon stability of the atmosphere, wind direction, wind speed and
turbulence.

Seven types of plumes are usually detected in the different environmental conditions, characterized by
different relative positions of ELR and ALR lines, are explained below. The spread of the plume is directly
related to the vertical temperature gradient as shown on the left hand side of the figure.
1) Looping plume: This is the common type of plume behavior which occurs under super adiabatic lapse
rate (SALR) (when ELR>ALR) conditions with turbulent air in warm seasons with clear skies. The
plume has wave type behavior since it occurs in a highly unstable atmosphere. High turbulence helps in
rapid dispersion of the plume, but high concentrations may occur near the stack if the plume touches
the ground.
2) Neutral plume: It is the upward vertical rise of the plume from the stack as shown in figure, which
occurs when the ELR is equal to or very near to ALR, and under light winds and clear skies. The
upward lifting of the plume will continue till it reaches an air of density similar to that of the plume
itself.
3) Coning plume: It is a type of plume which is shaped like a cone (roughly 10⁰ with a horizontal axis).
This occurs when wind velocity is greater than 32km/h, under sub-adiabatic or slightly stable (or say
near neutral atmosphere) conditions. This occurs under wet and cloudy climate. There is limited vertical
mixing, thereby increasing the probability of air pollution in the area. However the plume reaches the
ground at greater distance from the stack as compared to looping.
4) Fanning plume: A fanning plume occurs under a large inversion condition, in the presence of light
winds with very little turbulence. This usually occurs at night and in the early morning condition when
earth is cooled by outgoing radiations. This type of plume may appear as a narrow horizontal fan
without any vertical spreading for several kilometers downwind. In some cases, If the plume is extremely
hot, it rises vertically a little and then drifts horizontally. The dispersion of the plume is very slow.
5) Lofting: Lofting occurs when there is a strong SALR above a surface inversion. In such conditions,
downward motion and mixing is prevented by surface inversion, thus the plume is rapidly dispersed in
the upward direction. Lofting occurs in the evening time with clear skies and under moderate winds. In
these conditions, emission will not reach the ground surface, thus lofting is a favourable plume.
6) Fumigation: when an inversion layer occurs above the top of the stack, and super adiabatic conditions
exist below the stack, then plume is said to be fumigating. In such a case, the plume will not escape
above the stack because of presence of inversion layer, but it will be brought down to the ground
surface. This represents quite a bad case of atmospheric conditions for dispersion. Fumigation occurs
usually under clear skies and light winds in the morning times of summer season.
7) Trapping plume: This is achieved when the plume is caught between two inversion layers. Hence the
emitted plume neither can go up nor down and will be trapped in between. It occurs in a stable

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 10
 atmosphere, both above and below the stack height, with unstable atmosphere trapped in between both.
It may occur at any time of the day in any season.

Plume rise and Height of the stack

The dilution of pollutants from heighted stacks is considered to occur in two stages, namely, plume rise
and dispersion. In the first stage, the hot plume from the stacks goes up to a certain height above stack
exit due to buoyancy and momentum. Subsequently in second stage, the plume spreads both vertically
and horizontally by the dispersion process. The second stage is described by the mathematics of
diffusion.
The height of the stack and the plume rise play a major role in the ground level concentrations
expected on the downwind side. The plume rise typically increases the H by a factor of 2 to 10 times
and can reduce maximum ground level concentration of pollutants by a factor of as much as 100.
Because of momentum and buoyancy, the plume released from the stack rises vertically up to a certain
height and then gets dispersed by the wind. This height is called as the plume rise (∆h).

Total plume rise (∆h) = ∆hbuoyancy + ∆hmomentum

The height of the stack is an important factor in determining the level of pollution at a given location. The
effective height of the stack (H) is the sum total of actual height (h) of the stack and plume rise (∆h) as
shown in the figure.
The plume rise ∆h depends upon many factors such as stack gas exit velocity, wind speed, diameter of stack,
temperature of plume, lapse rate in the area etc. the several empirical formulae are there to predict it.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 11
(i) General equation
In general, plume rise can be given by,
𝑸𝜶𝑯
∆𝒉 = 𝑲 𝜷
𝒖
Where, QH = heat emission rate
u = average wind velocity
α, β and K are constants, and according to Canadian combustion research laboratory formula of the above
form, their values be α=0.25, β=1 and K=66.4 when Q is expressed in kcal/s and u in m/s.

(ii) Moses and Carson’s equation

𝟏⁄
𝑽𝒔 ∙ 𝒅 𝑸 𝟐
∆𝒉 = 𝑪𝟏 ∙ + 𝑪𝟐 ∙ 𝑯
𝒖 𝒖

Where, Vs = Stack gas exit velocity (m/s)

u = wind speed (m/s)
d = diameter of the stack (m)
QH = heat emission rate (kcal/s)
C1 and C2 = plume rise regression coefficients which depend on atmospheric stability
As per the above equations, ∆h is inversely proportional to wind speed u, in the sense, higher the wind
speed lower will be the plume rise, and ∆h is directly proportional with stack gas velocity and heat
release, in the sense, higher the stack gas velocity and its temperature higher will be the plume rise.

(iii) Holland’s equation

𝑽𝒔 ∙ 𝒅 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒂
∆𝒉 = [𝟏. 𝟓 + (𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) ∙ 𝒑 ∙ 𝒅 ( )]
𝒖 𝑻𝒔
Where, p = atmospheric pressure in millibars (mbars)
Ts = stack gas temperature (K)
Ta = air temperature (K)
This equation is applicable for neutral conditions.
For unstable conditions, the above value of ∆h should be increased by 10 – 20%.
For stable conditions, ∆h should be decreased by 20-10%.

(iv) Davidson and Bryant’s equation

𝑽𝒔 𝟏.𝟒 𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻𝒂
∆𝒉 = 𝒅 ∙ ( ) (𝟏 + )
𝒖 𝑻𝒔

(v) Brigg’s formulae recommended by ISI

The bureau of Indian standards has suggested the use of Brigg’s formulae (IS: 8829-1978).
a) For hot effluents (with heat release of order of 106 cal/s or more)
𝟏⁄
𝑸𝑯 𝟒
(
∆𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝒉 )
𝒖
Where, QH = heat emission rate (cal/s)
h = height of the stack (m)
u = wind speed (m/s)
b) For not very hot releases (momentum is only the dominant factor here)
𝟑 ∙ 𝑽𝟎 ∙ 𝒅
∆𝒉 =
𝒖

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 12
 Where, Vo is afflux velocity (m/s)

Design of stack height

The basic function of a stack is to provide natural draft for the gases released from combustion process.
Stacks are designed to fulfill two additional requirements (i) that the pollutants should be sufficiently
dispersed and (ii) that the smoke should not re-enter the industrial plant under adverse wind conditions.
The ratio of stack gas exit velocity to wind velocity (V s/u) should be greater than 1.5 to allow the effluent to
get exit cleanly from the stack. For design purposes, maximum local wind velocities should be determined
and stack gas exit velocities should be set according to that in proportions.
Higher the stack gas velocity higher will be the plume rise. Thus, to obtain same H, one can reduce h and
increase ∆h keeping higher exit velocities. This may reduce the initial cost for installment of stack. But to
maintain such higher velocities, high capacity blowers are needed, that increases the running costs. And also
if any buildings are present near to the stack, it may cause mechanical turbulence and may bring down all the
pollutants. Hence the stack height should be at least 2 – 2.5 times the height of the surrounding building.
The diameter of the stack at exit end can be determined on the basics of stack gas flow rate and on the exit
velocity required.

If h is more, H will also be more and better dispersion is possible. Smaller stacks may lead to higher ground
level concentrations. The maximum concentration is usually inversely proportional to the square of the
effective stack height. Central pollution control board (CPCB) has given the following recommendations for
the minimum height of the chimney.

a) For chimney emitting particulate matter

hmin = 74 (Qp)0.27
where Qp is the PM emission rate (tones/hour)

b) For chimney emitting SO2

hmin = 14 (Qs)1/3
where Qs is the SO2 emission rate (kg/hour)

In India, the concentrations of other gases like NOx, HC, CO etc. are generally very much less than the
concentration of SO2 and PM from various industries. Hence, CPCB has made only SO 2 and PM as the
criterion for the design.

c) Minimum values
For any industry (except thermal power plants): hmin = 30m
For thermal power plants of 200MW-500MW capacity: hmin = 220m
For thermal power plants above 500MW capacity: hmin = 275m

Problem 2.1: Determine the effective height of a stack, with the following given data:
Physical stack is 180m tall with 0.95m inside diameter, wind velocity is 2.75m/s, air temperature is
20⁰C, barometric pressure is 1000mbars, stack gas velocity is 11.12m/s, stack gas temperature is
160⁰C.
Soln: Given h= 180m, D=0.95m, u=2.75m/s, Ta=20⁰C=20+273=293 K.
p=1000mbars, Vs=11.12m/s, Ts= 160⁰C=160+273=433 K.

𝑉𝑠 ∙ 𝑑 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
∆ℎ = [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 ) ∙ 𝑝 ∙ 𝑑 ( )]
𝑢 𝑇𝑠

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 13
 11.12×0.95 433−293
∆ℎ = [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 × 1000 × 0.95 ( )]
2.75 433

∆ℎ = 8.92𝑚

Effective height of the stack H = h + ∆h

H = 180+8.92 = 188.92m

Problem 2.2: An industry burns 0.3Ml of oil fuel per month. The quantities of various pollutants
emitted are given as: PM = 2.9t/Ml/yr, SO2 = 60t/Ml/yr, NOx = 8t/ML/yr, HC = 0.4t/Ml/yr, CO =
0.5t/Ml/yr. Calculate the height of the chimney required to be provided for safe dispersion of the
pollutants.
Soln:
Industry is burning the oil 0.3Ml/month.
Fuel burnt per year 0.3 × 12𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑠 = 3.6 Ml

PM that may be emitted if 1Ml/yr oil is burnt = 2.9tonnes,

10.44
Then Qp (for burning 3.6Ml/yr) = 3.6 × 2.9 = 10.44 𝑡⁄𝑦𝑟 = 300×24 = 1.45 × 10−3 𝑡/ℎ𝑟
(Assuming 300 working days)

SO2 that may be emitted if 1Ml/yr oil is burnt = 60tonnes,

216×1000
Then Qs (for burning 3.6Ml/yr) = 3.6 × 60 = 216 𝑡⁄𝑦𝑟 = 300×24 = 30𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟

a) Height of the chimney on the basis of PM emission

hmin = 74 (Qp)0.27
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 74 × (1.45 × 10−3 )0.27
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 12.67𝑚

b) Height of the chimney on the basis of SO2 emission

hmin = 14 (Qs)1/3
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 14 × 301/3 = 43.45𝑚
Since 43.45m is more than minimum requirement (i.e., 30m)
h = 43.5m approx.

Problem 2.3: A thermal power plant daily burns 100tonnes of coal with 5.5% sulphur content.
Calculate minimum stack height required. The particulate concentration in flue gases is 8000mg/m 3
and the gas flow rate is 20m3/sec.
Soln:
Coal burnt = 100tonnes/day
Means Sulphur content of 100 tonnes coal is 5.5 tonnes/day

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
32𝑔𝑚 + (16𝑔𝑚 × 2) → 64𝑔𝑚

Since every 32gm of sulphur releases 64gm of SO2,

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 14
 11000
SO2 emission rate = 5.5 × 64⁄32 = 11𝑡/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 11000kg/day = = 458.33𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
24
64
{𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 (𝑆𝑂2 = 𝑆 × ) , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑢𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡}
32

Height of the chimney on the basis of SO2 emission,

hmin = 14 (Qs)1/3
hmin = 14 x 458.331/3 = 107.94m = 108m

Height of the chimney on the basis of PM emission,

PM concentration = 8000mg for 1m3 volume = 8 g/m3
Discharge rate is 20m3/s
PM emitted for 20m3/s discharge = 8 x 20 =160 g/s = 160 x 3600 = 576000 g/hr = 0.576t/hr

hmin = 74 (Qp)0.27
hmin = 74 x 0.5760.27
hmin = 63.76m

The minimum stack height to be provided is the maximum of 30m, 108m and 63.76m.
Thus, h = 108m

Air quality modeling

Pollutants emitted in to the atmosphere are mixed thoroughly with the surrounding air and diluted in
the atmosphere. This dispersion is primarily due to turbulent diffusion and bulk air flow with high
velocities. This understanding of dispersion theory of air pollutants is needed to know the
concentration of pollutants at any point in the atmosphere after they are discharged.
This quantitative information of the pollutants at any point is essential for installing the control
measures so that good air quality could be maintained.
Mathematical modeling – prediction of any parameter by using mathematical approach

“It is the mathematical simulation technique used to predict the dispersion and concentration of air
pollutants in the atmosphere.”
“Air pollution modeling is the term used to describe using mathematical theory to understand or predict the
way pollutants behave in the atmosphere.”
“It is the mathematical relationship between emissions and air quality that incorporates the transport,
dispersion and transformation of compounds emitted into the air”

Mathematical approach has been applied for understanding the dispersion of pollutants into the
atmosphere, and this dispersion is considered generally in three directions i.e., x, y and z.
For this, dispersion models are developed based on Fick’s law of molecular diffusion. Using such
mathematical relationships we can predict or determine the pollutant concentration at any distance in x, y
and z directions i.e., horizontal downwind direction, horizontal cross wind direction and vertical direction
respectively.
For continuous point source, the dispersion models are based on plume behavior, turbulent diffusion, wind
speed, amount of dilution etc. because the continuous emission of pollutants results in a plume which is
carried by the wind speed and spreads by the turbulence of wind.
Based on stability classification in the field of atmospheric diffusion the three well known models in use are,
1. Pasquill model

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 15
 2. ASME model (American society of mechanical engineers model)
3. McElroy model

The variety of existing models may be classified according to the different attributes of a model as,
1. Eulerian grid model
2. Lagrangian trajectory model
3. Gaussian plume model

Gaussian plume model

Consider a point source somewhere in the air where a pollutant is released at a constant rate Q (g/s).
The wind is blowing continuously in a direction x (measured in metres from the source) with a speed u
(m/s). The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction such that the local concentrations C(x,y,z) (g/m3 )
at any point in space form distributions which have shapes that are “Gaussian” or “normal” in planes
normal to the x direction. As it moves in the x direction, on the centre line of the plume, concentration will
be maximum, and it decreases because of lateral dispersion along y axis and z axis (on left side & right side
as well as upside & downside of the center line of plume). This type of curve is known as Gaussian curve
(shown in following figures).
The parameters σy and σz (m) are the standard deviations of these Gaussian distributions, which indicate the
spread of the plume in the y and z directions, respectively. They increase with the distance x from the
source.
This distribution measures y and z normally from the x-axis (the x-axis may also be considered to be the
direction of the centre-line of the plume.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 16
SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 17
SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 18
Gaussian developed following simple statistical equation to compute turbulent transport of plume,
1 𝑦 2 1 𝑧−𝐻 2 1 𝑧+𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
2 𝜎𝑦 − ( ) − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,𝑧 = ∙𝑒 ∙ [𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧 + 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧 ]
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
Cx,y,z = concentration of pollutant at any point (x,y,z) in space (g/m 3)
Q = pollutant emission rate (g/s)
u = wind speed at stack height (m/s)
H = effective stack height (m)

If only concentrations at ground level are required (for example in assessing the exposure of crops or
humans to the pollutant) then we can simplify the equation by setting z=0. This gives
1 𝑦 2 1 𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
2 𝜎𝑦 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0 = ∙𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

If only concentrations at ground level on the centre-line of the plume (along the x-axis direction) are
required then the equation is simplified further since both z=0 and y=0. This gives

1 𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

Using the basic equation, if we know the rate of emission from the source (Q), the prevailing wind speed
(U) and direction (x) and the height of the centre-line of the plume above ground (H), we can determine the
concentration (C) at any point (x,y,z). Values for σy and σz are obtained with respect to x value from the
graphs given below.

Maximum ground level concentration Cmax should be substantially below the requirement of the ambient
air quality standards and the stack height should be increased if this is not so.
𝐻
It should be noted that the maximum ground level concentration occurs where 𝜎𝑧 =
√2
σz / σy is constant with downwind distance x.
2𝑄 𝜎𝑧
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
∙
𝜋𝑢𝑒𝐻 𝜎𝑦

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 19
SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 20
Assumptions of Gaussian model
1. The plume has Gaussian distribution in both horizontal and vertical planes with σy and σz as the
standard deviations of the concentrations of the plume in crosswind and vertical directions
respectively.
2. u is the wind speed at the stack exit which uniform all the time.
3. Uniform and continuous emission of Q (g/s) of pollutants takes place.
4. Diffusion of pollutant in x direction is negligible compared to diffusion in cross-wind direction. This
is true if emission continuous and if wind speed is more than 1m/s.
5. Parameters governing the diffusion of pollutants do not change in space and time i.e., steady – state
conditions prevail.
6. The terrain underlying the plume is flat.

Limitations
1. It does not consider the various stability layers at different heights in the atmosphere.
2. It does not consider the change in stability with time.
3. It does not consider the terrain characteristics such as terrain roughness, existence of mountains,
valleys, distribution of lands and water masses.
4. It does not consider the strong wind shears like change of wind directions and wind speed.
5. It can be applied only for shorter distances and of shorter travel time.

Problem 2.4: A thermal power plant burns coal at the rate of 8tonnes per hour and discharges the flue
gases through a chimney having effective height of 90m. The coal has a sulphur content of 4.5%. The wind
velocity at stack exit is 7.5m/s. The atmospheric conditions are slightly unstable. Determine the maximum
ground level concentration of SO2 and the distance from the stack at which this occurs
Soln: Coal burnt per hour = 8tonnes= 8000kg
Sulphur content of 8tonnes coal = 8000 x 0.045= 360kg

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
32𝑔𝑚 + (16𝑔𝑚 × 2) → 64𝑔𝑚
64
𝑆𝑂2 = 𝑆 × = 360 x 64/32 = 720kg SO2 produced per hour
32
720 ×1000
Thus, SO2 emission rate = = 200𝑔/𝑠
3600

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 21
 𝐻
Maximum ground level concentration occurs at a point where 𝜎𝑧 = = 0.707H
√2
90
𝜎𝑧 = = 63.64𝑚
√2
For slightly unstable condition, we have stability class C.
From graph σz Vs x , for σz = 63.64m we can obtain xmax = 900m

From gragh σy Vs x , for x = 900m we can obtain σy = 100m for C class stability.

Now,
2𝑄 𝜎𝑧
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
∙
𝜋𝑢𝑒𝐻 𝜎𝑦
2 × 200 63.64
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
×
𝜋 × 7.5 × 2.7183 × 90 100

Cmax = 4.9 x 10-4 g/m3

Problem 2.5: A thermal power plant burns coal at the rate of 8tonnes per hour and discharges the flue
gases through a chimney having effective height of 90m. The coal has a sulphur content of 4.5%. The wind
velocity at stack exit is 7.5m/s. The atmospheric conditions are slightly unstable. Determine GLC at a
distance 2000m downwind at a) centre line of the plume and b) at a cross wind distance of 400m on either
side of the centre line.
Soln: Coal burnt per hour = 8tonnes= 8000kg
Sulphur content of 8tonnes coal = 8000 x 0.045= 360kg

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
32𝑔𝑚 + (16𝑔𝑚 × 2) → 64𝑔𝑚
64
𝑆𝑂2 = 𝑆 × 32 = 360 x 64/32 = 720kg SO2 produced per hour
720 ×1000
Thus, SO2 emission rate = = 200𝑔/𝑠
3600

we have x = 2000m
Then σz = 130m
σy = 210m for C class stability
a) GLC at a distance 2000m downwind at centre line of the plume
𝑄 1 𝐻 2
− ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
200 1 90 2
𝐶2000,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 −2(130 )
𝜋 × 7.5 × 130 × 210

𝐶2000,0,0 = 2.45 × 10−4 𝑔/𝑚3

b) GLC at a distance 2000m downwind and at a cross wind distance of 400m

2 2
1 𝑦 1 𝐻
𝑄 − ( )
2 𝜎𝑦 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0 = ∙𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 22
 200 1 400 2 1 90 2
𝐶2000,400,0 = ∙ 𝑒 −2(210) ∙ 𝑒 −2(130 )
𝜋 × 7.5 × 210 × 130

𝐶2000,400,0 = 0.4 × 10−4 𝑔/𝑚3

Problem 2.6: For the data given in above problem, compute the concentration at x = 1000m, y = 100m
and z = 20m.
Soln:
we have x = 1000m
Then σz = 68m
σy = 115m for C class stability
2 2 2
1 𝑦 1 𝑧−𝐻 1 𝑧+𝐻
𝑄 − ( ) − ( ) − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,𝑧 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑦 ∙ [𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧 + 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧 ]
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

200 1 100 2 1 20−90 2 1 20+90 2

− ( ) − ( )
+ 𝑒 2 68 ) ]
− (
𝐶1000,100,20 = ∙ 𝑒 2 115 [𝑒 2 68
2𝜋 × 7.5 × 115 × 68

𝐶1000,100,20 = 0.59 × 10−4 𝑔/𝑚3

Problem 2.7: Find the effective stack height if a 40m stack releases SPM at a rate of 1.25g/s. The
atmospheric pressure is 1.08kg/cm2. The temperatures of ambient air and gas are 27⁰C and 400⁰C. The
stack diameter is 2.3m. Stack gas velocity is 6.0m/s and the wind velocity is 1.8m/s.
Also find GLC at 1km, 5km distances in the direction of wind.
Soln: Given h= 40m, d=2.3m, u=1.8m/s, Ta=27⁰C=27+273=300 K.
p =1.08kg/cm2 = 1.059bars (1bar = 1.0198kg/cm2) then p = 1059mbars
Vs = 6.0m/s, Ts = 400⁰C = 400+273 = 673 K.

𝑉𝑠 ∙ 𝑑 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
∆ℎ = [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 ) ∙ 𝑝 ∙ 𝑑 ( )]
𝑢 𝑇𝑠
6×2.3 673−300
∆ℎ = 1.8 [1.5 + (2.68 × 10−3 × 1059 × 2.3 ( 673 )]

∆ℎ = 39.78𝑚

Effective stack height H = h + ∆h = 40 + 39.78 = 79.78m

Assuming conditions for poor dispersion, moderately stable atmosphere (F class stability)
x 1km=1000m 5km=5000m
σy, m 38 160
σz, m 15 33

At 1km downwind,
𝑄 1 𝐻 2
− ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 23
 1.25 1 79.78 2
𝐶1,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 −2( 15 ) = 2.796 × 10−10 𝑔/𝑚3
𝜋 × 1.8 × 38 × 15
At 5km downwind,
1 𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
1.25 1 79.78 2
𝐶5,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 −2( 33 ) = 2.25 × 10−6 𝑔/𝑚3
𝜋 × 1.8 × 160 × 33

Problem 2.8: A thermal power plant burns 5.45 tonnes with 4.2% sulphur per hour and discharges through
a stack of effective height 75m. The average wind speed at top of stack is 6m/s. The atmosphere is slightly
unstable. Find a) maximum G.L.C and the corresponding distance b) G.L.C. at 3km downwind and 0.4km
cross wind distance.

Soln:
Coal burnt = 5.45tonnes/hour
4.2
Sulphur content of 5.45 tonnes = 100 × 5.45 = 0.2289𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 ≅ 229𝑘𝑔

𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
32𝑔𝑚 + (16𝑔𝑚 × 2) → 64𝑔𝑚
64
𝑆𝑂2 = 𝑆 × 32 = 229 x 64/32 = 458kg SO2 produced per hour
458 × 1000
Thus, SO2 emission rate = = 127.22 𝑔/𝑠
3600

a) maximum G.L.C and the distance at which it occurs

𝐻
Max. GLC occurs at a point where where 𝜎𝑧 = = 0.707H
√2
75
𝜎𝑧 = = 53𝑚
√2
Considering slightly unstable condition, we have stability class C.
From graph σz Vs x , for σz = 53m we can obtain xmax = 700m

From gragh σy Vs x , for x = 700m we can obtain σy = 78m for C class stability.

2𝑄 𝜎𝑧
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∙
𝜋𝑢𝑒𝐻2 𝜎𝑦
2 × 127 53
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ×
𝜋 × 6 × 2.7183 × 752 78

Cmax = 5.98 x 10-4 g/m3

b) G.L.C. at 3km downwind and 0.4km cross wind distance.

1) GLC at 3km downwind

we have x = 3000m
Then σz = 170m
σy = 280m for C class stability

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 24
 1 𝐻 2
𝑄 − ( )
𝐶𝑥,0,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
127 1 75 2
∙ 𝑒 2 170) = 1.28 × 10−4 𝑔/𝑚3
− (
𝐶3,0,0 =
𝜋 × 6 × 280 × 170

2) At 0.4km cross wind distance

For same x = 3000m
We have σz = 170m σy = 280m for C class stability
2 2
1 𝑦 1 𝐻
𝑄 − ( ) − ( )
𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0 = ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑦 ∙ 𝑒 2 𝜎𝑧
𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
127 1 400 2 1 75 2
∙ 𝑒 2 280 ∙ 𝑒 2 170)
− ( ) − (
𝐶3,0.4,0 =
𝜋 × 6 × 280 × 170

𝐶3,0.4,0 = 4.62 × 10−5 𝑔/𝑚3

Measurement of meteorological parameters

A meteorological instrument should have an acceptable degree of accuracy and sensitivity. Also it should be
simple and durable. In our country the National environmental engineering research institute (NEERI) has
developed some devices for measuring meteorological parameters.

(i) Wind direction recorders

a) Windsocks
windsocks are very basic devices that measure wind direction and provide a rough idea of the wind's
intensity. They comprise a tubular piece of fabric or thin, flexible fabric attached to a pole. In
windless conditions, the fabric hangs vertically from the attached pole. When wind begins to blow, it
fills the windsock and causes the sides to expand away from each other. This results in the
windsock's rounded, cylindrical appearance and also causes the windsock to rise up to a horizontal
position. Either the pole or the harness attached to the windsock can rotate when the wind changes
direction, so the direction of the windsock will indicate that of the wind.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 25
 b) Wind vanes
This instrument has been developed by NEERI for measuring wind direction, which is simple one,
which employs the conventional wind vane to sense the direction. It is automatic and operated
mechanically without any power supply. The instrument continuously records on an attached chart
the direction of the wind with time.
A weather vane / wind vane works similarly to a windsock. Instead of a tubular sock, this
instrument consists of a horizontal pole placed atop a vertical one. The poles are joined together so
that the horizontal pole can move independently of the structure's base. The horizontal pole has a
flattened, vertical end that reacts to wind. This flattened end may be any broad, flat shape, such as
the traditional rooster shape. When wind blows on the broad side of this end, it pushes it, causing
the pole to rotate. When the pole has rotated to a position parallel to the wind's direction, the
flattened end also sits parallel, and air moves by it on either side without having any further effect on
the pole's position.

(ii) Wind speed recorder

Instruments for measuring wind speed are called anemometers. If they are recording instruments they are
known as anemographs. The most common type is cup anemometer. The rate of rotation of the shaft to
which the cups are attached indicates the wind speed and this is transmitted to a recorder or an indicating
panel by either mechanical, optical or electrical means. The Neeri has developed a wind spped recorder. In
the instrument a 4 cup rotor is employed to sense the wind. The motion of the cup is transferred after
reducing its speed by a gear system, to the pen which makes a continuous rise and fall impression on the
chart paper. This rate of rise or fall is proportional to the wind speed. The instrument gives a 24 hour record
in one setting. Wind speed at a particular time and average wind speed can be found out from this record.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 26
(iii) Humidity measurement
One of the simplest and most reliable instruments is the whirling psychrometer. Other instruments that
can be used are 1) Hair hygrometer 2) Infra-red hygrometer.
The whirling psychrometer consists of two thermometers mounted on the a frame that can be whirled
in the air by hand. The bulb of one thermometer is covered with a tight-fitting muslin sack and wetted
with water. This thermometer is known as the wet-bulb thermometer. The other is the dry-bulb
thermometer. The psychrometer is whirled to force air past the bulbs. The dry bulb indicates the
temperature of the air. The wet bulb helps determine the relative humidity. When the psychrometer
whirls through the air, water from the muslin evaporates. The evaporating water cools the wet bulb. The
amount of cooling that occurs depends on the relative humidity. The lower the humidity, the faster the
water in the muslin will evaporate, and the more the bulb will cool. High humidity will cause less
evaporation, slowing the cooling process. From the difference in temperatures of wet and dry bulb
thermometers , the relative humidity can found by referring to a special chart (psychrometric table).

Wind roses
For better understanding of dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere, a knowledge of
usual/frequent wind direction as well as wind speed is essential. This type of information varies significantly
from city to city and varies in a particular city from month to month. The wind data (i.e., wind direction,
wind duration, intensity (speed)) are graphically represented by a diagram called wind rose.

“Wind rose is defined as any one of a class of diagrams designed to show the distribution of wind direction
experienced at a given location, over a considerable period.”

The wind data should usually be collected for a period of atleast 5years and preferably of 10years, so as to
obtain an average data with sufficient accuracy.
The most common form of wind rose consists of a circle and data are usually reported at eight primary and
eight secondary directions of the compass by lines. The length of each line denotes the frequency of wind
from that direction and frequency of calm conditions is entered in the centre. There are many variations in
construction of wind roses, some indicate wind speeds along with specific wind directions, some indicate
any other meteorological parameter along with wind direction.
From the data obtained over a given time period such as a particular month or season or a year, the
construction of wind roses may be done. In constructing or interpreting wind roses, wind direction refers to
the direction from which wind is blowing. For example, a line/bar extending to the south of the wind rose
indicates the frequency of winds blowing from the south. The wind rose diagram is prepared using an
appropriate scale to represent percentage frequencies of wind directions and appropriate index shades,
lines, colours, textures etc. to represent various wind speeds.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 27
Some times, special wind roses are constructed called ‘Pollution roses’ like
1) particulate wind rose
2) smoke wind rose
3) sulphur dioxide wind rose
4) hydrocarbon wind rose etc.
These are constructed by the parameters of particulate matter, smoke, SO 2, hydrocarbons, particulates
etc. instead of wind speed.

Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types as follows.

Type 1 wind rose: In this type of wind rose, the radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle
represents the duration of wind. The observed values of the total percentage of time in a month or a year
during which wind blows are plotted along the corresponding directions. All the plotted points are then
joined by straight lines. The maximum wind blowing direction is usually along the direction of the longest
line on the wind rose. This type of wind rose does not account for the effect of cross wind component.

Type 2 wind rose: In this type of wind rose, the wind intensity is represented by each circle to some scale.
The values entered in each segment represent the percentage of time in a month or a year during which the
wind, having particular intensity, blows from the respective direction.

Problem2.9: Draw the TYPE – 1 wind rose diagram for the following data

Duration of the wind, percent

Wind direction
6.4 -25 kmph 25-40 kmph 40-60 kmph
N 7.4 2.7 0.2
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3
NE 2.4 0.9 0.6
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2
E 0.8 0.2 0.0
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0
SE 4.3 2.8 0.0
SSE 5.5 3.2 0.0
S 9.7 4.6 0.0
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3
WSW 1.0 0.5 0.1
W 0.4 0.1 0.0
WNW 0.2 0.1 0.0
NW 5.3 1.9 0.0
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 28
Soln:

Duration of the wind, percent Total wind duration

Wind direction in a particular
6.5 -25 kmph 25-40 kmph 40-60 kmph
direction (%)
N 7.4 2.7 0.2 10.3
NNE 5.7 2.1 0.3 8.1
NE 2.4 0.9 0.6 3.9
ENE 1.2 0.4 0.2 1.8
E 0.8 0.2 0.0 1.0
ESE 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.4
SE 4.3 2.8 0.0 7.1
SSE 5.5 3.2 0.0 8.7
S 9.7 4.6 0.0 14.3
SSW 6.3 3.2 0.5 10.0
SW 3.6 1.8 0.3 5.7
WSW 1.0 0.5 0.1 1.6
W 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.5
WNW 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3
NW 5.3 1.9 0.0 7.2
NNW 4.0 1.3 0.3 5.6
The gross total of wind duration 86.5%

Therefore the percentage of time during which wind speed is less than 6.4kmph is 100-86.5 = 13.5%
Therefore calm period is 13.5%

In figure the radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the duration of wind. The
total percentage of time in a year during which the wind blows from north direction is 10.3%. This value is
plotted along the north direction. Similarly, other values are also plotted along the respective directions. All
plotted points are then joined by straight lines as shown in figure.

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 29
Problem 2.10: Draw the TYPE – 1 and TYPE – 2 wind rose diagrams for the following data.

Wind Duration of the wind, %

1-5 5-10 >10
direction
kmph kmph kmph
N 10 10 8
NE 7 6 6
E 5 3 2
SE 4 2 0
S 2 1 1
SW 3 0 3
W 5 4 3
NW 5 5 5

*****

SECAB I.E.T. Vijayapur, Department of Civil Engineering, Air pollution and control (17CV551), Asst. Prof. M. Sadik 30