Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) IEEE-Numerically controlled oscillators with hybrid function

generators
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) has been widely used in adaptive modulation because of its efficiency in power and bandwidth. With the fast development of modern communication techniques, the demand for reliable high date rate transmission is increased significantly, which stimulate much interest in modulation techniques. Different modulation techniques allow you to send different bits per symbol and thus achieve different throughputs or efficiencies. QAM is one of widely used modulation techniques because of its efficiency in power and bandwidth. In QAM system, two amplitude-modulated (AM) signals are combined into a single channel, thereby doubling the effective bandwidth. However, it must also be noted that when using a modulation technique such as 64-QAM, better signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) are needed to overcome any interference and maintain a certain bit error ratio (BER). Both QAM and QPSK are modulation techniques used in IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX), and 3G (WCDMA/HSDPA) wireless technologies. M-ary QAM Modern modulation techniques exploit the fact that digital baseband data may be sent by varying both envelope and phase/frequency of a carrier wave. Because the envelope and phase offer two degrees of freedom, such modulation techniques map baseband data into four or more possible carrier signals. Such modulation techniques are called M-ary modulation, since they can represent more signals than if just the amplitude or phase were varied alone. In an M-ary signaling scheme, two or more bits are grouped together to form symbols and one of M possible signals is transmitted during each symbol period. Usually, the number of possible signals is M =2n, where n is an integer. Depending on whether the amplitude, phase, or frequency is varied, the modulation technique is called M-ary ASK, M-ary PSK, or M-ary FSK. Modulation which alters both amplitude and phase is M-ary QAM. As with many digital modulation techniques, the constellation diagram is a useful representation. It provides a graphical representation of the complex envelop of each possible symbol state. The constellation consists of a square lattice of signal points. The general form of an M-ary signal can be defined as [2]

Where min E is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude, i a and i b are a pair of independent integers chosen according to the location of the particular signal point; f 0is the carrier frequency; T s is the symbol period. If rectangular pulse shapes are assumed, the signal S (t) i may be expanded in terms of a pair of basis functions defines as

The coordinates of the ith message points are

where(a i, b i) is an element of the L by L matrix given by

References
[1] Ho, W. S., "Adaptive modulation (QPSK, QAM), " www.intel.com/netcomms/technologies/wimax/303788.pdf, accessed on December 30, 2007.. [2] Rappaport, T. S., .Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, 2003. [3] Ziemer, R. E. and Peterson, R. L., Introduction to Digital Communications, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992...

Different encoding formats

The NRZ format puts more energy into each pulse, but is harder to synchronize at the receiver because there is no separation between the adjacent pulses Both are uni-polar which results in a DC component that carries no information and wastes power Polar format The signal has opposite polarity pulses for 0 and 1 (either RZ or NRZ) In NRZ-L commonly negative level is 1 and positive level is 0 The DC component will be zero if the message contains 1s and 0s in equal proportion

Bi-polar format In this case successive 1s are represented by pulses of alternative polarity (0 is represented by no pulse) No DC component, less bandwidth than on-off codes Eliminates ambiguity caused by transmission sign inversion Also called Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

NRZ (polar versus differential)

Bi-Phase format Manchester format: there is a transition in the middle of each bit period. a low to high transition represents a 1. a high to low transition represents a 0. The mid-bit transitions serve as clocking mechanisms as well as data. Bi-phase format Differential Manchester format: The mid-bit transition only provides clocking Absence of transition at the beginning of a bit represents a 1. Presence of transition at the beginning represents a 0.

The advantages of the biphase schemes are: Synchronisation No DC Component Error Detection The absence of an expected transition can be used to detect errors The disadvantage is that the modulation rate is twice that of NRZ.

Encoding formats

Bandpass Digital Transmission The three basic modulation methods are: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation involves operations on one or more of the three characteristics of a carrier signal: amplitude, frequency and phase. The general form of any modulated bandpass signal is in the quadrature-carrier form

fc, Ac and are constants In-phase and quadrature time-varying components contain the message