Learning outcomes of this unit

• Recognize the importance of communication.

• Define communication and the communication process.
• Identify and describe the essential components of communication.
• Explore the different contexts affecting communication.
• Discuss the varying facets of organizational communication
• Discuss the responsibilities of a business communicator

Key questions

1. Why should you study communication?

2. Why is communication important for accounting students?
3. What is communication?
4. How does communication work in organizations?

Key concepts

Shared frame of reference; models of communication; sender; message; recipient;

feedback; channel; noise; verbal and non-verbal communication; encode;
decode; context; culture; organizational communication; communication climate;
and ethical communication.
 1.1. Definition of communication

Definition of communication

the dissemination or interchange of information by speaking, writing, or using some other

medium to facilitate the successful conveying or sharing of information, ideas and/or
feelings.

• Communication is the process of understanding and sharing meaning. It is an

activity, a skill, and an art that incorporates lessons learned across a wide
spectrum of human knowledge.
• No clear definition of communication
• communication is about more than simply passing on information.
• Communication is not about self-interest but taking the other person (listener)
view and mode of communication into account
• communication is an active thing: we do something or achieve something by
communicating
• communication is a two-way street – it goes back and forth

What is communication studies?

Communications is an academic field whose primary focus is who says what,

through what channels (media) of communication, to whom, [and] what will be the
results.

Communication requires

- purpose (reason)
- medium (what you use o communicate)
- usually two or more people – not always the case
- location does not matter (not the same physical space)
 1.2. Name the 3 models of communication:
2. Linear transmission model – one way communication model

- Mathematical model
- Transmission of message from one source to another
- Suggest that communication moves only in one direction – does not
care whether or not the receiver received the message
- Message goes from the sender (encodes message) to the receiver
(decodes) through a medium
- Focuses on sender and message rather than the receiver – MESSAGE
FOCUSED
- Views receiver as end point or target not part of ongoing process
- Sender has responsibility to ensure the message is clearly conveyed
- This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness but also
acknowledges the effect of noise
- Noise is a barrier of effective communication
- Examples of one way communication (linear model)
 Television
 Radio
 Mass media communication Netflix, youtube
 CMC – Computer mediated communication
- Limitations of the model incl.:
 Assume listners are passive
 Assumes only one message is transmitted at a time
 Context of communication situation is not taken into account
 That communication has a beginning and an end –
 Not effective enough to take into a count human interactions of
communication (face – to face )

• How does it work?

The sender encodes a message, then uses a certain channel to send it to a receiver
who decodes (interprets) the message. Essentially, this model focuses on
the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver
is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather
than part of an ongoing process.
3. Interactive model of communication

• Concerned mostly with communication process

• More than one message can be sent and some may not be received
• No judgement regarding effective or ineffective communication
• The interaction model of communication describes communication as a
process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and
generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within
physical and psychological contexts in order to keep a communication
encounter going.
• Interaction Focused
• Incorporates feedback (feedback loop)
• Communication – two-way process
• Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages
• two sender-receivers that exchange various messages
• communication moves in a circular flow
• senders are receivers and receivers are senders
• message are send to receiver and sender waits passively for receiver to
respond
• does not take into account cultural and social contexts or how
communication construct our realities
• portrays context in the form of psychological and physical influences that
enhance or impede communication but focus on message transmission and
reception
• portrays context in the form of psychological and physical influences that
enhance or impede communication but focus on message transmission and
reception

4. transactional communication model

• describes communication as a process in which communicators generate
social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts.
• Views communication as a force that shape our realities before and after
specific interactions occur and account for contextual influences outside of
a single interaction
• includes complex understanding of context - considers how social, relational,
and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters
• we do not just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to
create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and
engage with others in dialogue to create communities
• interchangeable role of sender/ receivers of messages
• sender/receiver’s = communicators
• communicators – simultaneously senders and receivers
• noise and personal filters always affect or influence the outcome of the
communication exchange
• participants in the communication process create reality through interactions
• to keep the communication alive the communicators must be
interdependent of each other
• model explains how we can adapt our communication in the context we
send or receive it – job interview
• it includes feedback (verbal or non-verbal ques during decoding)
• it includes that meaning is co constructed in every interaction between
parties
• this co constructed meaning refers to our inherent beliefs, culture and
norms/morals that are present even before an interaction occurs and that
communication can cause these meanings to be enforced or rejected
based on the outcome of both communicators
• Criticism
o unnecessary noise
o high probability for misunderstanding and miscommunication
o reliability and efficiency of communication is determined by the
medium used
o includes role of environment, contexts and also simultaneous feedback
and encoding and decoding of messages through non verbal or
verbal ques
  this suggest that people from similar environments and similar
social and cultural backgrounds communicate more efficiently
compared to people from different backgrounds

1.4. Elements in the communication process

The communicator

• the sender of the message

o What is the communicator?
 A sender (or the communicator) is someone who encodes and
sends a message to a receiver (recipient) through a particular
channel. The sender is the initiator or the source of
communication.
 For example, when you text a friend, ask a teacher a question,
or wave to someone you are the sender of a message.
 The communication process starts with the process of encoding
- What is encoding?
 the process of turning thoughts into communication
- This encoding, can it be only verbal?
 No – non verbal ques as well and in a different language
- Encoding is an (active/passive) process?
 Active process
- Why?
 Level of conscious thought put in by the encoder
 the encoder must decide how the message is received
 Medium used to convey the message of the encoder
 Noise that may interfere with the transmission of the
message
 purpose of the message
 to inform
 to express feelings,
 to imagine,
 to advise,
 to instruct,
 to influence (or persuade),
 to implement, and/or
 to meet social expectations.
 Take into consideration the background of the recipient and
you must know your recipient and anticipate how they may
react upon receipt of your message by asking yourself as the
communicator

 For whom is this message intended?

 Why am I sending this message?
 What do I want the recipient to know?
 What do I expect the recipient to do?
The receiver

• The recipient of the message

- What is a recipient?
 The recipient receives the message from the source and
analyses and interprets the message in ways both intended and
unintended by the source.
 Receivers must decode (interpret) messages in ways that are
meaningful for them.
 For example, if you see your friend make eye contact, smile,
wave, and say “hello” as you pass, you are receiving a message
intended for you. When this happens, you must decode the
verbal and non-verbal communication in ways that are
meaningful to you.
- What is decoding?
 Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts
- How are messages transmitted to the receiver?
 Encoded messages are sent through a channel or sensory route
on which a message travel to a receiver for decoding
- Is there only one channel through which communication can be sent
and received?
 No - communication can be sent and received using any
sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most
communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory
(sound) channels.

The message

• The particular meaning or content the sender wishes the receiver to

understand.
• How can the message be transmitted or conveyed?
- In the form of words (in writing or speech) or through symbols and/or
signs
• What is the aim of the message?
- Aim is to get the recipient to understand the message as you
understand it
• Can the message only be intentional?
- No - It can be intentional or unintentional, written or spoken, verbal
(such as face-to-face communication, telephone calls, voicemails,
email etcetera) or non-verbal (such as body language, pictures, tone
of voice, typography, and so), or any combination of these
The channel

• the method or the route a sender uses to send a message to a receiver.

• Does the channel or medium used to send the message affect how the
audience will receive the message?
- Yes
• What does the communication channels include?
- the methods we use to communicate as well as the specific tools we
use in the communication process.
• What are the most common communication channels used by humans?
- Verbal and non verbal comm channels
• Differentiate between verbal and non-verbal communication
- Verbal communication relies on language and includes speaking,
writing, and sign language.
- Non-verbal communication includes elements such as gestures, facial
expressions, paralanguage and touch when referring to spoken
language; and elements such as typography, style, layout, colour and
appearance of text and documents when referring to written
communication.
• What are mediated channels and what do they include??
- digital channels and include
 television, computer, tablet and/or smartphone
• Are mediated/digital channels only verbal channels?
- No it includes both verbal and non-verbal ques
• What important factors must be considered when choosing the appropriate
channel for your message?
- Time,
- distance,
- circumstances,
- purpose and
- The needs of the recipient
• The key to effective communication is to match the channel to the ….
- Goal of the message
• For example
- written media is a better choice when the sender:
 wants a record of the content;
 has less urgency for a response;
 is physically separated from the receiver;
 does not require much feedback from the receiver; or
 when the message is complicated and may take some time to
understand.
- Spoken communication makes more sense when the sender:
 is conveying a sensitive or emotional message;
 needs feedback immediately; and
 does not need a permanent record of the conversation.
Noise

• Noise is anything that interferes with the sending or receiving of a message

and blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message
• Noise can be internal or external
• True or false?
- External and internal noise makes encoding and decoding of
messages more difficult?
 True
• Give an example of external noise?
- Any noise outside the mind/body like jack hammer
- Music
- Nightclub
- Open window
- Traffic
• Give an example of internal noise
- Physical like pain
- Psychological stress
- Nervousness (ruminating)
• True or false?
- Noise is in every context of communication and therefore the message
is not received as it is intended
 True
• True or false?
- The objective for effective communication is to be unaware of possible
sources of noise and so to seek to reduce this to a minimum.
 False – sender must be aware of all possible sources of noise
• Name and explain the barriers/ sources of noise that are common:
- Psychological -factors that affect the human mind (such as memory,
attention, and perception)
- Semantic barriers - the misunderstanding between the sender and
receiver arising due to the different meanings of words, and other
symbols used in the communication encounter.
- Physical barriers - obstacles in the environment that either positively or
negatively affect effective communication
- Physiological barriers - factors that affect the human body (for
example, headaches, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties) that
interfere with effective message dissemination and interpretation
- The context - the setting, scene, and expectations of the individuals
involved, all of which influence the meaning of a message.
• Give examples of
- Psychological barriers
 opinions, attitudes, status consciousness, emotions
 perceptual biases – stereotypes
 mistrust
 jealousy
 perception
 True or false?
 Perception is a two way street.
 True – it includes both receiver and sender
 Name the shortcuts we use to organize information.
  Stereotypes
 Biases
 Prejudice
 What is stereotyping?
 Stereotyping is when we assume that the other person
has certain characteristics based on the group to which
they belong, without checking out to see that they do in
fact have these characteristic
 Does our perception of other people always provide accurate
information?
 No - it is only based on our own frame of reference
 What is a frame of reference?
 the context, viewpoint, or set of assumptions or
evaluative criteria within which a person's perception
and thinking seem always to occur.
 How is your personal frame of reference formed?
 Life experiences
 Cultures
 Interactions\assumptions
 Can your personal frame of reference influence how you talk to
yourself and communicate with others?
 Yes
 They selectively constrain the course and outcome of
your communicative activities
 What are perceptual flaws in reasoning?
 Reasoning based on personal frame of reference and
your own perception and they are not based on proven
and verified knowledge
 Give an example of how Perceptions of status or position also
affect our communication
 Older person/collegue working with you. Your behaviour
towards the same person in different situations depends
on your perceptions of status (which can be flawed).
- Semantic barriers
 Differences in
 Language, dialect, cultural differences, professional
and/or other affiliations, body language, and the choice
of word, technical jargon (such as medical terms used by
doctors), pronunciation differences and spelling errors
are the main causes of a semantic barrier.
 i.e., when your doctor wants to explain a specific
diagnosis to you
 why is language so important in effective communication or
considered as a barrier of communication?
 language is a symbolic representation of thoughts,
motivations or intentions and therefore misinterpretation
and distortion of the meaning exists
 meaning must be given to words to prevent
misunderstanding of the meaning
- physical barriers
  noise, technological problems, the weather, the organisational
environment, etcetera. The size of a room, layout of furniture,
intrusive noise, heating and lighting, etcetera. Each of these can
either encourage or inhibit interaction.
- Physiological barriers
 True or false?
 Effective communication presumably requires the sound
functioning of the senses in both the sender and the
receiver.
 True
 What factors can contribute to physiological barriers that may
cause the message to be misinterpreted?
 Stress
 Health
 Disabilities like neurological or physiological impairment
 Depression
 Parkinsons
- Contextual barriers
 True or false?
 Effective communication requires deciphering and
understanding the basic values, motives, and
assumptions of the other person.
 True
 Misinterpretation of messages caused by context barriers
include
 Time
 Space
 Privacy
 Cross cultural differences
 Demographic factors like gender and age
• Explain barriers to communication in an organizational context.
- A professional communication context may involve business suits
(environmental cues) that directly or indirectly influence expectations
of language and behaviour among the participants.
- Difficulties with established lines and means of communication,
- different relative physical location of staff,
- lack of team or supervision meetings, and
- under-resourced supervisors

NOTE

• what is cultural context

- Cultural context – relates to the society were the individuals were
raised in and how the culture affects behaviour
- Culture only affects communication in context
• Context refers to the setting of a word or event – where it occurs and how it
occurs
Feedback

• When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally

• is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source to ensure the
message that was received is correct and accurate as the source intended it
to be
• does feedback only have to be verbal?
- No – it can make use of non-verbal ques as well
• Why is feedback necessary?
- allow the source to see how well, how accurately (or how poorly and
inaccurately) the message was received
• Will the message be interpreted correctly and accurately as you intended at
all times by the receiver?
- No unless the communication process is clear and unambiguous

Outcome of communication

• Name the 3 outcomes of communication that are strived for.

- Meaning
- Sharing
- Understanding
• What does sharing mean?
- Sharing means doing something together with one or more person(s).
- In communication, sharing occurs when you convey thoughts, feelings,
ideas, or insights to others
- Can you share or convey thoughts with yourself?
 Yes – “aha” moment is a typical example
• What is understanding?
- To understand is to perceive, to interpret, and to relate our perception
and interpretation to what we already know.
- Understanding the words and the concepts or objects that the
message refers to
• What is meaning?
- what you share through communication
- purpose of communication
• True or false?
- communication becomes easier with a shared frame of reference.
 True
- What is shared frame of reference?
 people share some similarities in their ideas, or thoughts or
experiences
- can two or more people have the exact same frame of reference?
 No – because each and everyone of us are unique and
different in background, thinking and life experience
- Shared frame of reference is a.k.a.
 Mutual understanding
  Common ground
• true or false:
- communication is much easier with a shared reference frame?
 True – it is easier to relate to someone through communication if
you share common ground or have a mutual understanding
about a topic

1.5. Organisational communication

Organisational communication – refers to how you communicate in the work place

• What is the definition of organizationl communication?

o Organisational communication - The interaction required to direct a
group toward a set of common goals is
• What is organizational behaviour?
o Organisational behaviour is about how people may be motivated to
work together in more effective ways
• What are the basic functions of organisational behaviour?
o Inform
o Persuade
o Promote goodwill
• Organisational communication encompasses the following broad
communication contexts:
o Intrapersonal communication
 Involves one person
 Self-talk or thinking to oneself
 How you talk with yourself and others is influenced by your world
view, cultural affiliations and native language
o Interpersonal communication / dyadic communication
 Two people
 Intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal
o Small group communication
 3-8 people
 Staff meeting
 Age, education, sex and location influences how the groups
would be dispersed since larger groups tend to break into
smaller groups
o Public communication
 One person speaks to a group of people for a specific purpose
i.e. public address by CFO
 What is the purpose of Public communication?
• to deliver a message, news, a piece of information that
people/audience could learn from
 when is public communication used?
• inform and persuade, build relationships, form
connections, and/or create a network.
  Where does public speaking usually occur?
• public speaking events, conferences, seminars, press
conferences
 what other forms of public communication is there?
• Newspaper editorials and billboard advertisements
• Mass media like television, radio and internet, magazines
and newspapers
• videoconferences
 Public communication be (Virtual or digital or both)?
• Both like google news, you tube or facebook
 True or false?
• Public communication is usually targeted at a specific
group of people or audience
o True

o Mass communication
 sending a single message to a very large audience.
 What are some examples of mass communication?
• Billboard advertisements
• Press releases
• New product releases
 What limitations does mass communication have?
• Limited in addressing and conveying a message to a
targeted audience as the audience is very large and
can be quite diverse
 What forms do mass communication include?
• Pictures
• Films
• Common programs
 True or false?
• By introducing material in your message through mass
communication which has a mutual understanding or
common ground amongst the majority of the members in
audiences you can achieve appeal towards your
message?
o True
o Digital communication
 Any type of communication that relies on the use of technology
 What advantageous does digital communication have in the
organizational context?
• Fast
• Efficient
• Convenient
• Use collectively in addressing and receiving feedback to
and from employees
• Can reach a large group of people at once
 What disadvantageous does digital communication have?
• Trouble in disconnecting at the end of the day
 • Increase in burn out and overworked
• Security challenges on vital information
 True or false?
• Every time company data is transmitted over the internet,
there is a risk that this information will not remain private.
o True

• What is the difference between Internal and external communication

o Internal communication - effective communications among
participants within an organisation, namely superiors, subordinates and
co-workers
o External communication - refers to messages to individuals, groups
and/or other organisations outside of your organization
• What is the purpose of internal communication?
o purpose is to provide an effective flow of information between an
organisation’s departments and colleagues
• what is the purpose of external communication?
o o share information about the organisation and its goals in order to
form a positive image of the organisation and its products and/or
services
o Organisations may announce changes in staff, strategy, or earnings to
shareholders; or they might be service announcements or
advertisements for the general public
• Sound internal communication nurtures company culture and builds
employee engagement. There are various sources of internal
communication:

o Management – who dispense information such as strategies, company

results, internal and external information, and other important general
information.
o Team – between colleagues who work together to achieve the same
end goal.
o Face-to-face – briefing individuals on tasks and situations.
o Peer – informal chats between colleagues to share information.
o Resources – the intranet, email, social media, messaging, video calls,
telephone, and so on.
• Give a few examples of external communication in an organizational
context.
o press releases, advertisements, company websites, annual reports,
stakeholder meetings
• give a few examples of internal communications
o sending internal memo
o communicating with a colleague
o holding a team meeting or
• Many companies have a department called Marketing and a department
called Public Relations. Which of the three basic functions of organizational
communication (informing, persuading and promoting goodwill) do you think
these two departments would perform?
o Marketing – persuasive function
o Public relations – promote good will of company