Basic principles for stable gullies in the

gold and platinum mines of South Africa

by K. Naidoo* and M.F. Handley†

face2,3. Gay et al.4 have indicated that most

accidents in stopes occur within 10 m of the
Synopsis stope face and in the gullies which provide
access to the working area. From a safety point
Gullies are the vital in-stope excavations that provide access for of view, these are the two most important
mining personnel and material to, and mined ore from, the
areas on a mine because of the difficulty in
producing faces in the tabular hard rock mines. They pose a
providing support close to the face and the
serious problem in most mines because they induce stress
orientations, which, combined with blast damage, produce adverse relatively high density of personnel in these
rock fracture patterns that contribute to the loss of hangingwall areas. Some of the published figures for
and sidewall integrity. Rock-related injury statistics confirm this proportions of rock-related fatal injuries in
by highlighting gullies as the second-highest risk area in South gullies are given in Table I.
African hard rock mines. Inappropriate gully geometries, poor Based on figures presented by Roberts and
blasting practice, and non-adherence to accepted standards worsen Jager2, and Jager and Ryder5, differing
the problem. proportions of accidents, summarized in Table
The aim of this work is, firstly, to provide guidelines to select II, occur in gullies in the respective mining
the correct gully geometry and appropriate support for a particular
regions. Despite the higher accident rate in the
geotechnical environment and, secondly, to review the practical
Carletonville Goldfield, there appear to be
issues behind gully safety and stability. In order to meet these
aims, this paper reviews the available literature on gullies and their
disproportionately few gully accidents, while
history, and reports on an industry-wide survey of practices and nearly all gully fatalities are the result of
opinions. Then it covers observations from underground visits to rockbursts. The low proportion of fatalities
107 gullies situated in the respective geotechnical environments of being attributed to gullies does not in any way
the Basal Reef, Beatrix Reef, Vaal Reef, Carbon Leader Reef, suggest that gullies are relatively safe in the
Ventersdorp Contact Reef, Kimberley Reef, Kalkoenkrans Reef, Carletonville Goldfield, but that the apparently
Merensky Reef, and UG2 Reef. Despite the differing geotechnical contradictory statistics are perhaps the result
conditions and gully geometries, common problems are experienced of reporting norms, or that the high level of
with geological structure, stress, and fracturing. Results from seismicity in the Carletonville Goldfield results
numerical modelling are also presented to help analyse the
in the gullies being adequately supported for
underground observations and to quantify the merits of the
different gully layouts.
It is concluded that there are no new techniques available to
improve gully stability, but that significant improvements in safety Table I
are attainable by employing the correct gully geometry for the Proportion of industry-wide rock-
geotechnical environment, good blasting practice, and appropriate related fatal injuries in gullies
support.
Period Rock-related Rockburst Rockfall
fatal injuries related related
in gullies

19902 17% - -
1991-19924 14.2% - -
Introduction 1990-19975 14.6% 8.4% 6.2%
Sources of statistics: Roberts and Jager2, Roberts4, and
A gully is an excavation cut in the immediate Jager and Ryder5.
footwall or hangingwall of the reef for the
purpose of enabling the removal of rock from
the face or providing access to the face for * Formerly a consultant with Itasca Africa (Pty)
Ltd, Booysens, Republic of South Africa.
mining personnel or material1. The gully
† Associate Professor of Rock Mechanics,
sidewalls and hangingwall often pose a serious
Department of Mining Engineering, University of
stability problem in the gold and platinum Pretoria, South Africa.
mines in South Africa, since records of fatal © The South African Institute of Mining and
rock-related injuries show that they are the Metallurgy, 2002. SA ISSN 0038–223X/3.00 +
site of the second-highest rockfall and 0.00. Paper received Jul. 1998; revised paper
rockburst hazard to miners after the stope received Aug. 1998.
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2002 189
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa
Table II Corrective procedures often involve considerable
additional effort and, if not carried out properly, can make
Comparison of gully accidents in different mining
situations worse. For example, cutting a siding on the down
districts
dip side of a gully generally involves time-consuming hand
Mining district Total rock- Proportion of Rock-related fatal cleaning. As a result, down dip sidings are often cut just deep
related fatal rock-related injuries in gullies enough to build a pack. If a seismic event occurs down dip of
injuries per fatal injuries per million the gully there is no space for broken rock to move, and the
million square in gullies square
metres mined metres mined
packs are forcibly ejected into the gully, sometimes with fatal
consequences. This practice is very difficult to correct
Orange Free underground because it means cutting the siding deeper in
State 9.65 27% 2.61
the limited space behind a row of installed packs.
Klerksdorp 14.65 23% 3.37
Carletonville 22.15 5% 1.11 This paper comprises two main sections. First, we review
current gully practices on the gold and platinum mines, based
Figures compiled from Roberts and Jager2, and Jager and Ryder5.
on published information and data gathered from
underground visits to gold and platinum mining operations.
rockfalls, but still inadequately supported in the case of Second, we evaluate the factors that influence gully hazards
rockbursts. The Carletonville Goldfield statistics in Table II and design aspects that can alleviate or reduce these hazards.
contradict perceived proportions of accidents in gullies, since Finally, we propose a set of simple guidelines for best gully
gullies in the Carletonville Goldfield are often severely practice.
affected by rockbursts, especially in backfilled stopes. Three
out of five gully fatalities in the Carletonville Goldfield occur Review of industry practices and opinions
either in a winch chamber or at the intersection of strike and
Industry practices are reviewed by two approaches, firstly
dip gullies, where spans are greatest2. In contrast to the
from published literature, and then from information based
Carletonville Goldfield, 89% of gully fatalities in the Orange
on the opinions of practitioners on the mines. What follows is
Free State and Klerksdorp Goldfields were due to rockfalls, of
a summary of work reported by Naidoo8 and Leach et al.9.
which 50% occurred at dip and strike gully intersections,
where spans are greatest2. Literature Survey
In shallow mines, geological discontinuities are the main
Since mining commenced in the Witwatersrand Basin and the
cause of falls of ground in gullies because there is little or no
Bushveld Complex, a large body of information on mining
horizontal compressive stress in the stope hangingwall to
practices has been published, by far the largest proportion
clamp discontinuity-bounded blocks of rock together. Studies
of the geometry of falls in gold mines show that most falls coming from the gold mines. The literature on stope gullies,
cover 2 m2 to 5 m2 and the initial fall is that of an acute spanning some seventy years, falls into two categories. The
triangular prism6 bounded by discontinuities dipping first comprises technical guidelines written by technical
between 25° and 70°6. In the intermediate depth to deep services staff or researchers. The second are non-technical in
mines, the area extending about 6 m up dip from the strike nature, often providing good examples of mine standards
gully between the face and the first row of support is that have been implemented underground. In some cases,
particularly vulnerable to falls of ground. This area usually these show divergence from the technical guidelines in order
has a low support density because of face scraping, and there to accommodate mining practice. It is clear that many of the
is always a complex pattern of mining-induced fracturing primary causes of gully problems have probably been
caused by the intersection of the face and the up dip gully recognized for over 70 years. It is also clear that corrective
siding, which promotes hangingwall instability. Bedding action is largely unpopular, as it makes practical mining
plays a major role in falls of ground at all depths, especially if operations more complex. Most documented cases show that
partings with poor cohesion separate the strata. while mines recognize the need and are prepared to use
Correct cutting of strike gully sidings is often neglected in sidings in areas of higher stress or rockburst hazard, the
all the goldfields, mainly because gully sidings are allowed to gully is invariably advanced as a heading with sidings cut
lag, and then drilled down dip and blasted to create the some distance behind the advancing face.
siding over several metres. Rock-bolting in gullies has been The term ‘gully’ had not yet been adopted when
shown to reduce falls of ground in the Orange Free State, Watermeyer and Hoffenberg wrote their book on
while grouted rebar support was seen as an effective rockfall Witwatersrand mining practice in 193210. At that time, there
support but an ineffective rockburst support in the gullies of were no gullies but on-reef drives, serving as both stope
the Klerksdorp Goldfield2. accesses, exploration drives, and tramming routes for
Based on a study of underground rock-related accident removal of broken rock. As mining advanced to greater
statistics in hard-rock mines, Spearing7 reported the depths, there was a shift from on-reef drives carrying track-
following as the most hazardous areas in gullies: bound hoppers to scraper and boxhole layouts, with haulages
➤ The intersection between the gully and the stope face sited in the footwall. Scrapers were a necessary addition for
➤ Boxhole intersections with gullies the development of the stope gully, and were first introduced
➤ Winch beds adjacent to the gully. on the Modderfontein ‘B’ Gold Mine in 192411 but were still
These are a few examples of gully problems that may used infrequently in stopes in the 1940s12. For a time these
arise, and solutions have been derived in practice to cope excavations were referred to as strike slusher drifts (SSDs),
with most conditions. There is reluctance on the part of mine before ‘strike gully’ became the generally applied term. A
personnel to implement optimal gully procedures because they considerable volume of published literature pertaining to
are onerous, and the problems are often intermittent in nature. gully design methods originated at this time13,14. The term
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190 MAY/JUNE 2002 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa
‘gully’ then became applied to a dedicated cleaning route, cut design methodology for stable gully support, good blasting
as part of the stoping operation. Gullies were originally cut practice, minimizing gully spans, preconditioning and other
into the footwall, but some mines e.g. East Rand Proprietary techniques to improve gully stability, especially in rockburst-
Mines, Blyvooruitzicht, and Durban Roodepoort Deep, cut prone mines16,17,18. Although the literature is extensive and
gullies in the hangingwall in some areas. informative, it fails to show when the gully geometry should
By the 1960s, a change had generally taken place in the change, or which gully geometries are best to accommodate
way in which tabular reefs were mined, and stope gullies changes in geotechnical conditions.
with scrapers were in use across the industry. This access
layout is less prone to stress and rockburst damage, while Industry opinion survey
scrapers in smaller on-reef excavations improved mining
The literature broadly indicates a range of best gully
efficiency. During the 1980s, some mines introduced
practices. Taking these as a base, it was considered essential
trackless Load-haul-dump (LHD) cleaning equipment,
to examine current industry practices as a means of gauging
permitting greater flexibility in mining operations, but
successful and poor operational methods, together with the
creating a wider in-stope gully (or roadway) excavation,
existing level of compliance to best gully practice.
accompanied by instability and, ultimately, higher operating
Respondents at the gold and platinum mines were asked to
costs.
fill in a questionnaire addressing the following issues:
Renewed technical assessment of gully geometry and
support came after 1960. In particular the necessity of ➤ What do you perceive as a siding?
adopting excavation shapes that manipulate, or optimize, ➤ What is the role/purpose of a siding?
stress fracture patterns to assist support was recognized15 ➤ What is your opinion on stable gully spans?
and became well defined in the middle to late 1970s14,16. ➤ What is your opinion on effective gully support?
From about 1970, introducing a siding or a ledge to move ➤ What is your opinion of gully stability in seismic
stress damage away from the gully became a universally versus non-seismic areas?
adopted recommendation. An example of the variation in ➤ What are the definitions of best practice for gully
stope gully geometries in use at the time is shown in Figure 1. geometry?
In the mid-1970s, research was based on trying to alleviate ➤ How would you minimize fall of ground hazards in
and optimize stress fracture patterns as mining progressed to gullies?
depths of 3000 metres or more. Later research focused on In general, it was found that industry opinions on gully
support in mines, and innovations such as gully-support design and support requirements are often contradictory. In
packs with tailored yieldability and stiffness characteristics particular, there are differing opinions between rock
were introduced4. engineers and mining personnel.
Despite the many years of research and discussion, very When mining with an underhand layout, respondents
few guidelines have ever been published for gully practices, almost unanimously prefer a narrow advance strike gully
although several recent publications address areas such as (ASG) without a down dip siding if possible. A siding would

Figure 1—Examples of gully geometries in use (after Chamber of Mines Research Organization16)
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2002 191
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa
be carried on the down dip side of the gully some distance The respondents agree that stable gully spans depend on
back from the face only if it is necessary. There are two depth, geology, mining geometry, and ground conditions. It
practical mining advantages to this approach: is also different for different reefs and regions. Most replied
➤ The ASG provides a free breaking point for the stope that limiting stable spans are of the order of 2.5 to 3 metres,
blast at the panel toe even at shallow depth. It is generally recognized that
➤ The ASG and siding can be blasted independently of whatever gully size is created at the face, it will deteriorate,
the stope panel. resulting in an increase in gully width back from the face.
Respondents recognize that unstable conditions will arise
Sidings are considered a necessary nuisance because they where:
have to be cleaned by hand. Wide headings are only well ➤ Support is snagged by the scraper and falls out
accepted on the deeper mines where other layouts have been ➤ Gully walls collapse and support is lost
proven to result in intolerable conditions. Overhand mining ➤ Seismicity ejects packs from sidings
layouts, where only one gully at the bottom of the raise line ➤ Spans are relatively large, i.e. at tipping points, winch
or longwall needs to be advanced and the other gullies are cubbies, or water jet cubbies.
footwall lifted within panels, are favoured for deep mining All respondents agree that either additional support
conditions. Gully conditions in these layouts are generally needs to be planned (e.g. at cubbies) or remedial work is
acceptable and from the mining point of view, there is some required in the above cases.
flexibility in terms of gully advance because it only needs to Respondents recognize that gullies must be straight;
be a small distance ahead of the lagging face. otherwise sidewall erosion by the gully scraper leads to
Sidings on gold mines are perceived to be an on-reef cut support collapse. Remedial action is costly and time-
with dimension generally not less than 1 to 2 metres. In consuming because it means re-installing packs on the gully
general, it is accepted that the width of the cut should be shoulders as well as additional hangingwall support. Other
such that the abutment stress is removed to a safe distance side effects of turning gullies include accumulation of broken
from the gully. On shallow platinum mines (less than 400 m rock on the outside circumference of the bend, water
deep), a siding is any excavation over and above the accumulation, rope and scraper wear, and changed
dimensions of the gully. This may include a ‘shaped’ development layouts (e.g. boxholes) to accommodate the new
excavation to remove the ground that would become loose gully position.
due to stress-induced fracturing. This includes the 0.5 m on- To ensure gullies remain straight, provision of timeous
reef cut (or small siding) to move a pillar slightly away from and correct gully direction lines remains the key issue. Pegs
the gully to improve gully stability. tend to get lost through minor falls of ground and then
Most respondents are undecided on an optimum siding miners take lines ineffectively. Clear marking of gully and
width, and while accepting that the wider the better, wish to pack lines using fluorescent paint is advisable. The
keep it to an absolute minimum due to cleaning difficulties responsibility for lines must remain with the team leader and
when mining down dip of the gully. To ease this cleaning miner. In many mines, only a gully centreline is painted on
problem, some respondents are prepared to tolerate an off the hangingwall.
reef siding that is cut horizontally from the gully. The Leads and lags between stope panels are a source for
industry recognizes that this can be detrimental to concern wherever stress levels are high enough to initiate
hangingwall stability, particularly when mining reefs such as stress fracturing. As gullies tend to run adjacent to any long
the Carbon Leader, where a flat siding may intersect the leads which form (either up or down dip), long leads are
recognized as being detrimental to gully conditions. In the
Green Bar, a chloritoid shale that lies about 1–2 m above the
very deep mines where these conditions are most severe,
reef.
excessive lead/lags are considered to be anything in excess of
The role of sidings in both gold and platinum mines are
10 to 20 m.
generally accepted to be the following:
In overhand panel layouts where gullies act as cleaning
➤ To move any stress fracture zone away from the edge
ways for the panel above and an escape way for the panel
of the gully
below, there is a tendency to only lift the gully just past the
➤ To maintain the width-to-height ratio of the pillar in
face of the lagging panel. Most respondents recognize that
the case of shallow mining layouts using crush pillars
this gully should be kept to within 5 m of the leading face, to
➤ To be able to install support on both sides of the gully perform the function of top access to the panel (top gully)
➤ To reduce the height of the fracture zone which tends and an escape way. It is admitted that the five-metre criterion
to curve over the gully is met in only ten per cent of the cases, with most top gullies
➤ To prevent shearing of the gully hangingwall adjacent lagging seven to eight metres behind the leading face. On
to the abutment (including along the edge of a crush most mines, the upper panel is responsible for this gully, not
pillar). the lower panel, whose escape gully it is. Possibly this
Favoured gully dimensions are 1.6 m wide by 1.8 m deep responsibility should change to improve access and safety.
in the deeper mines. Shallower mines opt for 2.0 m width. In An optimal lead/lag on panels is thought of as 10 m with
both cases, an extra 20 cm or so is considered tolerable for gullies 2 m ahead of panel faces for cleaning. Poor conditions
the distance between supports across gullies. Many tend to arise at the panel face/gully intersection where high
respondents accept that it is impossible to maintain gullies stress conditions exist. This area is recognized as being
within the standard dimensions for the entire gully life. particularly hazardous and must be supported. Long leads of
Time-dependent deterioration would ensure that widths 20 m or more aggravate this condition and can contribute to
increase and final gully dimensions would be larger than the severe hangingwall deterioration in the face-gully area.
standards. Gullies may have to be kept open for long periods, while
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192 MAY/JUNE 2002 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa
gully deterioration starts right away. It becomes noticeable ground consolidation and sets with void filling. Basic support
20 m from the face. In some cases, mines have to keep rules vary for fault and dyke intersections, but packs are
gullies operational for distances up to 150 metres, which universally considered to be the best support element
means that the greater part of the gully is in a poor state. In because of their strength, yieldability and area coverage.
addition to this, scrapers do considerable damage to support Many respondents agree that smooth-wall blasting
and the gully sidewalls over time. In these cases, a support- should be practiced to reduce the amount of gully sidewall
monitoring programme is required, with replacement of and hangingwall damage. The result is better control of the
support as required. In general, respondents feel that systems final gully dimensions and hence the span between supports
of accountability are essential if good gully conditions are to on opposite sides of the gully. Footwall ripping to advance a
be maintained for long periods. gully behind a breast panel face is generally recognized as
Platinum respondents view pillars as the most effective bad practice.
gully support, when ground conditions are poor or in a low In summary, there appears to be good agreement
stress environment. Rigid mine poles supplement the pillars, between respondents on sidings and their purpose. There is
forming a rigid support system. Additional pillars are left reasonably good agreement on gully shape, gully
along gullies, and sidings are omitted when highly jointed or dimensions, and blasting practice. The decision to use
faulted ground is encountered. Respondents from the
sidings or not elicits widely divergent views. This may reflect
platinum mines all agree that seismicity is not a problem,
a ‘gray zone’ between shallow depths where no sidings are
whereas gold mining respondents cite seismicity to be of
required, and greater depths, where they become necessary.
prime concern in intermediate and deep mines.
Despite the consistent opinion on gullies and their
All respondents are concerned by the multiplicity of
geometries, the underground observations reveal that mine
standards for both gully layout and support and many
standards are not always implemented.
production personnel express a need for simplification of
standards. There is considerable dispute and difference of Underground observations
opinion on gully shoulder support, even amongst
respondents from the same mine. Most mining personnel on A series of underground trips were made to 107 gullies
the deeper mines prefer packs, although there is also industry-wide to obtain a clear picture of gully practices and
enthusiasm for backfill and yielding timber props right up to problems. Table III provides overall statistics of the visits,
the gully edges. The use of props on gully sidewalls reduces while Table IV provides details of the geotechnical areas
effort in terms of material transport and installation, and covered by the visits.
provides a more competent support in deep mining All the gully geometries currently in use in the gold and
conditions. Sidings remain difficult to support with anything platinum mines can be briefly summarized as follows (see
other than packs at all depths, and opinions vary over the Figure 2 for illustrations).
need for pre-stressed packs on the gully shoulders. 1. Advance Strike Gully (ASG) cut ahead of faces with
Hangingwall support in gullies is unpopular and mining pillars left on the down dip side of the gully.
personnel would rather avoid it if possible. Most respondents 2. ASG cut ahead of faces with pillars left a short distance
have much confidence in rehabilitation techniques such as down dip from the gully shoulder.
3. ASG ahead of the stope panel without down dip siding.
4. ASG with lagging down dip siding.
Table III 5. Gully, stope face, and down dip siding in line.
Summary of underground visits 6. Footwall lifted gully inside a wide heading carried
ahead of the stope panel face (either the No. 1 gully in
No. mines visited No. gullies visited overhand longwall, or all gullies in underhand
Platinum mines 4 43 longwall), or footwall lifted gully behind the face in the
Gold mines 16 64 up-dip corner of each stope panel when employing an
Totals 20 107
overhand stoping layout.

Table IV
Geotechnical details of gullies visited
Reef type No. of Depths
gullies
visited PLATINUM REEFS

Merensky Reef 39 590 600 650 660 880 1800 2000

UG2 Reef 4 670

GOLD REEFS
Beatrix Reef 4 900

Basal Reef 5 1656 2500 2800

Carbon Leader Reef 20 2000 2100 2701

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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2002 193
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa

Figure 2—Most common gully geometries in the gold and platinum mines

The numbers in the discussion that follows will refer to especially evident in Figure 5, which presents gully statistics
the six gully types named above. The literature survey for the combined gold and platinum industry. However, there
indicates that gullies without sidings are appropriate at are no clear guidelines on which gully geometry to use in
shallow depth, ASG types and lagging sidings are tolerable at which geotechnical conditions. The statistics as plotted
intermediate depth, while at greater depth where higher indicate that each mine has evolved its own standards over
stress levels prevail, footwall lifting either in overhand panel time, and that there is a crude linear relationship between
configurations or wide headings for the No. 1 gully in gully type and depth of application.
overhand longwalls, and in underhand longwall Despite the loose relationship between gully type and
configurations should be practiced. The arrangement of the depth of application, there does not seem to be a consistent
gully classification broadly reflects this; hence, gully types 1 relationship between gully condition and depth for a specific
and 2 tend to be used in shallow mines, types 3 and 4 in gully type in Figures 3 to 5. Other variables are clearly also
intermediate depth mines, while types 5 and 6 are found in important in influencing gully condition, namely stress
deep mines. regime, geotechnical conditions, mining practice, and support
The choice of gully standard on each mine is a factor of practice. The plotted statistics can therefore only provide the
the overall mining layout, the ore carrying capacity of the most general guide on which gully geometry to use. Hence, a
gully (related to the panel length it serves), and geotechnical well-managed gully created by good mining practice may be
conditions. Local preferences and the severity of problems
with one layout or another may also influence choice of gully
geometry.
Gully conditions were rated in all the underground visits
according to the following simple overall descriptions:
➤ Good: stable conditions, no visible hazards, little or no
adverse fracturing, no falls of gully roof
➤ Moderate: some adverse fracturing present, with a
potential fall of ground hazard, but appropriate
measures have been taken to control the ground
➤ Poor: adverse fractures, evidence of falls of ground,
gully sidewall integrity has been lost.
Figures 3 to 5 show scatter plots of depth versus gully
type, with condition descriptions according to the above
classification shown by the different symbols. There is a clear
transition from one gully type to the next with depth, Figure 3—Plot of depth versus gully type for the gold mines
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194 MAY/JUNE 2002 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa
in good condition at depth, even though the geometry chosen
is better suited to shallow mining. The converse may also be
true — poor gully conditions in a gully geometry suited for
depth in a shallow mine.
To illustrate the influence of mining practice, the
measured gully width underground has been normalized
with the mine standard as a measure of compliance. A value
greater than unity thus means that the actual gully width is
greater than the mine standard. The data are plotted versus
depth in Figures 6, 7 and 8 for the gold, platinum, and
combined industries respectively. The symbols used separate
good conditions overall (circle) from the gullies with
moderate to poor conditions (triangle), to give an indication Figure 6—Scatter plot of depth versus gully span divided by mine
of how effective it is to keep gullies to within the mine standard gully span for the gold mines
standard.
It appears that using gully span as a measure of
compliance might be more appropriate for the platinum
mines, because the vertical line at unity separates gullies
with good conditions from those with moderate to bad
conditions more efficiently in Figure 7 (platinum mines) than
it does in Figure 6 (gold mines). Many factors could affect
this division, for example blasting practice, age of gully,
appropriateness of the mine standard given the geotechnical
conditions, and so on. This is true for all depths, as shown in
Figures 6, 7, and 8.
Platinum mine gully widths show greater divergence from
mine standards than is seen in the gold mines, probably
because they are generally shallower, and conditions allow
wider gully spans than is generally the case for the deeper Figure 7—Scatter plot of depth versus gully span divided by mine
standard gully span for the platinum mines

Figure 8—Scatter plot of depth versus gully span divided by mine

Figure 4—Plot of depth versus gully type for the platinum mines
standard gully span for the gold and platinum mines

gold mines. Gully support methods may also have an

influence. The gold mines almost invariably use packs with
controlled yielding to support gullies, while the platinum
mines use pillars and non-yielding mine poles in most cases.
The underground observations are not sensitive enough
to reveal the true causes of gully instability, since the
condition of the rockmass, the geometry of the gully, support
type and density, and the stress the gully is subjected to
strongly influence stability. These factors can only be
objectively addressed by numerical modelling, which will
provide quantitative results.

Quantitive evaluation of observations

Figure 5—Plot of depth versus gully type for the gold and platinum The previous sections examined industry-wide thinking and
mines practice with regard to gully layout and design in the gold
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2002 195
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa
and platinum mines. Underground observations and industry Table V
opinion are limited in describing the problem because they
Basic criteria used in numerical models
are qualitative. The geotechnical conditions that exist around
two different gullies can never be identical, making a FLAC models FLAC3D models
quantification of the relative merits of different layouts (two dimensional)
impossible by qualitative means alone. Geotechnical Depth 1800 m 2500 m 2000 m and
conditions can be incorporated in a numerical model, where it 3000 m
is possible to analyse the relative merits of different gully Rock mass Pyroxenite Lava – Quartzite
hangingwall
layouts. Quartzite – f/wall
Both two-dimensional and three-dimensional models Reef dip 20 degrees 20 degrees and 20 degrees
were developed for analysis by FLAC and FLAC3D 40 degrees
Vertical stress 49 MPa 68 MPa 54 and 81 MPa
respectively19,20. The computer programs can be used to k-ratio 0.5, 1 and 2 0.5 0.5
simulate the behaviour of structures built in any solid Horizontal stress 25 MPa 34 MPa 27 and 40 MPa
material such as soil or rock, which can undergo inelastic
deformation when stresses reach the yield limit of the
material. FLAC3D extends the two-dimensional analytical The broad conclusions from the modelling are listed in
capability of FLAC into three dimensions for cases where a two parts below. For shallow mines, it is concluded that:
two-dimensional model is inadequate or oversimplified. In 1. In mining layouts where pillars are used, a siding is
many cases this is true for gullies, hence three-dimensional desirable if any form of stress fracturing develops in
models are considered essential. the pillars;
Two groups of two-dimensional models were set up, 2. The minimum siding width between gully and pillar is
broadly representing a typical Merensky Reef rock mass for
2 m, or the 45 degree rule can be applied to
the platinum mines, and a strong VCR rock mass for the gold
determining the minimum on-reef siding width
mines. This approach was adopted because underground
between the gully and the pillar if it needs to be more
observations indicate that there are differences in overall
rock mass strength between gold and platinum mines that than 2 m (see Figure 9 for details);
result in the onset of stress fracturing at very different 3. Sidings smaller than 2 m are ineffective, both as a
depths. Despite this, the main objective remains to compare means of improving pillar performance, and as a way
the effects of varying geometries, not to establish exactly of decreasing gully sidewall damage;
calibrated back-analyses. 4. Hangingwall stability is generally good;
The three-dimensional models assume a generalized 5. There is a tendency for increased hangingwall and
quartzitic rock mass without bedding and jointing. The base sidewall damage if the gully is cut as a heading in front
criteria for the two and three-dimensional models are listed of the stope panel;
in Table V. These models and their outputs are complex, and 6. If an ASG with a lagging siding is used, the siding
deserve a fuller treatment than can be given here. should be cut within 6 m of the ASG heading face;
Consequently, Leach21 is currently preparing a second 7. Gully damage can be directly attributed to the level of
independent paper detailing the models and the modelling stress applied to it during its history.
process.
For intermediate and deep mines, it is concluded that:
In summary, the objectives of the 2- and 3-dimensional
models include: 1. There appears to be between 30% and 50% more stress
➤ To back analyse mechanisms which are observed to damage to the rockmass when omitting sidings,
lead to gully damage and deterioration. compared with including a siding;
➤ To compare the changes in rock mass conditions that 2. In addition to the extra damage, the induced fracture
are likely to occur when different gully layouts are orientations are more difficult to support;
used, or when gully dimensions such as siding width 3. When stresses are high enough to induce fracturing,
are varied. any method where a siding is omitted or permitted to
➤ A quantification of the relative merits of siding versus lag on the down dip side of the gully is not desirable;
non-siding gully geometries under identical 4. Increase in reef dip tends to increase stresses in gully
geotechnical conditions based on rock damage and sidewalls, and may require an increase in siding width
deformation around the gully. Cases for shallow (see conclusion 6 below);
mining, where pillars are left adjacent to gullies, and 5. Gullies without sidings become more highly loaded
deeper mining operations are considered (two-
than those with sidings;
dimensional modelling).
6. Siding widths for all gullies should be determined
➤ The effect of varying rock mass strength and geological
using a simple 45 degree rule based on gully depth and
stratigraphy on gully behaviour (two-dimensional
modelling). reef dip (see Figure 9, and note that it may be
➤ The effect of increasing dip on damage patterns around convenient to cut a hangingwall gully in some cases);
gullies (two-dimensional modelling). 7. The two-dimensional models indicate that it is best to
➤ The effect of varying dimensions for heading width excavate the stope face, the gully, and siding
and lead, siding width and lag, and position of footwall simultaneously in an in-line configuration in
lifting of gullies. Each of these parameters has limiting underhand longwalls;
values if orientation of stress fracturing is to be 8. A wide heading with a footwall lifted gully at the
successfully manipulated to optimize gully stability bottom of each panel is second choice for underhand
(two- and three-dimensional modelling). longwalls;
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196 MAY/JUNE 2002 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa
9. The three-dimensional models confirm that lagging ➤ Low stress: s1 < 0.15sc , where sc is the UCS of intact
sidings and no sidings are not desirable at depth; rock — instability is controlled by geological structure
10. A wide heading with a footwall lifted gully is the best and stress damage is generally not apparent.
option for the No. 1 gully in an overhand longwall, ➤ Moderate stress: (0.15sc ≤ s1 < 0.30sc) — selected
because rockmass damage around the gully is methods must cope with instability resulting from
minimized under these conditions; stress fracture interaction with geological structure
11. The in-line configuration described in point 7 above is such as bedding, jointing, and weak strata.
the next best choice for overhand longwalls at depth; ➤ High stress: (s1 ≥ 0.30sc) — conditions where stress-
12. Wide headings with leads of up to 10 m do not appear induced fractures are the dominant and most densely
to result in any obviously detrimental effects; spaced discontinuities, in many instances making
13. No obvious limitations to heading width arise from the geological structure inconsequential. Seismicity is often
modelling, excepting that headings less than 6 m wide a concern.
are liable to allow damage to lifted gully sidewalls A chart is presented in Table VI, for gold and platinum
within the heading; mines. The Table shows that the maximum principal stress
14. Gully damage can be directly attributed to the level of criterion has divisions at different depths in the gold and
stress applied to it during its history. platinum mines because of the differing geotechnical
On balance, it can be concluded that gully sidings may be conditions between the two groups of mines.
omitted in shallow mines in good conditions, and in The exact limits of the stress class intervals are not fixed
situations where the gully will not be loaded by additional and may change from one situation to another. Thus,
stresses during its useful life. Omission of sidings or practitioners are advised to use the Table only as a guide, and
allowing lagging sidings in intermediate to deep mines to optimize their designs with numerical modelling that takes
into account the unique circumstances on the mine. The
should be avoided, and that either wide headings for
observations made in this study have been unable to identify
overhand longwalls or the in-line configuration for
a preferred gully support system; therefore, the current
underhand longwalls are the best options. The modelling also
systems in use are still applicable, if they are able to cope with
confirms that the 45-degree rule (as used for siting off reef
closure in the case of the intermediate and high stress
development in a deep mining environment) is appropriate
situations. More details of support and basic support practice
for choosing the optimal gully position relative to a pillar or
are available in Naidoo8, Leach et al.9, and Leach et al.22.
an abutment.

Guidelines for gully geometries Conclusions

Due to differences in rock mass strength and the overall in No new techniques are available to effect substantial
situ stress regime, stress fracture damage is observed at improvements in gully safety. The correct geometry and
shallower depths in the platinum mines than in the gold design of appropriate dimensions such as the gully siding
mines. Thus depth is not a good descriptor for classifying the width and gully depth will go a long way to ensuring
use of different gully types in the gold and platinum mines. It stability. Proper design, coupled with good blasting practice
is better to use a stress criterion instead, which defines three and appropriate support measures (including minimized
classifications for the gold and platinum mines. The stress gully span and span between supports across the gully),
criterion is called the maximum principal stress criterion, and should bring about substantial improvements in gully safety.
is applied as follows: Some of the measures, such as the down dip siding width,

Figure 9—The application of the 45-degree rule in dipping tabular orebodies

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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2002 197
Basic principles for stable gullies in the gold and platinum mines of South Africa
Table VI 16th October 1996.
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CSIR Division of Mining Technology). 1992.
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4. ROBERTS, M.K.C. Stope and Gully support. SIMRAC Project, GAP 032,
Department of Minerals, and Energy, Pretoria, 1995.
5. JAGER, A.J. and RYDER, J.A. (Eds.): A Handbook on Rock Engineering
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198 MAY/JUNE 2002 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy